International Journal of School & Educational Psychology

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Mediating Role of Internal Factors in Predicting

Academic Resilience

Ramin Aliyev, Ufuk Akbaş & Yaşar Özbay

To cite this article: Ramin Aliyev, Ufuk Akbaş & Yaşar Özbay (2021): Mediating Role of Internal
Factors in Predicting Academic Resilience, International Journal of School & Educational
Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/21683603.2021.1904068

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2021.1904068

Published online: 02 Apr 2021.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOOL & EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2021.1904068

Mediating Role of Internal Factors in Predicting Academic Resilience

Ramin Aliyev , Ufuk Akbaş , and Yaşar Özbay
Department of Educational Sciences, Hasan Kalyoncu University, Gaziantep, Turkey

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of external and internal factors on academic Academic resilience;
resilience. This study is more apt to examine the critical role of internal protective factors in academic motivation;
students’ academic resilience. Child rearing attitudes or parenting style and ecological education academic self-efficacy;
value perception were included as external factors and academic self-efficacy and academic ecological education value;
parenting style
motivation as internal factors. Within the scope of this purpose, the Academic Resilience Scale
(ARS) was adapted to Turkish, and the Ecological Education Value Perception Scale (EEVPS) was
developed. The model testing with structural equation modeling indicated that internal factors play
a mediating role between external factors and academic resilience. Internal protective factors of
academic motivation and academic self-efficacy were found to mediate between external factors of
parenting style and ecological education value and academic resilience. It was concluded that even
having external protective factors for resilience, we still need internal protective factors to become
academically more resilient. The current study’s results showed that the existence of intrinsic
motivation and protective features can be considered a prerequisite for academic resilience. The
results are discussed in light of previous studies and within the limitations of this study.

Despite the difficulties encountered in life, individuals adopted this approach, defined resilience as knowing
who continue their academic life successfully are an required psychological, social, cultural, and physical
example of resilient persons. The concept of resilience resources that sustain the well-being of an individual
was derived from a Latin word resiliens and means the and negotiating the use of these personal and cultural
flexibility of matter and capability of returning to its resources in favor of being more resilient.
original form easily (Greene, 2002). Masten et al. Resilience is considered to be knowing the required
(1990) defined resilience as the process of capacity for psychological, social, cultural, and physical resources
or outcomes of successful adaptation despite challenging that sustain the well-being of an individual and nego­
or threatening circumstances. tiating the use of these personal and cultural resources
Ecological perspective is one of the most comprehen­ in his/her favor (Ungar, 2005). Academic resilience
sive approaches when evaluating resilience (Stokols et al., was stated to be an important dimension of resilience
2013; Ungar, 2011, 2018). An ecological approach pro­ (Cappella & Rhona, 2001; Finn & Rock, 1997) and
poses a more social-phenomenological framework for defined as academic success and high-level perfor­
explaining human behavior. Moreover, it underlines mance showed by individuals in spite of stressful life
that behaviors should be handled with a concept that is events and living conditions that can lead the indivi­
more complicated and realized within the phenomenon duals to fail and end up as school dropouts (Alva,
of a sociocultural environment rather than a simple cause 1991; Borman & Overman, 2004; Erberber et al., 2015;
and effect relation (Ungar, 2004, 2008). According to this Martin & Marsh, 2006; Sandoval-Hernández &
perspective, human behavior is an outcome of complex Białowolski, 2016; Sandoval-Hernandez & Cortes,
and numerous individual-environment interactions 2012). According to Wang et al. (1994), academic
(Gunderson, 2000; Ungar, 2005). The evaluation of resi­ resilience is probable academic achievement obtained
lience from an ecological perspective is based on the despite negative experiences, poor environmental con­
ecological system theory of Bronfenbrenner (1994). The ditions, and the lack of initial personality traits.
ecological perspective examines the correlation between Academic achievement was also concluded to be the
the developing individual and context and the surround­ most important factor that determines academic effi­
ing environment in which the individual is actively cacy and resilience in school-age children (Masten,
involved (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Ungar (2008), who 1994; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998).

CONTACT Ramin Aliyev [email protected] Department of Educational Sciences, Hasan Kalyoncu University, Sahinbey, Gaziantep 27260, Turkey.
© 2021 International School Psychology Association
2 R. ALIYEV ET AL.

