Farm Machinery Practical Manual

PRACTICAL MANUAL
Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments

(FMPE-502)
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
PMAS ARID AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY, RAWALPINDI,
PAKSITAN
Prepared By: Engr. Rana Shahzad Noor

Lab. Engineer, FAE&T, PMAS-AAUR
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering & Technology, PMAS-AAUR
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SR. NO. TITLE
1 Study of Tillage Operation, its types, Benefits and Objectives
2 Study, Identification and Understanding the Working of Primary Tillage

Implements
3 Study, Identification and Understanding the Working of Secondary Tillage

Implements
4 Hitching & De-Hitching Practices of Different Implements
5 Measurement of Theoretical & Actual Field Capacity and Field Efficiency

of Primary Tillage Implements
Measurement of Theoretical & Actual Field Capacity and Field Efficiency
6
of Secondary Tillage Implements
Measurement of Tractor Tire Slippage at Different Depths and Speeds
7
Using Different Agricultural Implements
8 Calibration Procedure of Seed Cum Fertilizer Drill in Lab and Filed
9 Calibration Procedure of Boom Sprayer in Lab and Filed
10 Demonstration of Components of Self-Propelled Reaper
11 Determination of Cutting Index (C.I.) of Self-Propelled Reaper
12 Demonstration of Components of Wheat Thresher
13 Demonstration of Components of Combine Harvester
14 Performance Evaluation of Wheat Thresher
15 Performance Evaluation of Combine Harvester
Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
TITLE:
STUDY OF TILLAGE OPERATION, ITS TYPES, BENEFITS AND OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVE
1. To study about the tillage operation.
2. To study different types of tillage.
3. To study the benefits and objectives of tillage.
THEORY
Tillage: It is the mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favorable condition for crop
production. It breaks the compact surface of earth to certain depth and loosens the soil mass so
that roots of the crop penetrate and spread into the soil.
Classification of Tillage: Tillage can be classified into (a) primary tillage (b) secondary tillage:
(a) Primary Tillage: The operation performed just after the harvest of a crop to open up any
cultivable land, is termed as primary tillage. It is normally designed to reduce soil strength, break
the hard pan developed underneath crop root zone, cover plant materials and rearrange aggregates.
The various equipment used for primary tillage are mold board plough (M.B. Plow), disc plough,
chisel plough, subsoiler etc.
(b) Secondary Tillage: Lighter and finer operations performed on the soil after primary tillage are
termed as secondary tillage. These operations are generally performed on surface soil for seed bed
preparation. Very little inversion and shifting of soil takes place and consequently less power
requirement per unit area. Implements are disc and other harrows, cultivators, rotavator etc.
Apart from these major primary and secondary tillage operations we often do tillage in
some other ways. These different types of tillage are discussed as follows:
No-tillage: It is also known as zero tillage or direct drilling. It is defined as a way of growing crops
without disturbing the soil through tillage. Never use a plow, disk, etc. ever again.
Strip-Tillage: Narrow strips are tilled where seeds will be planted, leaving the soil in between the
rows untilled.

Minimum tillage: It is a soil conservation system like Strip-tillage with the goal of minimum soil
manipulation necessary for a successful crop production. It is a tillage method that does not turn
the soil over.
Zone tillage: It is a form of modified deep tillage in which only narrow strips are tilled, leaving
soil in between the rows untilled. This type of tillage agitates the soil to help reduce soil
compaction problems and to improve internal soil drainage.
Mulch tillage: It refers to seeding methods where a hundred percent of the soil surface is disturbed
by tillage whereby crop residues are mixed with the soil and a certain amount of residues remain
on the soil surface.
Rotational Tillage: Tilling the soil every two years or less often (every other year, or every third
year, etc.).
ADVANTAGES OF TILLAGE
1. Reduces labor, saves time: As little as one trip for planting compared to two or more
tillage operations means fewer hours on a tractor and fewer labor hours to pay.
2. Improves soil tilth: A continuous no-till system increases soil particle aggregation (small
soil clumps) making it easier for plants to establish roots. Improved soil tilth also can
minimize compaction. Of course, compaction is also reduced by reducing trips across the
field.
3. Traps soil moisture to improve water availability: Keeping crop residue on the surface
traps water in the soil by providing shade. The shade reduces water evaporation. In
addition, residue acts as tiny dams slowing runoff and increasing the opportunity for water
to soak into the soil. Another way infiltration increases is by the channels (macro-pores)
created by earthworms and old plant roots.
4. Reduces soil erosion: Crop residues on the soil surface reduce erosion by water and wind.
Depending on the amount of residues present, soil erosion can be reduced by up to 90%
compared to an unprotected, intensively tilled field.
5. Increases the production of crops.
6. Enhances the quality of production.
7. Destroys pest shelters and disrupts their lifecycles.
8. Distributes soil nutrients throughout the soil.
9. Aerates the soil.

10. Controls weeds.
OBJECTIVES OF TILLAGE
1. To develop desirable soil structure for seed bed, root zone and plant growth.
2. To increase soil aeration by loosening soil thereby reducing the density of soil.
3. To minimize soil resistance to root penetration.
4. To control weeds (hoeing) and remove unwanted plants (thinning).
5. To improve soil fertility by covering the crop residues or trash.
6. To minimize soil erosion by employing deep tillage, mulch tillage, contour tillage etc.
7. To establish specific soil surface configuration such as beds, furrows, ridges etc. for
planting, irrigation, drainage etc.
8. To incorporate and mix fertilizers pesticides and other soil amendments into the soil.
9. To accomplish segregation of roots, rocks and other foreign materials.
10. To break hard pan, tillage pan or sodic pan developed underneath the root zone.

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
TITLE:
STUDY, IDENTIFICATION AND UNDERSTANDING THE WORKING OF
PRIMARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
OBJECTIVE
1. To identify different primary tillage implements.
2. To study different parts of each implement.
3. To understand the working of each implement.
THEORY
Primary tillage implements: These are normally designed to cut and invert the soil and reduce
soil strength. The soil which is normally manipulated with these implements varies from 8 to 36
inches. Following are the common primary tillage implements.
1. Mold Board Plow,
2. Disc Plow,
3. Chisel Plow,
4. Subsoiler etc.
1. Mold Board Plow

It is used after harvesting the crop to cut/loose and invert the soil into furrow slices (volume
of earth turned up) with varying degree of pulverization depending upon type of mold board plow,
soil type and speed of ploughing. Its working depth is up to 22 cm. Specific functions of mold
board plow (figure 1.1) are:
a) To cut and break the soil,
b) To lift the soil,
c) To invert the soil,
d) To pulverize the soil,
e) To bury the weeds, trash and manure.
Types and Parts of M. B. Plow

