FAJILAGOT, NICOLE DENISE

BA PHILIPPINE STUDIES 2-1

ASYNCHRONOUS ACTIVITY

Answer briefly the questions below. This activity will be part of the upcoming in-person or
online discussions.

1. What are modernist theories or structuralism?

Structuralism is a philosophical approach and methodology that emerged from linguistic
findings in the mid-twentieth century to examine the fundamental patterns of social life. In the
social sciences, the structuralist mode of inquiry aimed to find or discover how the visible and
conscious designs (beliefs, ideas, behaviors) of active human subjects (surface manifestations)
are actually outputs, effects, consequences, products generated by underlying causes, hidden
mechanisms, or a limited number of “deep” structures that are universal to the mind of
individuals. These structures are not directly visible or observable but they are nevertheless
absolute, independent, and only theoretically accessible through the techniques of a structuralist
analysis. In contrast to reductionism, structuralism maintains that all forms of cultural
expression—whether they are related to art, architecture, cooking, clothing, human
self-perception, kinship relationships, language, literature, music, etc.—must be viewed as
positions within a structure or system of relations rather than as distinct entities. It is true that
structuralism is holistic (anti-individualistic and anti-empiricist) because it insists that although
observable phenomena exist, they are also absent because the existence of any object is defined
by its relationships and its relationship to the larger structure to which it belongs—a structure
that, although invisible, exists in all of its observable components.
2. What are interactionism and interpretivism?
The Scottish moral philosophers George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley, and W. I.
Thomas had an early impact on interactionism. Blumer, Everett Hughes, Erving Goffman,
Anselm Strauss, and Ralph Turner are examples of more modern influences. Basic principles are
concepts based on Mead's work. The explanation or comprehension of social conduct is heavily
reliant on subjectively held meanings. Meanings are the result of human symbolization and
communication as individuals look for answers to group issues. Meanings associated with
oneself, other people with whom one interacts, and interaction settings are particularly
significant since they influence and are changed throughout interaction. It is implied that who
people interact with and under what conditions are crucial to the formation and evolution of
meanings and, consequently, to the processes of interaction. A fundamental methodological
fundamental principle of interactionism—that actors' definitions must be considered while
analyzing their behavior—is supported by the importance of meanings. The idea encourages
many people to see ordinary life as the preferable study setting, to employ qualitative techniques
as the preferred analysis processes, and to utilize observational methods, ethnography, case
histories, or intense interviews as the preferred means of data collection. These choices, which
implicitly exclude quantitative studies of large-scale data sets for research originating from
interactionist premises, are seen as too restrictive by other interactionists who accept the
methodological principle involved. On the other hand, An approach to social science known as
interpretivism holds that deciphering the meaning of the facts that may be gathered about a
phenomena requires a knowledge of the attitudes, motives, and reasoning of people in a social
setting. Three of the most prominent interpretivist approaches to sociology are symbolic
interactionism, phenomenology and ethnomethodology, and hermeneutics. Several sociologists,
including Weber, Garfinkle, Bulmer, Goffman, Cooley, Mead, and Husser, have taken an
interpretivist stance. Both qualitative and quantitative research techniques are employed by
interpretivists. However, they reject the notion that there is a single approach that would reliably
uncover the "truth" of a phenomena because they hold that there is no one "right path" to
knowledge.
3. What is critical theory?
In order to change societal norms, critical theory critiques knowledge and authority. It has
long influenced and shaped a variety of qualitative research methodologies. Critical theory is a
style of thinking, seeing, and relating to the world with an eye toward unequal social relations
rather than a study methodology in and of itself (Kinchloe and McLaren, 2011). For educational
researchers and others, such a theoretical lens has been useful in: (1) examining power dynamics
that result in the unequal distribution of material and social resources by organizations, groups,
and individuals according to economic, racial, and gender hierarchies (among others); (2)
pushing qualitative researchers to challenge more positivist approaches that may mistakenly
assume scientific neutrality among objective observers by encouraging researchers to engage in
more reflective research practices that challenge their own biases; and (3) placing collective
social action that opposes oppression inside these areas. Qualitative researchers can promote
educational change for the benefit of all people by applying critical theory.
4. Who are the Frankfurt School theorists? What are their respective proposed social
theory?
By analyzing the conflicts in society, the Frankfurt School was a group of academics that
popularized the dialectical method of learning and developed critical theory. It is most strongly
linked to the writings of Herbert Marcuse, Erich Fromm, Theodor W. Adorno, and Max
Horkheimer. It was a school of thought connected to academics at the Institute for Social
Research at the University of Frankfurt in Germany, not a school in the traditional sense. One of
the main concerns of the Frankfurt School scholars, particularly Horkheimer, Adorno, Benjamin,
and Marcuse, was the emergence of "mass culture." This term describes the technical
advancements that made it possible for cultural items, such as music, movies, and artwork, to be
distributed widely. (Remember that when these academics started writing their criticisms,
television had not yet been invented, and radio and film were still relatively new.) They took