As it is understood from the previous studies, resi­ Overman (2004) expressed that the most important
lience is considered the capacity of an individual that protective factors (personality traits) related to academic
allows to use the experienced behaviors and previously resilience are self-efficacy, self-respect, student partici­
existing skills prior to stressful events encountered pation, and attitudes toward school. How well students
(Garmezy, 1993); academic resilience can be defined as adapt to the educational environment depends on the
showing academic achievement and high-level perfor­ interactions of protective and risk factors that students
mances in spite of the stressful conditions caused by have. Those benefiting from strong protective factors
risk-involved educational situations (Alva, 1991; tend to be more resilient, experience fewer compliance
Benard, 2004; Ungar et al., 2007). problems, and can cope with difficulties better (Kwek
There are high risk factors and positive achievement et al., 2013).
outcomes in academic resilience. The risks faced by the Academic resilience has been treated as a factor that
students’ academic life generally are academic pressure, enhances school success as well as academic skills and
stress, academic difficulties, physical and verbal harass­ school experience. In other words, resilient students
ment, bullying, parental separation, poverty, learning deliver higher performance and motivation in relation
disabilities, lack of quality education in school, wide­ to achievement without losing their positive feelings
spread hopelessness in the community, living in a rural about learning and school in spite of a stressful school
area, and having economic disadvantages (Martin & environment, including some risk factors, such as failure
Marsh, 2006; Morales & Trotman, 2011; Winfield, and school dropout (Cassidy, 2015; De Baca, 2014).
1994). In addition, there are protective factors contribut­ Additionally, researchers (McMillan & Reed, 1994;
ing to coping with risky situations and reducing these Wagnild, 2009; Waxman et al., 2003) suggested that
issues as well (Martin, 2002). These protective factors academic resilience can be encouraged rather than
were generally classified as internal and external factors, anchored by altering or focusing on several factors,
which are perceived support of family and friends, such as social competence, problem-solving skills, self-
a strong internal locus of control, high academic con­ determination, sense of having an objective, motivation
fidence, academic achievement, sense of responsibility, and target orientation, time, family life, and positive use
academic self-concept, motivation, commitment and of learning environment.
connection to friends and school, self-regulatory beha­ Achievement is one of the most important factors and
viors, and culture (Alva, 1991; Benard, 2004; Feinstein a critical term in educational and academic life.
et al., 2009; Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997; Morales & Achievement is defined as reaching a determined goal
Trotman, 2011; Padrón et al., 1999; Richard, 2012; and obtaining the preferred results (Wolman, 1973). In
Ungar et al., 2007). Martin and Marsh (2006) referred other words, individuals ensure self-motivation by con­
to five personal factors in academic achievement as the vincing themselves they can accomplish whatever task
5-C model: confidence (self-efficacy), commitment (per­ they have and achieving the aim with planned and
sistence), coordination (planning), control (how hard committed study (Başar, 2001). In education, achieve­
work and effective strategies affect achievement), and ment is a set of behaviors consistent with program
composure (low anxiety). Similar studies in the litera­ targets (Demirtaş & Güneş, 2002). Kağıtçıbaşı (2013)
ture support the effects of these personal attitudes and defined achievement as a phenomenon that belongs to
psychological features on academic resilience (Borman the individual and involves the age-group level of the
& Overman, 2004; Henderson & Milstein, 1996). individual and the whole ecology of the environment in
Extensive research has been conducted to identify which the individual lives. Assessing academic achieve­
risk and protective factors associated with resilience in ment is crucial because it shapes students’ future in
schools. The literature indicates that protective factors addition to enabling them to prepare for a well-
consist of parental background, personality traits, school supported personal, occupational, and communal life.
experiences, and peer groups (Toland & Carrigan, 2011). Academic achievement correlates with cognitive fac­
Coleman (2014) stated that there are five fundamental tors, such as learning rate and intelligence; affective
protective factors that strengthen resilience: (a) suppor­ factors, such as self-respect, personality type, self-
tive and encouraging relationships, especially with the efficacy, motivation, and study habits; and environmen­
school staff and other adults; (b) student characteristics tal factors, such as parental attitude, socioeconomic con­
such as self-respect, motivation, and acceptance; (c) ditions of the family, and school principals and teachers’
parental factors such as parental support and school competence and attitude (Howie & Pietersen, 2001;
development; (d) communal factors such as youth pro­ Wang, 2004). Research carried out in Turkey shows
grams; and (e) factors such as academic achievement that academic achievement is influenced by several fac­
and prosocial competence. Moreover, Borman and tors such as student, school, and family-based variables
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOOL & EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 3

(Arıcı, 2007; Dağdelen, 2013; Karaman et al., 2020; Özer validation of the ARS; in the second stage, the develop­
& Anıl, 2011; Polat, 2009; Şevik, 2014). The student- ment of the EEVPS; and in the third stage, relations
based factors influencing academic achievement were between academic resilience and external and internal
found to be self-respect, self-efficacy, motivation, and factors were examined. All the data related to this study
study habits (Dadlı, 2015; Klomegah, 2007; Özer & Anıl, were collected during the spring term of the 2016/2017
2011; Şevik, 2014). academic year.
Academic resilience of students having risks depends
on the protective factors that they have at hand for their
Participants
academic achievement. These are (a) caring and suppor­
tive adult relationships, (b) opportunities for meaningful Different study groups took part in each stage of the
school and community participation, and (c) high par­ research. In the first stage of the validation of the ARS,
ental and teacher expectations for student performance data on the linguistic equivalence of the Turkish and
and success (Benard, 1995, 1997; Wang et al., 1997, English forms were obtained from 56 English Language
1998). In spite of the risk factors encountered in school Teaching (ELT) students (50 females, six males). Construct
life, the answer to the question of why some students are validity, internal consistency, and item discrimination
better than others in terms of academic achievement has indices were investigated with 359 students (305 females,
been the main subject of academic resilience research. 54 males) studying in the counseling and guidance, ele­
Individuals with a high level of academic resilience feel mentary education, and early childhood education depart­
themselves to be strong in exam periods, can manage ments. Criterion validity on the data obtained from 208
their own anxiety more effectively, overcome school students (172 females, 36 males) studying in the counseling
tasks efficaciously, and stimulate achievement resources and guidance and elementary education departments was
effectively (Williams et al., 2015). investigated using the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES).
In previous studies, it was also observed that internal A total of 136 students (101 females, 35 males) studying in
factors, such as academic motivation, academic self- the counseling and guidance department took part in test-
efficacy, and external factors, such as child raising atti­ retest reliability. A total of 759 students participated in this
tudes and perceived social support, are discussed stage of the study.
together with academic resilience (Acedevo, 2009; In the second stage, the six-item EEVPS was devel­
Acedevo & Esquivel, 2008; Alva, 1991; Benard, 2004; oped; principal component analysis (PCA) was per­
Cutler, 2006; Er, 2009; Gizir, 2004; Hamill, 2003; formed on data obtained from 60 students (32 females,
Jowkar et al., 2014; Lee, 2009; Maghadam, 2006; 28 males) studying in the counseling and guidance
Masten et al., 2012; Roberts, 2007; Terzi, 2008; Yavuz department. The suggested relative and absolute values
& Kutlu, 2016; Wasonga, 2002; Weaver, 2009). for the sample size vary from study to study to analyze
However, there is a lack of studies conducted on vari­ PCA effectively. For instance, to obtain good results from
ables within the scope of Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) eco­ PCA, P. Kline (1994) suggested that the sample size
logic model; therefore, it was assumed that this study should be at least twice the number of items; Nunnally
would contribute to the related literature. (1978) suggested it to be 10 times, and Arrindell and Van
It is apparent in resilience studies that the examina­ der Ende (1985) suggested it be 20 times bigger. Where
tion of individual protective (internal) and environmen­ there is not a single definite and generally accepted criter­
tal (external) features is of great importance in ion for the sample size, the KMO value, determinant,
explaining why some individuals at risk have healthier factor loadings, the extracted variance ratio, and com­
and more successful adaptation than others (Masten, munality values should be taken into consideration in
2001). Therefore, the main aim of this study was to the decision-making process for PCA. The test-retest
focus on the effects of internal and external factors on reliability of the study consisted of 79 students (58
academic resilience. Within the frame of this main pur­ females, 21 males).
pose, the Academic Resilience Scale (ARS) developed by A structural equation model, in which the mediation
Cassidy (2016) was adapted into Turkish, and a new of internal variables is examined, was performed on the
scale called the Ecological Education Value Perception data gathered from 541 students studying in the coun­
Scale (EEVPS) was developed as well. seling and guidance, elementary education, and early
childhood education departments (411 female, 130
male; 199 were freshmen, 121 were sophomores, 99
Method
were juniors, and 121 were seniors). Currently being
The current study was carried out in three stages and with university students and volunteering to participate
different study groups. In the first stage, the Turkish were the inclusion criteria of this study.
4 R. ALIYEV ET AL.