Mold board plow consists of types such as general purpose, high speed, stubble bottom,
sod or breaker and slat bottom. It has following basic parts (figure 1.2): share, shin, moldboard,
landslide, frog, beam, frame, attachments (coulter) etc. All parts are discussed briefly as following:
Share: Share is the part of plow which penetrates the soil and cut a furrow slice. Its types include
slip share, slip-nose share, shin share and bar share.
Shin: This is the cutting edge just above the landslide above the share.
Note: Share basically cuts the furrow bottom while shin cuts the furrow wall.
Moldboard: It is the curved part which lifts and turns the slice. The extension of mold board
which helps in turning the furrow slice is called tail piece.
Landslide or Landside: It is the flat plate which bears against and transmits the rear side lateral
thrust of plow bottom to the furrow wall. It may have detachable heel.
Frog: It is the base of the plow bottom to which other parts are attached. It connects the moldboard,
share and landslide. It is connected to the leg which is further attached with beam.
Beam: These parts are used to connect the plow bottom to the main frame. Plow bottom is
combination of share, shin, moldboard, landslide and frog.
Frame: It is the main supporting structure which have three points for hitching. It supports beams
for carrying plow bottoms.
Mold board plow may be equipped with different attachments like rolling landslide, tail
wheel, jointer or rolling coulter. Rolling wheel or tail wheel trails behind the plow and may be
adjusted to increase and decrease the landslide pressure on the furrow wall. Rolling coulter is a
disc with a thin blade which is used to cut the trash or crop residue to make a smooth furrow face.
Jointer in shaped like a little moldboard and it is used to deflect trash, manure etc. from the edge
of furrow slice into the bottom for good coverage.
2. Disc Plow
Disc plows (figure 1.3) are designed to reduce friction by making a rolling plow bottom instead of
sliding plow bottom. It cut, inverts and in some cases breaks furrow slices by means of separately
mounted large steel discs to one side (like M. B. Plow). Its working depth varies from 22.5 cm to
30 cm (9 to 12 inches). Some important terminologies are given below:
Disc Angle: The angle (figure 1.4) at which the plane of cutting edge of disc is inclined to direction
of travel is called Disc Angle. It varies from 42 to 45 degrees. It is used to control the width of
furrows and degree of pulverization.

Tilt Angle: It is the angle (figure 1.4) at which the plane of cutting edge of disc is inclined to
vertical line. Tilt angle varies from 15 to 25 degrees. It is used to control the depth of penetration.
Advantages of Disc Plow over M. B. Plow

a) It works well in sticky soil (clayey soil),
b) It is more useful for deep plowing,
c) It can be used in stony and stumpy soil without much danger of breakage,
d) A disc plow works well even after a considerable part of disc is worn off in abrasive soil,
e) The maintenance cost is low, as there are no shares to replace or sharpen.
Disadvantages of Disc Plow over M. B. Plow

a) Disc plow cannot be used at high speed since for cutting action at slow speed is necessary.
b) It is not suitable for covering surface trash and weeds as effectively as mold board plow.
c) It leaves field rough and cloddy than mold board plow.
d) It is heavier than mold board plow for equal capacities as penetration depends on weight
e) It requires more power because its working depth is large.
3. Chisel Plow
Chisel plow (figure 1.5) is used for subsurface tillage to break through and shatter
compacted or impermeable soil layers (hard pan) and to improve rainfall penetration (infiltration).
They have a series of standards (shanks which may be straight or curved) spaced at 30 cm (12
inches) apart and equipped with replaceable narrow shovels or teeth. Its working depth varies
normally from 25 to 38 cm but in some cases, its goes up to 75 cm. It is used to break plow pan
which is normally developed underneath the regular cultivated soil (8 to 18 inches). Chisel plow
does not pulverize the soil. It does not invert the soil.
4. Subsoiler
Subsoiler (figure 1.5) is identical in shape to a chisel plow but commonly consists of single shank.
It breaks the sub-soil, so that the water may penetrate into the open space and can be stored
increasing its capacity to absorb moisture. It can also be used for making tunnel to serve as
drainage channel. It is a tool that breaks the ground at depth up to 100 cm. It is heavier than chisel

plow. Since depth of penetration is more so more horse power is required to pull one single
standard (shank). It does not pulverize or inverts the soil.
Figure 1.1: Moldboard Plow (having two bottoms)
Figure 1.2 (a): Major parts of Moldboard Plow

Figure 1.2 (b): Major parts of Moldboard Plow
Figure 1.3: Disc Plow (having three discs)
Figure 1.4: Disc Angle and Tilt Angle
Figure 1.5: Chisel Plow (left) and Subsoiler (right)

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
TITLE:
STUDY, IDENTIFICATION AND UNDERSTANDING THE WORKING OF
SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
OBJECTIVE
1. To identify different secondary tillage implements.
2. To study different parts of each implement.
3. To understand the working of each implement.
THEORY
These implements are used after primary tillage implements mainly to cut and pulverize
the soil and to some extent invert the soil. These are used to prepare seedbed by greater
pulverization. These implements work at shallow depths varying from 3 to 6 inches. Following
are the common secondary tillage implements.
1. Disc Harrow,
2. Bar Harrow,
3. Rotavator,
4. Cultivator etc.
1. Disc Harrow
It is a harrow, which performs the harrowing operation by means of a set, or a number of
sets of rotating discs, each set being mounted on a common shaft. Disc harrow is found very
suitable for hard ground, full of stalks and grasses. It cuts the lumps of soil, clods and roots. It is
used for summer fallowing (Field is ploughed but not sown). Discs are mounted on one, two or
more axles which may be set at a variable angle to the line of motion. As the harrow is pulled
ahead, the discs rotate on the ground. Depending upon the disc arrangements, disc harrows are
divided into three classes: Single action, Double action and Offset disc harrow (figure 2.1).
Single action disc harrow: It is a harrow (figure 2.2) with two gangs placed end to end, which
throw the soil in opposite directions. The discs are arranged in such a way that right side gang
throws the soil towards right and left side gang throws the soil towards left. The main disadvantage

of this implement is that the field becomes u leveled and the field becomes un-ploughed between
two gangs.
Double action disc harrow: It is a disc harrow (figure 2.2) consisting of four gangs, in which a
set of two gangs follow behind the set of the other two, arranged in such a way that the front and
back gangs throw the soil in opposite directions. The entire field is worked twice in each trip due
to which it pulverizes the soil more efficiently. The field becomes level after running double acting
disc harrow but the field between two gangs remains un-ploughed.
Off-set disc harrow: It consists of two gangs of discs. These two gangs are fitted one behind the
other (figure 2.2). The discs on front gangs throw the soil towards right while the rear gang throw
the soil towards left i.e. opposite direction. The field remains levelled. There is no un-ploughed
land after using this harrow. Soil is inverted two times so greater pulverization is obtained.
Structure of Disc Harrow

a) Discs are mounted on a shaft known as gang. All gangs are fitted on frame for support.
b) Each gang has normally 7 to 8 discs fitted on it depending upon tractor power.
c) Diameter of these discs varies from 16 to 24 inches.
d) The thickness of discs varies from ¼ to ½ inches.
e) The standard disc spacing is about 10 inches. For light work it varies from 15 to 25 cm and
for heavy work its range is 25 to 30 cm.
f) The discs generally have scraper which prevents disc from clogging. It removes the soil
that may stick to the concave side of the disc. Distance between disc and scraper is 1/8 in.
g) Mostly the discs on front gang have serrated edges which are used to weeds, stalks or other
vegetative material.
Difference between disc plow and disc harrow

Sr. No. Disc Plow Disc Harrow
1 Primary Implement Secondary Implement
2 Used for initial breakdown of soil Used for seedbed preparation after primary
3 Has separate bearing for each disc Disc don’t have separate bearing
4 Disc and tilt angles are present Only gang angle is present