issue with the way that technology resulted in a homogeneity of production and cultural
experience. Instead of actively interacting with one another for enjoyment as they used to,
technology enabled the public to passively watch cultural content. Because they allowed
mass-produced beliefs and values spread throughout their awareness and wash over them, the
experts believed that this experience rendered them politically uninterested and intellectually
inactive.
5. What is Giddens’ theory of structuration?
In reaction to post-structuralist assertions, British sociologist Anthony Giddens
established the Structuration Theory, which maintains that organizations in which people live are
predetermined for them, whereas volunteering contends that people have infinite agency in
shaping their lived reality. A number of distinctive terms are used by structuration theory to
describe the connections between human "agency" and institutions or "structure.” He makes it
clear that structure and agency are inseparable, a concept Giddens has dubbed the "duality of
structure." Human actors are the ones who make it possible for our society's structure to be
created via the use of made-up rules and values or by societal acceptance.
6. What are postmodernist or post structuralist theories?
Many related studies of the connection between power and knowledge fall under the
umbrella of poststructuralism. These analyses share the belief that information is always
contextual, imperfect, and fragmented, but it is also never neutral and always influences the
power dynamics between people or groups. The idea of a singular "truth" is rejected by
poststructuralists, who also attack big theories or thinking systems that purport to discover truth,
such as social scientific realism, religion, and science. They also imply that subjectivity and
identity may suffer as a result of this power-knowledge interaction. Closely related to
poststructuralism, postmodernism is aimed at removing the underlying narratives of modernist
social structure and dominance, such as colonialism, capitalism, patriarchy, and
heteronormativity. In order to highlight the inconsistencies in these wide narratives of dominance
or control, it favors poststructuralist ontologies and epistemologies over structuralist ones. By
doing this, it also offers ways to oppose and reject dominance.
7. What is habitus according to Bourdieu?
The collective being that establishes and reproduces dominating social and cultural
circumstances is referred to by Bourdieu as habitus. Habitus is defined by Bourdieu as "a
subjective but not individual system of internalized structures, schemes of perception,
conception, and action common to all members of the same group or class" (p.86). The subject's
"apperception" of the world they believe they live in and their (shared) world-view are structured
by these "internalized structures" and "schemes of perception" (p.86). Bourdieu states that the
institutions of the habitus impart a sense of the habitus and of what is valued within it. The home
context usually starts this process, which is then reinforced by other institutions like work and
school. The basic cultural and social templates of the subject—that is, the ways in which the
subject interacts with the outside world and with other people—are continuously reinforced,
occasionally reorganized, and modified by these institutions.
8. Why did Foucault say that knowledge-power is always contested?
According to Foucault's Power/Knowledge, understanding the nature of knowledge or
truth has been the main challenge facing Western philosophy since Descartes. The question of
philosophers is, “What is knowledge?” or “How can we define truth?” Additionally, Foucault
claims that “since Nietzsche, the question of truth” is no longer 'What is the surest path to Truth?'
‘However, what is the difficult career path that Truth has taken?’ ‘How did this "will to truth"
come to be?’ What consequences does it have?’ ‘How are power dynamics weaved across all of
this?’ (Foucault 1980, 66). “How is it that 'the truth' has been given this value in our societies,
putting us completely under its sway?” he asks. (Foucault 1988, 107).To put it another way, by
associating with Nietzsche, Foucault asserts that actors' use of truth claims is the problem of
truth and knowledge. This is an attempt to reframe an epistemological philosophical difficulty as
a social practice sociological problem.
9. What is the importance of studying with people as done by anthropologists rather than
making studies of them as other social scientists do?
Anthropology is a branch of social science that examines society, culture, and human
behavior. Cultural anthropology, biological anthropology, archeology, and linguistic
anthropology are just a few of the subfields that fall under this large area. Anthropologists
investigate the many ways that people engage with their surroundings and with one other in an
effort to comprehend the intricacies of human civilization and culture. Anthropology has made
significant contributions, one of which is its emphasis on cultural relativism. Different cultures
have their own distinct values, beliefs, and customs that should be accepted and understood
according to their own standards, according to the theory of cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism
has been contested and more intercultural understanding has been fostered by this strategy.
Addressing social and cultural challenges is another important function of anthropology.
According to Albert Mathieu et al. (2007), anthropologists have played a significant role in
detecting and recording violations of human rights, social injustices, and environmental
degradation. Anthropologists have contributed to the promotion of social justice and awareness
of these problems by carrying out research and offering suggestions based on solid evidence.
10. What is the difference between ontology and epistemology?
The study of the nature of reality—all that is or exists—and the various things and
categories that make up reality is the focus of the philosophical discipline of ontology. The
branch of philosophy that focuses on knowledge and how to acquire it is called epistemology.
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