Measures strict control-supervision factor. A 5-point Likert scale

from 1 (very untrue of me) to 5 (very true of me) was used
Five different assessment instruments were used in this
separately for parents to determine responses; three
research: the Academic Resilience Scale (ARS),
items (i11, i13, i21) were reverse-coded. The explained
Ecological Education Value Perception Scale (EEVPS),
total variance was 47.79%–32.04% for the strict control
Parenting Styles Questionnaire (PSQ), Academic
factor and 15.77% for the acceptance/involvement fac­
Motivation Scale (AMS), and Academic Self-Efficacy
tor. Since some of the items included in the question­
Scale (ASES).
naire for fathers were determined to be insignificant
even though the modification suggestions had been
Academic resilience scale applied according to the outcome of confirmatory factor
The ARS developed by Cassidy (2016) includes a special analysis, this part of the questionnaire was excluded. So
vignette; it can determine academic resilience depending
this can be regarded as a limitation of the study.
on the responses given to the situation mentioned in this
vignette. A 5-point Likert scale from 1 (likely) to 5
(unlikely) is used to determine the responses. The psy­ Academic Motivation Scale
chometric properties of the ARS are briefly mentioned The Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) was developed
in the Table 1. by Vallerand et al. (1989) and adapted to Turkish by
The total explained variance of the ARS (consisting of Karagüven (2012), Karataş and Erden (2012), and
three factors) was 42.40% with a satisfactory internal G. Can (2015) through their independent studies. In
consistency. It was found out that there were positive this study, G. Can’s (2015) adaptation was used. The
and moderate correlations in relation to the concurrent AMS consists of 28 items, including four items for each
validity with the General Academic Self-Efficacy Scale; factor. The factors are motivation, external regulation,
no significant correlation related to age variables (r= .20, internal regulation, identified regulation, intrinsic moti­
p> .05). On the other hand, when the study by Cassidy vation to stimulation, intrinsic motivation to accom­
(2016) is examined, it is seen that several issues come plish, and intrinsic motivation to know. G. Can (2015)
into question, such as items with low factor loading (λ9 compared the alternative models and determined that
= .29; λ15 = .26; λ1 = .15) or cross-loading items (λ18 = .32 the best fitting model is the seven-factor model after
and .32 under different factors). excluding item 1. Fit indices for the seven-factor model
were obtained by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) are
Ecologic Education Value Perception Scale as follows: χ2/sd = 3.38, RMSEA = .07, NNFI = .96,
The EEVPS measures the level of social support per­ CFI = .97, GFI = .98, and SRMR = .06. The internal
ceived by an individual about his/her academic/educa­ consistency coefficients of the factors ranged from .69 to
tional development. It consists of six items that can be .89, and the test-retest reliability, determined by a one-
measured with a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly month interval, ranged from .74 to .86. In addition, it
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The development process was determined that a special correlation pattern (sim­
and psychometric properties of the EEVPS are explained plex pattern), which was expected to appear among the
in detail in the following sections. seven factors in the original form of the AMS, was found
to be partially supported, and there were high correla­
Parental style questionnaire tions between some consecutive factors.
This instrument was developed by Sümer and Güngör
(1999) and measures the attitudes of parents about child Academic Self-Efficacy Scale
rearing based on acceptance/involvement and strict con­ The Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES) was developed
trol factors. The scale consists of 22 items (Sümer, 2000). by Jerusalem and Schwarzer (1981) and translated into
The items with odd numbers are evaluated within the and validated in Turkish by Yılmaz et al. (2007). The
scope of the acceptance/involvement factor; the even- factor loadings included in the ASES, which explain
numbered items are evaluated within the scope of the 45.31% of the total variance and consists of a single factor,

Table 1. The psychometric properties of the ARS.