5 Heavy framework Lighter framework

6 Working depth: 9 to 12 inches Working depth: 6 to 7 inches
7 No. of Discs: 2 to 3 No. of Discs: 14 to 16
8 Disc Diameter: 20 to 40 inches Disc Diameter: 16 to 24 inches
9 Disc Thickness: 3/16 to 3/8 inches Disc Thickness: 1/4 to 1/2 inches
10 Disc Spacing: 9 to 12 inches Disc Spacing: 10 inches
2. Bar Harrow
It has two types discussed as following:
Spike Tooth Harrow
It is also known as straight tine harrow (figure 2.3). It is a harrow with pegs or teeth shaped
teeth of diamond cross section (may be square, triangular or circular) attached to a rectangular
frame (rigid or flexible). The teeth are placed on tooth bar in such a way that one tooth is behind
the other. It has the following functions:
a) It breaks the soil crust (top fertile layer) and reduce compaction,
b) It breaks the clods,
c) It can cover the seeds which are broadcasted into the field,
d) It penetrates in soil to a depth of 5 cm,
e) It mixes up the manure spread over the field,
f) It uproots the weeds,
g) It smoothens and level the filed after ploughing.
Spring tooth harrow

It is a harrow (figure 2.4) with tough flexible teeth, suitable to work in hard and stony soils.
Spring tooth harrow is fitted with springs having loops of elliptical shape. It gives a spring action
in working condition. It has following functions:
a) It is used in the soil when obstruction like stone, roots and weeds are hidden below the
ground surface,
b) It pulverizes the soil,
c) It helps in killing weeds.

3. Rotavator/Rotary Tiller
It consists of number of curved blades (figure 2.5) fitted on horizontal rotating shaft which is
operated by P.T.O. (power take off) shaft of tractor. Its working depth is 6 inches. It has following
uses:
a) It is used for puddling operation,
b) It is suitable to use in dry as well as wet land cultivation,
c) It cuts and invert the soil,
d) It pulverizes the soil,
e) It mixes the crop residues into the soil.
4. Cultivator/Tillers
A cultivator is used for secondary tillage. It refers to frames with the teeth (also called
shanks) that cut the soil as they are dragged through it. A rectangular frame of angle iron is
mounted on three-point hydraulic linkage of the tractor. The cross members carry the tines in two
staggered lines. For actual cutting the soil different types of shovels (figure 2.6) and sweeps (figure
2.7) are used. Its general working depth is 2 to 5 inches but may goes up to 10 or 12 inches in some
special cases. These cultivators may or may not be fitted with springs. The function of springs is
to save the cultivator tines from breaking when some hard object comes in contact with the shovel
or under the tine. They are classified into rigid tine cultivator and spring tine cultivator. It has
following functions:
a) It breaks the soil,
b) It stirs and pulverize the soil,
c) It kills the weeds by uprooting them,
d) It does not invert the soil,
e) A greater number of tines from 9 to 17 may be used depending upon size.
Rigid tine cultivator: Rigid tines of the cultivator do not deflect during the work in the field. The
tines are bolted or fastened to the main bars by clamps and bolts. Spacing of the tines is changed
simply by opening the bolts and sliding them to the desired position.
Spring tine cultivator: A tine hinged to the frame and loaded with a spring so that it swings back
when an obstacle is encountered, is called spring loaded tine. Each of the tines of this type of

cultivator is provided with two heavy coil springs, pre-tensioned to ensure minimum movement
except when an obstacle is encountered. The springs operate, when the points strike roots or large
stones by allowing the tines to ride over the obstruction, thus preventing damage.
Figure 2.1: Single Action, Double Action and off-set Harrow (left to right)
Figure 2.2: Arrangement of Discs and gangs in different types of Harrows
Figure 2.3: Spike-tooth harrow

Figure 2.4: Spring-tooth Harrow
Figure 2.5: Rotavator

Figure 2.6: Tine Cultivator
Figure 2.7: Sweep Cultivator

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
TITLE:
HITCHING & DE-HITCHING PRACTICES OF DIFFERENT IMPLEMENTS
OBJECTIVE
1. To understand the about attaching and detaching different tillage implements.
2. To understand the about different attaching mechanisms.
THEORY
Hitching: It can be defined as the mechanical connection between tractor and implement or the
process of attaching implements with the tractor. A three-point hitch attaches the implement to the
tractor so that the orientation of the implement is fixed with respect to the tractor and the arm
position of the hitch. The tractor carries some or all of the weight of the implement. The other
main mechanism for attaching a load is through a drawbar, a single point, pivoting attachment
where the implement or trailer is not in a fixed position with respect to the tractor. The primary
benefit of the three-point hitch system is to transfer the weight and resistance of an implement to
the drive wheels of the tractor. This gives the tractor more usable traction.
Components: The three-point hitch (figure 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3) is made up of several components
working together. These include the tractor's hydraulic system, attaching points, the lifting arms,
drawbar hitch etc. Three-point hitches are composed of three movable arms. The two lower arms,
the lifting arms (they are controlled by the hydraulic system, and provide lifting, lowering, and
even tilting the arms). Each hitch has attachment holes for attaching implements, and the
implement has posts that fit through the holes. The implement is secured by placing a pin on the
ends of the posts. The hitch lifting arms are powered by the tractor's own hydraulic system.
The hydraulic system is controlled by the operator, and usually a variety of settings are
available. There are two basic methods in hydraulic control system: Position and Draft control.
Position/Depth Control: This system provides automatic control of an attached implement and
allows the operator to pre-select and to position the implement (lowering and lifting) as determined
by the position of the hand control lever.
Draft/Pull Control: These systems will be automatically raise or lower an implement as the draft
or resistance of the attached implement increase or decrease.

A power take-off or power takeoff (PTO) is any of several methods for taking power from a power
source, such as a running engine, and transmitting it to an application such as an attached
implement (rotavator) or separate machines (thresher). It rotates at either 540 rpm (9 times/second)
or 1,000 rpm (16.6 times/second) at full speed. The shaft which rotates at 540 rpm have six splines
and shaft that rotates at 1000 rpm have 20 or 21 splines. Torque is transmitted to the power take-
off shaft by one of the power transmission shafts for example, the primary or connecting shaft of
the transmission or directly by the engine shaft. PTO speed is determined by engine irrespective
of travel speed. Power losses in the PTO drive are very small, usually less than 5%.
For the efficient and safe tractor operation, implements are to be hitched properly. Implements can
be of Trailed, Semi-mounted and Mounted type.
Mounted Implements: This type of implement is attached to the tractor through the three-point
linkage in such a way that it is completely supported by the tractor when in raised or in transport
position. This three-point linkage attachment has advantage over the trailed implement or machine
such as initial reduction in cost, easier transportation, simpler and more accurate control and
improve traction by transforming the weight of the machine or implement to the tractor.
Semi-mounted Implements: In this type of implements, the front is supported partially on the
tractor linkage or drawbar while the implement rear is supported or guided by its own wheel or the
wheels. For long or heavy implement, this arrangement is necessary or advantageous as it averts
the excessive load that would otherwise be imposed on the tractor hydraulic system and the
tractor’s instability due to the excessive overhang acting on it.
Trailed Implements: This implement is pulled and guided from one hitch point and its weight is
not supported by the tractor. A trailed implement is supported by two or three wheels and
trails/dragged behind the tractor when hitched to the drawbar.
PROCEDURE
1. Complete the daily maintenance schedule of tractor.
2. Start the tractor and allow it to warm up for few minutes.
3. Draw the tractor and bring it a distance at least two lengths of tractor length ahead of the
implement.
4. Reverse the tractor towards implement in a straight line and turn your head at 180o to the
rear side of tractor to have keen look at the implement being mounted (tractor should be in
low-reverse gear).