Factor Number of items Explained variance Factor loadings Cronbach α Item discrimination r‡
Perseverance 14 27.86% .15–.78 .83 .14–.59 .48**
Reflecting and adaptive help seeking 9 9.05% .32–.82 .78 .03–.64 .35**
Negative affect and emotional response 7 5.48% .39–.73 .80 .12–.54 .31**
Total 30 42.40% .15–.82 .90 .03–.64 .49**
**p < .01; ‡Correlations with General Academic Self-Efficacy Scale.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOOL & EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 5

ranged from .50 to .83; the item discrimination values Data analysis
ranged from .36 to .71. The correlation between the ASES
In the first and second stages of the study, linguistic
and Self- Esteem Scale (SRS) was examined within the
equivalence, criterion validity, and test-retest reliability
context of concurrent validity, and a positive and moder­
were investigated by simple correlations. Confirmatory
ate level of correlation was determined (r = .44, p< .01).
factor analysis was used in the validation process of the
The Cronbach α coefficient was found to be 79. The
ARS, and PCA was used in the development process of
seventh item of the scale was reverse-coded.
the EEVPS. Internal consistency was checked by
Cronbach’s alpha, and item discriminations were inves­
Procedure tigated by item-factor/total score correlations. In the
third stage, structural equation modeling was used for
In the adaptation process of the ARS, permission for
examining the relations between the ARS, AMS, ASES,
adapting the original scale was requested. Following
EEPVS, and PSQ.
permission, an expert group consisting of researchers
Prior to the analysis mentioned here, initial checks
from the fields of counseling and guidance, English
related to the missing data, outliers, normality, and
language teaching, and assessment and evaluation,
multicollinearity were done. The data obtained at differ­
who studied resilience, academic resilience, and scale
ent stages of the study showed that there were missing
development and adaptation, translated the ARS into
values ranging from .01% to .21%. The missing data
Turkish. Counseling and guidance experts along with
were examined with Little’s MCAR test in terms of
the measurement and evaluation experts, who were
distribution on individuals and variables, coexistence
not a part of the previous translation group, checked
conditions, and frequency. As a result of this test, it
the translated scale. In line with the feedback sug­
was indicated that they exhibit an MCAR pattern.
gested by these experts, necessary changes were
Based on the suggestions of Akbaş and Tavşancıl
made. This form was then translated back into
(2015), the missing values were imputed using an expec­
English and presented to the two faculty members
tation-maximization (EM) algorithm.
working in the department of English Language
The outliers in the data sets were examined through
Teaching. After comparing the two forms, the faculty
standard scores and Mahalanobis distances. Skewness/
members stated that no significant difference was
kurtosis coefficients and normality tests were used to
detected. Based on the feedback, studies were con­
examine the normality. In case of nonnormal distribu­
ducted to determine the linguistic equivalence and
tion, the parameter estimations were carried out by
psychometric properties of the ARS.
means of an asymptotic covariance matrix.
In stage 2, the literature was reviewed for the EEVPS
(Cutler, 2006; Klasen et al., 2010; Masten et al., 2012;
Ungar & Liebenberg, 2013) to determine the conceptual Results
framework. The ecological education value perception is
defined as the value attached to an individual’s aca­ The findings of the study were presented in three stages.
demic/educational development by family members,
friends, and socially significant others. In this context,
First stage: Adaptation of ARS into Turkish culture
an item pool aimed at measuring the EEVPS was cre­
ated, and expert opinions from the fields of counseling In this section, the findings related to the linguistic
and guidance and assessment and evaluation were equivalence, construct validity, reliability, and criterion
obtained. The recommendations of the experts on validity of the ARS were presented respectively. The
whether some items should be excluded from the scale correlation coefficients between the items included in
or could have been expressed in a different way were the Turkish and English versions of the ARS forms that
discussed. Suggested changes and corrections were then were obtained from 56 students studying at Gaziantep
made, and the seven-item form of the EEVPS was fina­ University, Department of English Language and
lized for use. A prepilot study of the EEVPS was imple­ Teaching, varied between .44 and .92. Büyüköztürk
mented with a group that included seven students. In the (2016) stated that correlation coefficients that are in
prepilot scheme, students were asked to read the items the .30–.70 range correlate with the moderate level;
and indicate what they understood orally. By doing this, correlation coefficients above .70 are high. According
whether the expressions were understood correctly and to this, it seems that there are both moderate and high-
in the same way by the students was determined. The level correlations between Turkish and English expres­
prepilot implementation showed that the scale was clear sions of the items. It was determined that the correla­
for the students. tion coefficients between the total scores (the one
6 R. ALIYEV ET AL.

tested by confirmatory factor analysis was taken into R. B. Kline, 2005). When these values are evaluated as
consideration) and factors obtained through Turkish a whole, the model fit is achieved.
and English versions of the ARS forms were calculated Corrected item–factor correlations for the factor of
as follows: .72 for factor of “perseverance,” .77 for “perseverance” varied between .20 and .64; the factor of
factor of “reflecting and adaptive help-seeking,” .83 “reflecting and adaptive help-seeking” varied between
for the factor of “negative affect and emotional .20 and .62, and the factor of “negative affect and emo­
response,” and .88 for the total scores (p < .01). Since tional response” varied between .33 and .49. Cronbach’s
the correlation coefficients calculated for interitems are α coefficients calculated for the factors were .83, .79, and
either moderate or high and those calculated for the .68 respectively. Items with .30 or higher item factor
factors and total scores are high level, it can be said correlation discriminate the individuals very well; the
that the linguistic equivalence of the ARS was items with an item factor correlation between .20 and .30
approved. may be used if they are essential, or they should be
The original form of the ARS has a three-factor model revised (Büyüköztürk, 2016). Two items (Items 1 and
including “perseverance,” “reflecting and adaptive help- I5) under the factor of “perseverance” in addition to one
seeking,” and “negative affect and emotional response.” item (Item 29) under the factor of “reflecting and adap­
Çokluk et al. (2014) stated that CFA is an analysis in tive help-seeking” have item discrimination values that
which a previously defined and restricted construct is are lower than .30. Excluding these items did not lead
tested to hold a view about whether the construct can be a significant change on reliability. Although they had
deemed as a model or not. Therefore, the construct low discrimination, these items were not excluded for
validity of the ARS was examined using CFA. not constraining the content.
As a result of the analysis carried out, it was found The correlation coefficients calculated through the
that there were several insignificant items (t < 1.96), and data obtained by applying the ARS to the same student
some of the goodness of fit indices were far beyond the group with a 10-day interval was .86 (p< .01) for the
acceptable limits in the three-factor model developed by “persistence” factor, .84 (p < .01) for the “reflecting and
Cassidy (2016). This could be related to the psycho­ adaptive help-seeking” factor, and .79 (p < .01) for the
metric problems of the original form, as previously “negative affect and emotional response” factor.
mentioned in Table 1, and the proposed modification The ASES was used for criterion validity of the ARS.
suggestions were examined. It was seen that, if an item Correlations between ASES total scores and persever­
(Item 23: I would try not to panic) under the factor of ance factor, reflecting and adaptive help-seeking, and
“negative affect and emotional response” is relocated negative affect and emotional response were calculated
under the factor of “reflecting and adaptive help- as .35 (p < .01), .43 (p < .01), −.19 (p< .01) respectively.
seeking,” a significant improvement in model fit takes Correlations obtained at the third stage are also very
place. Two experts in the field of psychological counsel­ close to these values. According to these findings, there
ing and guidance also approved the modification. When is a positive and moderate level of correlation between
the model was tested after this relocation, acceptable the total scores of ARS and ASES in terms of the “per­
values were obtained. After considering the indices and severance” and “reflecting and adaptive help-seeking”
modification suggestions, however, a significant contri­ factors; the correlation was determined to be negative
bution to the model—data compliance—can be obtained and low in terms of the “negative affect and emotional
by correlating the error variances of the two items under response” factor.
the title of “negative affect and emotional response”
(Item 12: I would probably be sad, Item 14: I would be
Second stage: Development of EEVPS
disappointed). This model was tested again after making
this modification. The initial form of the EEVPS consisting of seven items
It was determined that t values of all items were was applied to a group of 60 students. As a result of the
higher than 1.96, according to the CFA carried out principal component analysis carried out on the data
after making the aforementioned changes, and all stan­ obtained from this implementation, it was determined
dardized coefficients were in the range of .18 and .73. that the KMO value (Kaiser Meyer Olkin) was .65 and
The goodness of fit indices were as follows: χ2/df = 3.10; Bartlett’s test results for sphericity are significant
RMSEA = .08; GFI = .84; CFI = .94; NFI = .91; (χ2 = 90.03, p < .01). It is already known that having
NNFI = .93; SRMR = .08. The suggested GFI index is a KMO value above .70 means suitability for conducting
slightly below the good fit criterion; however, χ2/df, factor analysis; it is deemed as sufficient when the value
RMSEA, CFI, NFI, NNFI, and SRMR indices indicate is between .50 and .70 (A. Can, 2018). As a result of the
good fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Hu & Bentler, 1999; analysis, it was determined that there were three factors
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOOL & EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 7

whose eigenvalues were greater than 1 (they were 2.51, said that the reliability value (α = .71) obtained for six
1.47, and 1.04 respectively). These values were compared items is sufficient. The correlation coefficient was calcu­
with the results of the parallel analysis (Watkins, 2000), lated as .80 (p < .01) by applying the EEVPS to a group of
and it was found that the maximum number of factors 79 students with a 14-day interval.
that could be excluded was two. As a result of PCA, the Correlations between the scores obtained from the
axes of two factors were rotated by different methods; it EEVPS and PSQ original form were examined through
was seen that the second factor included two items, and the data obtained from the study group in the third stage
the analysis was repeated by reducing the number of (Table 3). As a result of this examination, it was deter­
factors to one. It is recommended that the factor loading mined that there was a positive and moderate level of
of each item on a scale should be at least .32 (Tabachnick correlation (r = .36, p < .01) between EEVPS total scores
& Fidell, 2001). One factor solution showed that the and acceptance/involvement factor scores of PSQ; the
factor load of an item was .24; therefore, this item was correlations were calculated as negative and low
excluded from the scale. It was observed that the KMO (r = −.12, p < .01) between the EEVPS total scores and
value was .68 and the Bartlett’s test for sphericity was the control factor scores. Hence, it was seen that the
significant for the last case in which six items were under EEVPS has psychometric properties suitable to use in
the title of one factor (χ2 = 73.27, p < .01). These six the studies conducted in the field of education and
items included in the EEVPS explain 41.42% of total psychology.
variance. The factor loadings, item total correlations,
and Cronbach α coefficient for the EEVPS can be seen
Third stage: Testing hypothesized model
in Table 2.
Table 2 indicates that the factor loadings of EEVPS In the third stage of the study, the correlations between
items varied between .42 and .78; corrected item factor the data obtained from the ARS, EEVPS, PSQ, AMS, and
correlations varied between .24 and .59, and Cronbach’s ASES were analyzed by structural equation modeling. At
α coefficient was calculated as .71. Considering the the stage of testing the validity of the proposed model,
values included in Table 2, it was seen that the item the perception of ecological education value and the
discrimination value of an item, which was My family mother’s parenting style were external; academic moti­
doesn’t evade any sacrifice for my education, was calcu­ vation and academic self-efficacy were regarded as inter­
lated below .30, although the factor loadings were above nal latent variables, and their levels of predicting
.32. As well as holding high factor loadings, since no academic resilience were examined. The validity of the
significant increase was observed in terms of Cronbach’s measurement model, in which factor total scores were
α coefficient (α = .72) when this item was excluded, it considered as the observed variable, was tested with CFA
was considered appropriate to keep the item in the scale. before the mentioned structural model. The mean and
Baykul (2000) stated that the reliability of the measure­ standard deviation values of the variables included in the
ment tools used in education and psychology should be model and their correlation coefficients are shown in
at least .70. In addition, it is known that the Cronbach’s Table 3.
α coefficient, which provides information on the internal The correlation coefficients of the variables included
consistency of the measuring instrument, tends to in the study ranged between −.41 and .75. According to
increase with the number of items. Therefore, it can be the results of the measurement model, the standard
coefficients of the model that were obtained after mak­
Table 2. The factor loadings, item factor correlations, and ing suggested modifications are shown in Figure 1.
Cronbach α coefficient for the EEVPS. In Figure 1 “acceptance” and “strict control” repre­
Corrected item sent the factors of the original form of the PSQ; “adap­
Factor factor Cronbach tive help seeking” and “negative affect” represent the
Itemsρ loading correlation α
factors of the ARS. Other related error variances belong
Everyone encourages me for my .78 .59 .71
education. to the AMS, and as was mentioned before, AMS factors
Most of my friends struggle for .75 .60 display a special pattern (simplex pattern) and show
getting a good education.
Everyone around me struggles for .70 .47 high correlations among themselves. Based on these
getting a good education. considerations, six error variances were correlated
There are many educated people .62 .41
(well-educated) around me. according to the modification suggestions.
My friends care about my .52 .34 The fit values obtained for the measurement model
education.
My family doesn’t evade any .42 .24
(χ2/df = 4.30, RMSEA =.08, NNFI =.94, CFI = .96,
sacrifice for my education. GFI =.92, SRMR =.06) showed that a good model fit
ρ
Unvalidated English translation of items in the EEPVS. was achieved. After the validation of the measurement
8 R. ALIYEV ET AL.