5. First attach lower left link to implement, then lower right link and finally the top link.
6. Raise the implement using position control lever located on the right side of driving seat.
7. Drive tractor few meters in forward direction.
8. Stop and reverse the tractor to de-hitch the implement at the same place where from it was
taken Bring down the implement using position control lever.
9. Remove first top link, then lower right link and finally the left lower link.
10. Drive the tractor to parking place & switch it off after idle running for 5-minuts.
Figure: 3.1 Three point hitch system and parts

Figure 3.2: Basic parts of hitch system (a)
Figure 3.2: Basic parts of hitch system (b)

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
TITLE:
MEASUREMENT OF THEORETICAL & ACTUAL FIELD CAPACITY AND FIELD
EFFICIENCY OF PRIMARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
OBJECTIVE
1. To operate the M. B. Plow and Disc Plow with tractor in field.
2. To evaluate field performance of both implements.
THEORY
The field capacity of a farm machine is the rate at which it performs its primary function,
i.e., the number of acres/hectares that can be plowed (in case of implement). Field capacity of
implements can be classified into theoretical/ideal field capacity (TFC) and effective/actual field
capacity (EFC).
Theoretical Field Capacity: It is the rate of field coverage of an implement that would be obtained
if the machine were performing its function 100% of the time at the rated forward speed and always
covered 100% of its width. It can be calculated by using the following:
𝑆∗𝑊 ℎ𝑎
𝑇𝐹𝐶 = ( )
𝑐 ℎ𝑟
Where:
TFC = Theoretical Field Capacity, ha/hr.
S = Speed of travel, km/hr.
W = Width of the implement, m
c = Constant or conversion factor
Speed of travel: It can be defined as the distance traveled per unit time expressed in km/hr. In
order to determine the TFC average speed should be measured. It can be calculated as following:
𝐷 𝑘𝑚
𝑆= × 3.6 ( )
𝑡 ℎ𝑟
Where:
D = Distance between two ranging rods, m
t = time taken from initial to final point, sec

Effective Field Capacity: It is the actual average rate of coverage by the machine. It is generally
expressed as ha/hr. Actual effective field capacity is less than theoretical field capacity due to turns
and other delays. It can be calculated by following relation:
𝐴 ℎ𝑎
𝐸𝐹𝐶 = ( )
𝑡 ℎ𝑟
Where:
EFC = Effective Field Capacity, ha/hr.
A = Area plowed by the implement, ha
t = Total time for plowing (effective time + time for turning and other adjustments)
Field Efficiency: It is the ratio of effective field capacity to the theoretical field capacity expressed
in %. It can be measured by following formula:
𝐸𝐹𝐶
𝐹𝐸 = × 100 (%)
𝑇𝐹𝐶
FURROW TERMINOLOGIES
The most important terms (Figure 4.1) frequently used in connection with ploughing of a
land are as following:
Furrow: It is a trench formed by an implement in the soil during the field operation.
Furrow slice: The mass of soil cut, lifted and thrown to one side is called furrow slice.
Furrow wall: It is an undisturbed soil surface by the side of a furrow.
Crown: The top portion of the turned furrow slice is called crown.
Back furrow: A raised ridge left at the center of the strip of land when ploughing is started from
center to side is called back furrow. When the ploughing is started in the middle of a field, furrow
is collected across the field and while returning trip another furrow slice is lapped over the first
furrow. This is the raised ridge which is named as back furrow.
Dead furrow: An open trench left in between two adjacent strips of land after finishing ploughing
is called dead furrow.
Head land: While ploughing a land with a tractor a strip of un-ploughed land is left at each end
of the field for the tractor to turn, which is called head land. At the end of each trip, the plough is
lifted until the tractor and the plough have turned and are in position to start the return trip. The

head land is about 6 meters wide for two or three bottom tractor plough and one meter more for
each additional bottom. It is generally taken as half of the length of tractor and implement.
Methods of Plowing
There are two main methods of ploughing a field which are known as “inlands” and “round
about” ploughing. There are two ways of doing this by “gathering” and “casting’ (Figure 4.2).
1) Gathering
Whenever a plough works round a strip of ploughed land, it is said to be gathering. The
tractor and plough turn to right each time the head land is reached. When the land is ploughed, a
raised ridge (double width ridge) is formed in the center of the field. This however would be
uneconomical way of working as time is wasted at the start in making awkward turns, while later,
total idle running would be increased along the head land.
2) Casting
Whenever a plough works round a strip of un-ploughed land, it is said to be casting. The
tractor and plough turn to the left each time the head land is reached. When the land is ploughed
in this way a wide furrow (double width furrow) will be left in the center and is termed as ‘finish’
or open furrow or dead furrow.
PROCEDURE
1. Mount the M.B. plow/Disc Plow behind tractor & bring it to a level ground.
2. Measure width of one M. B. bottom from the landside to the wing of a share (in case of M.
B. Plow) and measure both the tilt angle and disk angle (in case of Disc Plow).
3. Determine width of implement (width of one bottom * total number of bottoms) for M. B.
Plow.
4. Divide the field into suitable number of lands as for plowing.
5. Leave head lands of suitable lengths for tractor turning (usually one and a half time the
length of tractor and implement)
6. Plow the lands and measure the time for a specific distance to calculate speed of travel.
7. Use average speeds of travel to calculate theoretical field capacity.
8. After completing the plowing, the total area of plowed field will be calculated.
9. The total time from start to end will be measured and the effective field capacity will be
calculated.

10. Measure the field efficiency of the implement as discussed.
Observations and Calculation:

Depth of plowing (d, m): In the plowed field, place a meter rod horizontally over a furrow opened
by a bottom and measure vertically the depth of furrow from the lower surface of horizontally
placed rod to the bottom of furrow. Repeat this process at different places in the field of different
furrows and record as following: Also find the average depth.
Sr. No. Depth of plowing
(d, m)
1 d1
2 d2
. .
. .
n dn
Width of plowing: At the same place where depth of plowing (d) was measured, measure the
width of furrow made by one bottom. Repeat this at different place & record as following:
Sr. No. Width of cut
(w, m)
1 W1
2 W2
. .
. .
n Wn
Area Measurement (A, ha): Measure the length (L) and Width (B) of the field and calculate the
area as following:
𝐿×𝐵
𝐴= (ℎ𝑎)
10000
Where:
L = Field length, m
B = Field Width, m

Speed of travel: Measure the rate of distance travelled as follows:

Sr. Distance between two ranging rods Time Speed
No. (l, m) (t, sec) (S, km/hr.)
1 l1 t1 l1*t1
2 l2 t2 l2*t2
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
n ln tn ln*tn
Note: 1 m/s = 3.6 km/hr.
Measure the TFC, EFC and FE as discussed.
Figure 4.1: Furrow Terminologies
Figure 4.2: Gathering (left) and Casting (right)

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
TITLE:
MEASUREMENT OF THEORETICAL & ACTUAL FIELD CAPACITY AND FIELD
EFFICIENCY OF SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
OBJECTIVE
1. To operate the Disc harrow and Cultivator with tractor in field.
2. To evaluate field performance of both implements.
THEORY
See Experiment No. 4.
PROCEDURE
1. Mount the Disc Harrow/ Cultivator behind tractor & bring it to a level ground.
2. Measure width of distance between two adjacent tines (in case of Cultivator) and
measure both the gang angle and angle between front and rear gang (in case of Disc
Harrow). Measure the width of disc harrow.
3. Determine width of implement (width of one bottom * total number of bottoms) for
Cultivator.
4. Rest of the procedure is same as in Experiment No. 4.
Observations and Calculation

See Experiment No. 4.