Table 3. Mean, standard deviation, and correlations of the variables included in the model.
Scale/Subscale M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1. Acceptance 43.47 7.87 1
2. Strict control 31.00 8.00 −.35** 1
3. Ecological education value 23.64 4.28 .36** −.12** 1
perception
4. External regulation 17.14 3.43 .16** −.03 .36** 1
5. Introjected regulation 19.01 5.39 .09* .06 .25** .45** 1
6. Identified regulation 22.69 4.24 .26** −.06 .45** .60** .50** 1
7. Intrinsic motivation to 18.65 5.03 .10* .08 .24** .16** .49** .45** 1
stimulation
8. Intrinsic motivation to 19.65 5.33 .20** −.01 .29** .38** .61** .59** .68** 1.00
accomplish
9. Intrinsic motivation to know 22.01 4.78 .21** −.02 .38** .46** .54** .75** .62** .73** 1.00
10. Amotivation 20.72 5.10 −.23** .21** −.22** −.27** −.03 −.36** −.06 −.22** −.37** 1.00
11. Self-efficacy 25.07 4.48 .16** −.08 .34** .28** .30** .40** .29** .39** .40** −.24** 1.00
12. Perseverance 51.23 7.18 .14** −.01 .22** .26** .23** .44** .26** .36** .44** −.41** .38** 1.00
13. Reflecting and adaptive help 36.54 5.76 .08 .05 .24** .27** .30** .41** .29** .36** .42** −.24** .35** .66** 1.00
seeking
14. Negative affect and emotional 18.61 4.36 −.14** .17** −.10* −.02 −.02 −.11* −.11** −.14** −.18** .39** −.21** −.26** −.09*
response
*p < .05; **p < .01.

model, the mediation model in which the “external” Ecological Education Value Perception Scale (EEVPS)
latent variable predicted the “internal” and “academic was developed.
resilience” latent variables and the “internal” latent vari­
able predicted the “academic resilience” latent variable
were tested. Although the model fit values given in Adaptation of Academic Resilience Scale
Figure 1 were the same as those obtained for the mea­ The results showed that the three-factor structure of the
surement model, it was observed that the path between ARS was encountered in Turkish culture, but the model
the “external” latent variable and “academic resilience” fit was provided if an item in the original form in the
latent variable was not significant (p > .05). The standard “negative affect and emotional response” factor was
coefficients obtained by removing the path between included in a “reflecting and adaptive help-seeking”
“external” and “academic resilience” latent variables factor. Obtaining the correlations has been assumed to
are given in Figure 2. be evidence of construct validity (r = .35, p < .01) for the
In Figure 2, it is seen that the removal of the path perseverance factor between the ARS and ASES, as was
from the model reduced the χ2/df ratio to 4.25. No expected, for the “reflecting and adaptive help-seeking”
difference was observed in the other fit indexes. factor (r = .43, p < .01), and for the “negative affect and
According to the tested model, it was determined that emotional response” factor (r = −.19, p < .01). If it is
external factors predicted internal factors (γ = .57, considered that Cronbach’s α coefficient varies between
p < .01), and internal factors predicted academic resi­ .68 and .83, and test-retest reliabilities vary between .79
lience (β = .62, p < .01) significantly. The direct effect of and .86, it can be said that the ARS is a reliable assess­
external factors on academic resilience was not signifi­ ment instrument that can be used for measuring aca­
cant (γ = .00, p > .05). This finding indicated that the demic resilience levels of university students by
internal factors totally mediate the relation between “perseverance,” “reflecting and adaptive help-seeking,”
external factors and academic resilience. and “negative affect and emotional response” factors.

Discussion Development of the Ecological Education Value

Perception Scale
The main aim of this study was to find out the effects of
external and internal factors on academic resilience. In this study, the EEVPS was developed based on the
Parenting styles and ecological education value percep­ ecological model that Bronfenbrenner (1994) stated. The
tion were considered to be external factors, and aca­ EEVPS, consisting of six items categorized under
demic self-efficacy and academic motivation were a single factor, explains 41.42% of the total variance.
considered to be internal factors. Within the scope of Considering the fact that single-factor scales are
this aim, the Academic Resilience Scale (ARS) developed expected to explain at least 30% of the total variance
by Cassidy (2016) was adapted to Turkish, and the (Büyüköztürk, 2016), it can be stated that this ratio can
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOOL & EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 9

Figure 1. Diagram of measurement model (standard coefficients).