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
TITLE:
MEASUREMENT OF TRACTOR TIRE SLIPPAGE AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS AND
SPEEDS USING DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS
OBJECTIVE
1. To measure the tractor tire slippage at various depths.
2. To measure the tractor tire slippage at various speeds.
3. To study the effect of depth and speed on the tire slippage.
THEORY
Tire slip occurs when the tires are turning faster than the ground speed of the tractor. As a result,
less than 60% to 70% of the power that a tractor engine develops is used to pull an implement
through the soil. It could even drop to 50% on soft and sandy soils.
There must be some slip between the tires and the soil surface for an efficient operation. Limited
slip improves tractive efficiency, which is the ratio of drawbar power to axle power. Slip also
provides a safety valve against shock overloads that could damage the power train; some wheel
slippage is needed to reduce wear on the power train. However, too little slip anchors (fix firmly)
the tires to the soil because of too much ballast (discussed later), so power and fuel are wasted in
trying to move the tractor through the soil. A balance must be found where slip is optimized.
Tractors and tires should be maintained to optimize wheel slippage at 10% to 15% (2WD) and 8%
to 12% (4WD). Less slippage (less than 10% or 8%) than this results in the expenditure of too
much fuel energy to move the wheels, whereas too much slippage (greater than 15% or 12%) can
result in excessive tire spin and energy loss through the tire, which is nonproductive.
Slip is controlled by adding or removing weights (ballasting) from the tractor to obtain the desired
slip. If slip is lower than 10% or 8%, weights needs to be removed from the tractor. If slip is higher
than 15% or 12 %, more weights needs to be added to the tractor.
If excessive slippage occurs (greater than 15% or 12%), you may need to:
1. Add weights (iron and/or fluid in tires),
2. Change the air pressure,
3. Chain the tires,
4. Add duals, or

5. Purchase new tires, if they are heavily worn, etc.

If slippage is less than 10% or 8%, you should remove weights and check the tire pressure.
Be aware that this method of measurement will provide you with the wheel slip only for
the specific working conditions tested and therefore, the measurement will have to be repeated if
any of the following parameters change:
1. Tractor weight or ballasts,
2. Type of implement or working depth,
3. Tire pressures,
4. Working speed, and/or
5. Soil conditions (soil type, moisture, hardness, etc.).
PROCEDURE
1. Choose a typical, un-worked flat area in a field that represents normal working conditions.
2. Mark the side of a drive tire using chalk.
3. Allow the tractor to come up to speed with the tillage implement not engaged in the ground.
4. Fix first ranging rod beside the tire (but not in the path of the implement) when the chalk
mark touches the ground.
5. The observer walks alongside the tractor and count pre-fixed (e.g. ten) full revolutions of
the marked tire. On the tenth revolution the second ranging rod is fixed where the chalk
mark touches the ground.
6. Move the tractor at same speed with the implement engaged in the soil and count for the
same revolutions as set in first case.
7. Measure the distance between two ranging rods for loaded and unloaded conditions.
8. You can also fix the distance between two ranging rods and measure the revolutions of tire
between them both for loaded and unloaded conditions.
9. Calculate the percent slippage with the following formulas:
When distance is fixed and revolutions are counted:
𝑁𝑤𝑙 − 𝑁𝑤𝑜𝑙
%𝑆 =[ ] × 100
𝑁𝑤𝑙

When revolutions are fixed and distance is measured:

𝐷𝑤𝑜𝑙 − 𝐷𝑤𝑙
%𝑆 =[ ] × 100
𝐷𝑤𝑜𝑙
Where,
S = Slip, %
Nwl = Number of revolutions with load
Nwol = Number of revolutions without load
Dwl = Distance with load, m
Dwol = Distance without load, m
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION

Following observations should be recorded:
Fixing the revolutions:
Nwol = ________, Speed (V) = ________ (When speed constant and depth changing)
Sr. No. D Nwl Slip
Units M - %
1 - - -
2 - - -
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
Nwol = ________, Depth (d) = ________ (When depth constant and speed changing)
Sr. No. S t S Nwl Slip
Units M sec Km/hr. - %
1 - - - - -
2 - - - - -
. . . . - -
. . . . - -
. . . . - -

Fixing the distance:-
Dwol = ________, Speed (V) = ________ (When speed constant and depth changing)
Sr. No. D Dwl Slip
Units M - %
1 - - -
2 - - -
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
Dwol = ________, Depth (d) = ________ (When depth constant and speed changing)
Sr. No. S t S Dwl Slip
Units M sec Km/hr. - %
1 - - - - -
2 - - - - -
. . . . - -
. . . . - -
. . . . - -
RESULTS
1. Draw the graph showing the effect of varying depth on the slip.
2. Draw the graph showing the effect of varying speed on the slip.
DISCUSSION

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
TITLE:
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE OF SEED CUM FERTILIZER DRILL IN LAB AND
FILED
OBJECTIVE
1. To understand the functions of seed drill.
2. To measure the seed rate and fertilizer application rate.
3. To check whether the amount of seed delivered per unit area tallies with the amount
of seed the machine set to deliver or not.
THEORY
The seed cum fertilizer drill is used for simultaneous sowing of seed and fertilization process. It
drills seeds and fertilizer together but delivers them separately in a single drive, Seeds and
Fertilizer are drilled at different depths thus improves germination. It contain separate containers
for seed and fertilizer.
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the wheel diameter (D) and calculate circumference.
𝐶 =𝜋∗𝐷 (𝑚)
2. Calculate width (W) of drill, (meter) by using the following relation:
𝑊 = 𝑛∗𝑑 (𝑚)
Where,
n = Number of furrow openers.
d = Distance between two consecutive furrow openers.
3. Calculate the length of field covered in N revolutions as follows:
𝐿 =𝐶∗𝑁 (𝑚)
4. Calculate the area covered by following relation:
𝑊∗𝐿
𝐴= (ℎ𝑎)
10000
5. Hang a plastic bag under each seed delivery tube.
6. Put seed in hopper and rotate the wheel N times and collect seeds in plastic bags.

7. Measure and record seed collected in each plastic bag and calculate total weight by adding
the weights of seed in all the plastic weights, (w, in kg).
8. Divide the weight of seed collected by the area to get seed rate (R) as following:
𝑤 𝑘𝑔
𝑆= ( )
𝐴 ℎ𝑎
9. Compare the result with the seed rate set.
10. If seed rate does not tally, do necessary modifications as recommended by the
manufacturer. Otherwise develop your own seed rate chart by repeating the above process
for each setting of seed drill.
11. For measuring seed rate in field select an area (A = length of filed * width of filed) and
measure the weight (w) of seeds collected in bags.
12. Then divide the seed weight by the area to calculate seed rate.
13. Compare this seed rate with that of lab method.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Number of furrow openers = n = ____________
Distance between two adjacent furrow openers = d = ____________
Circumference of the driving wheel = C = ____________
Width of the seed drill = W = ___________
Trail No. Weight of seed in respective plastic bag (kg) Total Average
(At same N) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Weight (w) Total
(Sum of all Weight
weights)
1 - - - - - - - - - -
2 - - - - - - - - - -
3 - - - - - - - - - - -
. - - - - - - - - - -
k - - - - - - - - - -

Sr. No. Revolutions of Length Area Weight Seed Rate

driving wheel Covered covered Collected
N L A w S
1 - - - - -
2 - - - - -
3 - - - - -
Note: At each N perform different trials to get average weight collected.
RESULTS
Average seed rate = ______________
DISCUSSION

EXPERIMENT NO. 9
TITLE:
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE OF BOOM SPRAYER IN LAB AND FILED
OBJECTIVE
1. To understand the functions of boom sprayer.
2. To measure the fluid/spray application rate.
3. To check whether the spray application rates per unit area of a Boom sprayer is same
as written in the chart at different fluid Pressures or not.
THEORY
A sprayer is a device used to spray a liquid. In agriculture, a sprayer is a piece of equipment that
is used to apply herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers on agricultural crops.
PROCEDURE
1. Select and install the nozzles expected to deliver the desired application rate (follow the
chart provided with sprayer) at a given field speed (km/hr.) and spraying pressure (kpa).
2. Fill the spray tank to a known level and mark this level
3. Calculate width (W, m) of boom sprayer by using the following relation:
a. 𝑤 = 𝑛 ∗ 𝑑 (𝑚)
b. Where, n is the Number of nozzle points and d is the Distance between two consecutive
nozzle points.
4. Measure the number of nozzles of boom sprayer.
5. Select a desired speed and measure the discharge of each nozzle.
6. Move the sprayer at selected speed in the field to cover length (L, m) and record the time
(t, sec) between two ranging rods.
7. Determine the speed of boom sprayer by using the following relation:
𝐿 𝑘𝑚
a. 𝑆 = 𝑡 × 3.6 ( ℎ𝑟 )
b. (NOTE: 3.6 is the conversion factor i.e. 3.6 * m/sec = km/hr.)

8. Determine the area covered per unit time (theoretical field capacity) as follows:
𝑆×𝑤 ℎ𝑎
a. 𝑇. 𝐹. 𝐶. = 10
( ℎ𝑟 )
9. To check the Boom discharge, proceed as following.

10. Fill the sprayer tank with fluid.

11. Operate the sprayer with tractor standing at one point in the field.
12. Maintain the desired pressure.
13. Bring a measuring jar (1000 ml) under each nuzzle. Collect specific volume (V, ml) of
fluid and measure the time (t, sec) for that (each jar is held in position by a different helper)
Measure the discharge by dividing the volume with time.
14. Find total discharge collected in all jars and record boom discharge per minute (Q).
15. Calculate fluid/spray application rate (F).
𝑄 𝐿
𝐹= ( )
𝑇𝐹𝐶 ℎ𝑎
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

A) Boom discharge
Trail No. Discharge in respective jars (q, L/hr.) Total Discharge Average
1 2 3 - - - 30 (w) Total
(Sum of all Weight
weights)
1 - - - - - - - -
2 - - - - - - - -
3 - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - -
B) Fluid application rate
Sr. No. Length Time Speed Theoretical Fluid Average Fluid
Field Capacity Application Rate Application Rate
L, m t, sec S, km/hr. TFC, ha/hr. F, L/ha F, L/ha
1 - - - - -
2 - - - - -
3 - - - - - -
- - - - - -

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
TITLE
DEMONSTRATION OF COMPONENTS OF SELF-PROPELLED REAPER
OBJECTIVE
To familiarize the students about different parts of self-propelled reaper and their use.
INTRODUCTION
It is an engine operated, walk behind type harvester suitable for harvesting and windrowing
cereals and oilseed crops. The reaper consists of engine, power transmission box, pneumatic
wheels, cutter bar, crop and row dividers, conveyor belts/chains with lugs, star wheels, operating
controls and a frame. The engine power is transmitted to cutter bar and conveyor belts/chains
through belt pulleys. During forward motion of the reaper, row dividers divide the crop, which
meet cutter bar, where shearing/cutting of crop stems takes place. The cut crop is conveyed to one
side of the machine by the conveyor belt/chain fitted with lugs and is windrowed in the field. The
crop is bundled manually and transported to threshing yard.
PARTS OF SELF-PROPELLED REAPER
A self-propelled reaper has following parts:
1. Engine:
It converts the chemical into mechanical energy. It is used to drive the reaper during crop
harvesting. (Figure 9.1)
2. Frame:
It carries the engine and header unit of reaper. The header unit (cutter bar assembly, star
wheel, chain conveyors and driving shaft) is mounted on the front side of reaper while the engine
on rear (back) side. The frame is tightly bolted and supported by header unit and engine. (Figure
9.1)
3. Handle assembly:
It is used to operate master clutch, gear control, parking control and clutch used to control
the cutter bar. The handle should be at proper height and width to ease the farmer during operation
and transporting. (Figure 9.1)
4. Power transmission mechanism:
It consists of master clutch, gears on input shaft, shift able power transmission gear
mechanisms, disc brakes and reduction drive using belt and pulley mechanism.

5. Drive wheels:
Rubber tires are used to drive the self-propelled reaper. (Figure 9.1)They are used to meet
following conditions:
a) Carrying load, transfer implement forces, pull and braking;
b) Low soil compaction and surface damage;
c) Elasticity and damping (to reduce vehicle vibrations) and;
d) Low wear, long life.
6. Cutting knife section:
The cutting knife section reciprocates side wise to harvest the crop. Generally it has 720
strokes per minute. (Figure 9.2)
7. Cutter bar:
A complete cutter bar assembly includes the bar, guards, swath or divider board, wear
plates, knife hold down clips and knife assembly. The cutting knife sections are riveted on the bar.
The cutter bar is attached to the frame at yoke, and knife head attached the knife assembly to the
drive mechanism. (Figure 9.3)
8. Row divider:
It is attached with the main frame of reaper. It is used for guiding the crop towards the
cutter bar so that it can be cut. (Figures 9.1 and 9.3)
9. Crop divider:
It is attached at the extreme left side of reaper with the main frame. It is used for separating
the harvesting crop from the standing crop. (Figure 9.1)
10. Star wheel:
It is attached with row dividers and used for directing the harvested crop to the chain
conveyor. In order to prevent the crop from wrapping around the star wheel spindle, a stationary
cup is used with lips fitting inside a groove cut in the underside of the star wheel. (Figures 9.1 and
9.4)
11. Cam drive guide:
It is attached with cutter bar. It is used to reciprocate the cutter bar during the harvesting
operation. (Figure 9.5)

12. Conveyor chain:

It is used to convey the crop vertically to the side of reaper. The chain moves over two
sprockets one at each extreme end of width of reaper. (Figure 9.6)
13. Conveyor chain sprocket:
It is like a wheel having teeth and used for power transmission. The chain is engaged with
sprockets. (Figure 9.6)
14. Conveyor chain shaft:
It is a solid shaft. Conveyor chain sprockets are connected to this shaft. It is used to transmit
the power from one place to another. (Figure 9.7)
15. Pulleys:
Pulleys are used for meeting the speed requirement of reaper. (Figure 9.8)
Figure 9.1: Self-propelled reaper
Figure 9.2: Cutting knife sections

Figure 9.3: Star wheel and row divider
Figure 9.4: Cutter bar
Figure 9.5: Cam drive guide
Figure 9.6: Chain, sprocket and drive mechanism

Figure 9.7: Conveyor chain shaft Figure 9.8 Pulley (side and isometric view)
FORMULAE
1. Cutting index:
𝑉𝑘
𝐾=
𝑣𝑓
Where:
K = Cutting index,
Vk = Average knife velocity, m/sec
Vf = Forward speed of machine, m/sec
𝑆
𝑉𝑓 =
𝑇
Where:
S = Distance travelled, m
T = Time required to cover the distance, seconds.
Note: Convert Vf in km/hr. then use in above formula.
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 ∗ 𝑆𝐿 ∗ 60