Figure 2. Diagram obtained by removing the path between external and academic resilience variables (standard coefficient).

be considered as high. The fact that the Cronbach’s α on academic resilience was not significant. As a result,
coefficient was .70 and test-retest reliability was .80 a mediation model was applied in which a high level of
showed that the reliability of the EEVPS was high. goodness of fit indices was obtained.
When the ecological model was considered, the positive In Krovetz’s (1999) resilience theory, protective fac­
correlation (r = .36, p < .01) between the EEVPS scores tors were discussed as factors that constitute a source of
and PSQ acceptance/involvement factor and negative self-recovery in the face of important and negative life
correlation (r =−.12, p < .01) between the EEVPS and events that take place in and around the individual. In
strict control-supervision factor were assumed to be this respect, academic resilience is not limited to the
proof of concurrent validity. individual’s own characteristics; it is also shaped by the
interaction between the individual’s social and physical
environment and personal (internal) factors (Johnson,
Internal protective factors and academic resilience
2008; Masten, 2001; Toland & Carrigan, 2011; Wasonga,
The ecological model discusses external factors as the 2002). Here, academic resilience was evaluated as
determinants of internal factors (Ungar, 2018). From a structure that emerges from the interaction between
this point of view, a conceptual model was tested in the external and internal resources of the individual, and
which academic resilience, parenting styles of the family, the relationship between academic resilience and these
and ecological education value perception were consid­ resources was tried to be determined.
ered to be external factors, and academic motivation and The relationship between internal and external fac­
academic self-efficacy were considered to be internal fac­ tors and academic resilience was investigated in many
tors. The model showed that external factors predicted previous studies. As internal factors, self-efficacy
internal factors; similarly, internal factors predicted aca­ (Benard, 2004; Cutler, 2006; Hamill, 2003; Maghadam,
demic resilience, but the direct effect of external factors 2006; Roberts, 2007; Terzi, 2008; Weaver, 2009), positive
10 R. ALIYEV ET AL.

opinions of the individual about his/her academic qua­ similar to the difference between the content of the work
lification, having empathic understanding, internal con­ and the context of the work. Intrinsic motivators are
trol and positive future expectations, interest in internal rewards that a person feels while doing his/her
relationships and emotional bonds (Arnold, 2003; job. A person in this condition is self-motivated, mean­
Gizir, 2004), perceived psychological autonomy, educa­ ing that the person is motivating himself or herself.
tional expectations, cooperation and communication Extrinsic motivators are external rewards that take
(Er, 2009), positive attitudes toward school (Maddox & place outside the nature of the work. They are not the
Prinz, 2003; Malindi & MacHenjedze, 2012; factors that directly work when performing a specific
Organization for Economic Co-operation and task. According to Deci and Ryan (1980, 1985), intrinsic
Development [OECD], 2003; Ungar & Liebenberg, motivation can be defined as the person doing some­
2013), goals and expectations toward life and the future thing internally because s/he is interested; external moti­
(Dass-Brailsford, 2005; Krovetz, 1999; Wasonga et al., vation is defined as doing something for the result.
2003), self-efficacy (Fallon, 2010; Krovetz, 1999), a high Internal motivation is very important in terms of
positive self-concept (Arnold, 2003), high motivation education and learning behavior as it is highly related
and entrepreneurship (Dass-Brailsford, 2005), cognitive to advanced learning and creativity. In the literature,
flexibility, planning skills and cognitive executive func­ extrinsic motivation is considered to be an insufficient
tions (Acedevo, 2009; Acedevo & Esquivel, 2008; Masten form of motivation in contrast to intrinsic motivation
et al., 2012; Yavuz & Kutlu, 2016), emotional regulation, (Fischer et al., 2019).
personal sensitivity, optimism (Weaver, 2009), self- When academic resilience is evaluated with an eco­
confidence, motivation, goal-setting ability, and stress logical/holistic point of view, the explanation of resili­
management (OECD, 2011) were found to be related ence or academic resilience with only internal resources
to academic resilience. According to the findings of the remains very limited. In this respect, it is possible to
aforementioned studies and this study, it might be said mention the direct or indirect effects of internal and
that academic self-efficacy and motivation are the main external resources in the emergence of resilience. In
determinants of academic resilience. this context, it was found that external factors, such as
In general, the history of psychology and its findings the high positive expectations of family, school, and
have focused on the hypothesis that the major drive friends (Foster, 2013; Gizir, 2004); high academic expec­
leading individuals to any behavior is intrinsic motiva­ tations; social support perception; family expectations
tion. The importance of internal determination as an and values regarding education (Arnold, 2003; Benard,
initiating or driving force and the importance of sup­ 2004; Er, 2009; Foster, 2013; Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997;
portive, enhancing external resources and motivation Wu et al., 2012); communication within the family
were revealed. It can be concluded from the findings (Jowkar et al., 2011); high expectations in environmental
that extrinsic motivation and external positive assets relations; in-school activity opportunities and socializa­
that are necessary for academic resilience depend on tion (Arastaman, 2011; Arastaman & Balcı, 2013; Er,
intrinsic motivation and/or the use of resources or pro­ 2009; Foster, 2013; Gizir, 2004; Hernandez & Cortes,
cessing through them. In other words, the existence of 2011; Perez et al., 2009; Williams, 2011); perception of
intrinsic motivation and protective features can be con­ school support; free school atmosphere and attachment
sidered a prerequisite for academic resilience. According to school (Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997; Malindi &
to Woodworth (1918), an activity can be initiated with MacHenjedze, 2012); supportive communication
extrinsic motivation, but if a person is internally willing, between teachers and students; the value given to school
he will continue the action freely and effectively. In and courses (Alva, 1991; Dass-Brailsford, 2005; Dinçer
addition, Allport (1937) stated that extrinsic motivation & Oral, 2013; Foster, 2013; Perez et al., 2009; Wasonga,
is the initiator of any action, and intrinsic motivation is 2002); role models in the environment and supportive
the thing that determines the continuity of the move­ social institutions (Dass-Brailsford, 2005); cultural iden­
ment; this is called functional autonomy (as cited in Deci tity; grade point average (Weaver, 2009); growing up
& Ryan, 1985). Apart from these, there are other studies with parents (Perez et al., 2009); academic optimism in
that examine the importance of intrinsic motivation schools (Fallon, 2010); qualified school and education
compared to extrinsic motivation in education services; and time spent at school (Benard, 2004; Foster,
(Berlyne, 1966; Hunt, 1965; Jordan, 1952; Vogel et al., 2013; OECD, 2011) were all related to academic
1959). Deci (1971) found in his research that external resilience.
motivation increases or decreases intrinsic motivation In general, it is apparent that the protective factors
by type. According to Newstrom and Davis (2002), the contributing to academic resilience are the high expecta­
difference between internal and external motivation is tions of the family and their attitudes toward education,
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOOL & EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 11

communication skills of the individual with the people having an aim, etc.), “family” (especially in infancy and
around them, supportive in-school and out-of-school early childhood), and “school” (Kurtoğlu & Doğan, 2016).
activities, and the support received from teachers. On The healthy development of the child and living
the other hand, it was determined that students with a successful life are possible with the interaction of these
high self-efficacy and self-esteem, with positive thoughts three protective factors. As Bronfenbrenner (1994) stated
toward school, who are hopeful about the future, goal in the Ecological System Theory, social structures such as
oriented, and who have both an internal and external family, community, school, and class are important fac­
focus of control are more academically resilient than tors that affect the development of children and young­
others. sters positively and protect them from risks. It can be
Self-efficacy is defined as the belief in the capacity of the asserted that children with these protective factors can
individual to organize and successfully perform the activ­ cope with difficulties more effectively (Betancourt &
ity that is necessary to show a certain performance Khan, 2008; Cefai, 2008; Klasen et al., 2010).
(Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy affects people’s way of think­
ing and emotional reactions. Individuals with a high level
of self-efficacy are able to cope with obstacles more quickly Implication of the findings
and to maintain their commitment to their goals. It is also Considering the results of this study, it can be suggested
stated that high self-efficacy allows people to choose chal­ that college counseling and school counseling services
lenging environments, explore their environment, or cre­ should give priority to studies on the factors directly
ate new environments (Bandura, 1997; Scholz et al., 2002). affecting learning outcomes of students, such as aca­
Within the framework of all of this, it can be assumed that demic resilience, school attendance, increasing learning
academic self-efficacy is meaningful in explaining aca­ motivation, and developing positive school attitudes.
demic resilience as an internal resource. Therefore, self- Moreover, the studies that increase students’ intrinsic
efficacy beliefs allow people to recover, get stronger, and motivations and strengthen their internal resources
maintain their current development in the face of adver­ should be prioritized before activating all social ecologi­
sities and problems (Pajares, 2002). cal factors (e.g., family participation).
The results of this study show that the direct effects of
external resources (parenting styles, ecological education
value) on academic resilience can be ignored, but it Limitations of the study
should also be kept in mind that they may have indirect
Within the scope of the research, a limited number of
effects on internal resources. The external resources dis­
internal and external resources were discussed, which
cussed here are not limited to family or parents.
can be considered a limitation of the research. In addi­
Within the context of the social-ecological approach,
tion, discussing the ecological education value and
it is important for individuals to use other resources
socialization processes in a broader context can be
within the community in the face of challenging or
important for achieving results that are more valid in
difficult situations (Ungar, 2005). In the ecological
terms of academic resilience. Another limitation of the
approach, it was stated that the support received from
study could be parenting style measures, in which only
family, friends, and the community is an important
the maternal style was included in this study. These
resource in terms of resilience.
limitations should be considered when interpretating
In this research, individuals stated that they received
all the results and conclusions of the study.
support from their families, friends, schools, teachers,
social institutions, etc., when they encountered
a problem. Therefore, it can be said that individuals ben­ Disclosure statement
efit from the resources that are provided to them by their
exosystem, mesosystem, and macrosystem on the basis of No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
an ecological context in the face of challenges or difficul­
ties, and these protective resources contribute to their
Notes on contributors
academic resilience when they use their internal resources.
As a result, the effects of protective factors on the Ramin Aliyev is an Associate Professor in educational sciences
development of children are much higher than the risk and the chair of the Educational Sciences Department at
factors. Three main protective factors that protect chil­ Hasan Kalyoncu University. He completed his master’s and
doctoral studies in the field of educational psychology. His
dren and support their development are supportive exter­ studies mainly focus on educational psychology, especially on
nal systems, such as “the characteristics of the individual” resilience. He supervised five students on their dissertations
(social competence, problem-solving skills, independence, about resilience.
12 R. ALIYEV ET AL.

Ufuk Akbaş is an Associate Professor in educational measure­ Başar, M. (2001). The effects of perception of false success in
ment and evaluation and vice dean of the education faculty at families on students. Afyon Kocatepe University Journal of
Hasan Kalyoncu University. He specializes in statistical mod­ Social Sciences, 2(2), 115–124.
eling on platforms such as R, MPlus, Lisrel, and SPSS. Baykul, Y. (2000). Assessment in education and psychology:
Classical test theory and practice. OSYM Publishing.
Yaşar Özbay is a Professor in the Counseling Department,
Benard, B. (1995). Fostering resilience in children. ERIC
College of Education, at Hasan Kalyoncu University. He is one
Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood
of the researchers in the area of resilience in Turkey. His work
Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
is mainly related to families, children, and youth regarding
ED386327.
relational coping, stress, and resilience.
Benard, B. (1997). Turning it around for all youth: From risk to
resilience (ERIC/CUE Digest, No. 1 26). ERIC
Clearinghouse on Urban Education. (ERIC Document
ORCID Reproduction Service No. ED412309).
Benard, B. (2004). Resiliency: What we have learned. West
Ramin Aliyev http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1983-6505 Education Publishers.
Ufuk Akbaş http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6122-154X Berlyne, D. E. (1966). Curiosity and exploration. Science
Yaşar Özbay http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9355-8238 (New York, N.Y.), 153(3731), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.
1126/science.153.3731.25
Betancourt, T. S., & Khan, K. T. (2008). The mental health of
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