𝑉𝑘 = , 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
1,00,000
Where:
SL = Stroke length, cm
2. Star wheel velocity:
𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑤 =
cos 𝛼
Where:
Vw = Average star wheel velocity, m/sec
Vf = Forward speed of machine, m/sec

3. Length of conveyor chain/belt:

𝜋
𝐿 =2∗𝐶+ (𝐷 + 𝑑) + {(𝐷 − 𝑑)2 ÷ 4 ∗ 𝐶
2
Where:
L = Length of conveyor chain, cm
C = Center to center distance b/w shafts, cm
D = Diameter of sprocket pulley, cm
d = Diameter of sprocket pulley, cm, D=d
4. Pitch of lugs:
𝑃 = (𝜋 × 𝐷𝑜𝑠 ) ÷ 𝑁𝑠
Where:
P = Pitch of lugs, cm
Dos = Outer diameter of star wheel, cm
Ns = No. of arms on star wheel,
5. Chain velocity:
𝜋∗𝐷∗𝑁
𝑉=
60
Where:
V = Chain velocity, m/sec
D = Pitch diameter of sprocket, m
N = Revolution per minute of sprocket, rpm
6. Pitch and outer diameter of the sprocket:

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃 ÷ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(180 ÷ 𝑁)
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃 × (0.6 ∗ cot(180 ÷ 𝑁)
Where:
P = Pitch of chain, cm
N = No. of teeth on the sprocket.
Specifications of Noorani Industry self-propelled reaper:
ITEM SPECIFICATIONS
Type of machine Self-propelled multi crop reaper
Crops for which machine is suitable Wheat, Rice, Sorghum and Brassica
Width of machine 1.65 m

Length of machine 2.33 m

Height of machine 1.05 m
Forward speed of machine 3-4 km/hr.
Fuel consumption 1-2 liter/acre
No. of conveyor chains 2
Length of conveyor chains 316 cm
No. of sprockets 4
Diameter of sprocket 8.5 cm
No. of teeth on sprocket 11
Thickness of sprocket teeth 0.55 cm
Power source 7.7 hp. Diesel Engine
Pick-up and gathering mechanism Star Wheel, Conveyor Belt
Crop conveying mechanism Two conveyor chains fitted with lugs
No. of star wheels 5
No. of star wheels arms 7
Angle of inclination of star wheel 26o
No. of row dividers 5
No. of crop dividers 1
No. of cutting knife section 30
Width of cutting knife section 5.08 cm
Length of cutting knife section 7.6 cm
Stroke Length 7.62 cm
Width of cutter bar 152.4 cm
Length of row divider 57 cm
Row divider to row divider distance 30 cm
Length of crop divider 66.04 cm
Length of chain conveyor shaft 38 cm
Distance between sprockets 18 cm
Distance between sprocket and pulley 9 cm
Weight of the machine 270 kg

EXPERIMENT NO. 11
TITLE
DETERMINATION OF CUTTING INDEX (C.I.) OF SELF-PROPELLED REAPER
OBJECTIVE
To determine the cutting index for different crops.
APPARATUS
Self-propelled reaper, Tachometer, Reflector sheet, Ranging rods, Measuring tape and
Stop watch.
THEORY
Cutting Index is the ratio of velocity of cutter bar to the forward velocity of reaper machine.
C.I. is an important factor in reaper machine as it influences the harvesting crop. If forward velocity
of the reaper machine is more but velocity of cutter bar is less, then the crop will be rolled down
by the machine. If the forward velocity of the machine is less and velocity of the cutter bar is more
then it will consume more fuel and time. So both should be in proper ratio.
PROCEDURE
1. First, mark two points (A and B) in the ground at specific distance and insert ranging rods
at both points.
2. Measure the distance between the two points with the help of measuring tape (S).
3. Now start the engine of the machine and select the desired speed of engine.
4. Switch on the cutter bar lever at that speed.
5. Note the rpm of the cutter bar with the help of “Tachometer”.
6. Measure the stroke length (SL) of cutter bar.
7. Calculate the no. of strokes per minute by multiplying the rpm with 2.
8. Determine the velocity of cutter bar by using following relation:
(𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛) × 𝑆𝐿 × 60
𝑉𝑘 = 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
100,000
Where: SL = Stroke length, cm
9. After that, move the reaper at the same speed from initial to final point and record the
time (T) required by the reaper to reach at the final point.
10. Determine the forward velocity (Vf) of the machine.

𝑆
𝑉𝑓 = 3.6 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝑇
Where:
S = Distance from initial to final point, m
T = Time taken from initial to final point, sec
11. Calculate the C.I. by using the following relation:
𝑉𝑘
𝐶. 𝐼. =
𝑉𝑓
12. Repeat the procedure for five time and calculate the mean value of C.I.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Sr.No. Stroke Revolutions Strokes/min Knife Distance Time Forward Cutting
Length of Cutter Speed Speed Index
Bar
SL N - Vk S t Vf C.I.
(m) rpm - Km/h m sec Km/h -
1. - - - - - - - -
2. - - - - - - - -
3. - - - - - - - -

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
TITLE:
DEMONSTRATION OF COMPONENTS OF WHEAT THRESHER
OBJECTIVE
To familiarize the students about different parts of wheat thresher and their use.
INTRODUCTION
Wheat was manually harvested, collected in sheaves and piled up in the middle of field.
After that grains were separated by animal treading for long time. The threshed grains and chipped
straw was piled up. The grains were separated from straw by manually winnowing with natural
wind. Traditional methods were very laborious and lengthy process to remove grains from straw.
Following were the major drawbacks:
a) Laborious method (require large labor);
b) Time consuming method;
c) Loss of grain with straw;
d) Weather condition (e.g. rainfall, storm) deteriorates the grain quality, etc.
Mechanical thresher is developed to overcome the above described drawbacks. A

mechanical grain thresher separate grains from straw due to impact and rubbing action and consists
of following units:
a) Feeding unit;
b) Threshing unit;
c) Separating unit; and,
d) Cleaning unit.

Figure 11.1: Top view of thresher
The function of feeding unit is to feed the crop material into the threshing unit for
separating grains from straw. A feeding shaft/star shaft is used for feeding purpose. Stars are
mounted on the feeding shaft and used for shifting crop material into threshing unit. Threshing
unit consists of drum and concave. Beaters are mounted on drum or cylinder. When crop material
is fed into clearance between drum and concave, it is threshed again and again until grain is
separated from straw by impact and rubbing action. After that grain passes through grates of
concave onto the reciprocating sieve. Separating unit consists of main blower which sucks the
straw from grain and throws out of the thresher. Cleaning unit consists of two sieves and small
blower. They are used to separate straw residue and other weeds from grains. In this unit grains
passes over two sieves through which an air stream (created by small blower) flows. The finer
chaff is removed from the grains and the clean grains come out from grain outlet.
PARTS OF WHEAT THRESHER

A wheat thresher has the following parts:
1. Main Frame:

It is the main structural part of thresher on which all the accessories are mounted. This part
bears weight, shocks and working stress of all parts. Two wheels are mounted on the bottom side
for transportation in the field. (Figure 11.2)
2. Drum under cover:

It has a provision to support the main shaft of thresher at two ends and concave underneath.
(Figure 11.3)
3. Concave:
It is a sieve made of rectangular bars which is used to separate the threshed material. The
major function of concave is to allow chopped material to pass through and fall onto reciprocating
sieves. (Figure 11.4)
4. Threshing cylinder:
It consists of beaters, rasp bars, pegs etc. (depending upon type of thresher) and used for
threshing of the wheat crop. The power is supplied through PTO (power take off) shaft of tractor
through belt and pulleys.
5. Bearing casing:
It is used to protect bearing from dust and to contain oil and grease to minimize the
resistance between moving parts. (Figure 11.5)
6. Main blower:
The main blower consists of blades rotating at very high speed equal to the speed of main
shaft. It is used to remove chaff from the grain. (Figure 11.6)
7. Fly wheel:
It is also called balance weight. It is mounted on main shaft. It is an important part of
thresher to absorb inertial forces to maintain uniform threshing of crop. (Figure 11.7)
8. Small blower:
It is used to remove the light wheat straw from grains. Centrifugal blower consists of blades
mounted at 90o on a central shaft. The shaft is powered through belt and pulley. (Figure 11.8)
9. Main multi-grooved pulley:
It is used to transfer power from PTO shaft of tractor to all other rotating parts of thresher
through belt and pulleys power transmission system. (Figure 11.9)

10. Shaft coupling:

It is used to couple different parts to the shaft, like fly wheel etc. (Figure 11.10)
11. Double groove pulley:
Double groove pulley is mounted on cylinder input shaft. Power from large pulley of PTO
input shaft is transmitted to small grooved pulley through double v-belt. (Figure 11.9)
12. Tanga pulley:
Tanga pulley is a large pulley to reduce RPM of feeding shaft to a level required for feeding
the harvested crop.
13. Star shaft with stars:
It is also called feeding shaft which takes the wheat crop and feed it to the threshing unit.
The feeding shaft runs by getting power through belt and pulley through step reduction in speed
from PTO shaft. (Figure 11.11)
14. Sieve for cleaning:
The upper and lower reciprocating sieves are used for cleaning grains from chopped straw.
A small blower is used to clean the grains from small chaff by producing air stream. (Figure 11.12)
15. Main shaft of thresher:
It is a rotating shaft on which other different rotating parts of thresher are coupled/mounted
e.g. fly wheel, main blower etc.
Figure 11.2: Main Frame Figure 11.3: Drum under cover Figure 11.4: Concave

Figure 11.5: Bearing casing Figure 11.6: Blower Figure 11.7: Fly wheel
Figure 11.8: Small blower Figure 11.9: V-belt pulleys (single& double grooved)
Figure 11.10: Shaft coupling Figure 11.11: Star shaft (isometric and front view)

Figure 11.12: Cleaning sieve
SPECIFICATIONS OF COMPONENTS OF NOORANI WHEAT THRESHER

ITEMS SPECIFICATIONS
Overall dimensions
Length 3700 mm
Width 1375 mm
Height 1900 mm
Threshing drum
Width 1375 mm
No. of cutters/hammers 100
Balance weight (2 no.) 80 kg
Speed 800 RPM
No. of sieves 3
Size of sieve holes (6.5 mm, 5.8 mm, 2.4 mm)
Blower
No. of blower 2
Speed 800 RPM
Others
Feeding star wheels 8
Capacity 1400-1800 kg/hr.
Weight 1600 kg

EXPERIMENT NO. 13
TITLE:
DEMONSTRATION OF COMPONENTS OF COMBINE HARVESTER
OBJECTIVE
To familiarize the students about different parts of combine harvester and their use.
THEORY
Combine harvester is a machine which performs following functions:
1. Cutting the standing crops;
2. Feeding the cut crop to threshing unit;
3. Threshing the crops;
4. Cleaning the grains from straw; and
5. Collecting the grains in a container
All five operations are carried out in single operation of harvester. The size of the combine is
indicated by the width of cut, it covers in the field. A combine harvester has following
units/components (Figure 12.1 and 12.2):
1. Header unit:
It consists of reel, cutter bar and platform auger. It is used to gather, cut, and convey the
crop to throat of feeder.
2. Feeder unit:
It consists of under shoot conveyor to convey the crop from header to thresher unit.
3. Threshing unit:
It consists of cylinder and concave which are used to thresh the crops.
4. Separating unit:
It consists of straw walker and grain pan. It is used to separate the grains from straw by
tossing action and allow the grains to fall onto grain pan through the straw walker slots.
5. Cleaning unit:
It consists of sieves and fan/blower. They are used to clean the grains from chaff. The upper
sieve is called chaffer sieve and lower shoe sieve. The difference between two is that the lower
one clean grains from the fine chaff.
6. Grain conveying unit:

It consists of auger and elevator & used to collect and convey clean grains to the grain tank.
7. Tailing conveying unit:
It also consists of auger and elevator like grain conveying unit but they are used to collect
and convey tailing (un-threshed material) to the threshing unit.
8. Grain tank:
It is used to store clean grains.
9. Grain unloading unit:
It consists of unloading auger to unload clean grains from grain tank into trailer/trolley.
Figure 12.1: Combine harvester

Figure 12.2: Different units/components of combine harvester.
Figure 12.3: Cutting unit Figure 12.4: Conveying unit

Figure 12.5: Threshing unit
Figure 12.6: Grain elevator and straw walker

EXPERIMENT NO. 14
TITLE:
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WHEAT THRESHER
OBJECTIVE
To study the feasibility of cereal threshing machine for wheat threshing and select the
optimum conditions for operating it.
THEORY
Following indicators are considered in performance evaluation of the thresher.
SEED LOSSES
They can be calculated as follows:
A. Percentage of un-threshed grains
Take 10 samples each of 100 g and separate manually the un-threshed material by visual
investigation. Then manually re-thresh that material and measure the weight of recovered grains.
Percentage of un-threshed grains can be calculated by the following formula:
𝑀𝑢𝑔
𝑃𝑢𝑡ℎ = × 100 (%)
𝑀𝑠
Where:
Puth = Percentage of un-threshed grains, %
Mug = Average mass of grains separated from un-threshed ear heads, g
Ms = Mass of the sample, g (=100 g)
B. Percentage of damaged grains
Take 10 samples each of 100 g and separate manually the damaged (broken, cracked and
holed) grains by visual investigation. Measure the weight of damaged grains. Percentage of
damaged grains can be calculated by the following formula:
𝑀𝑑𝑔
𝑃𝑑 = × 100 (%)
𝑀𝑠
Where:
Pd = Percentage of damaged grains, %
Mdg = Average mass of damaged grains, g
C. Percentage of blown grains
During the threshing operation, wrap the blower exhaust in netting that will collect all
chaff, straws, and grains but does not obstruct the air flow. Collect the grain by cleaning the
material. Blower loss can be expressed as % of threshed grain, if thresher throughput is known.

𝑀𝑔𝑜
𝑃𝑏 = × 100 (%)
𝑀𝑡ℎ
Where:
Pb = Percentage of blower losses, %
Mgo = Mass of grains at straw outlet, kg
Mth = Mass of threshed grains of sample, kg
D. Percentage of Scatter grains
Place the thresher on a large plastic sheet. After the threshing a sample, gently remove the machine
and collect all grain from the sheet. Measure the weight of scattered grains and threshed grains at
grain outlet. Scatter loss can be expressed as % of threshed grain as following:
𝑀𝑠𝑔
𝑃𝑠 = × 100 (%)
𝑀𝑡ℎ
Where:
Ps = Percentage of scatter losses, %
Msg = Mass of grains around the thresher, kg
Mth = Mass of threshed grains of sample, kg
The total losses (TL) during threshing can be determined as following:
𝑇𝐿 = 𝑃𝑢𝑡ℎ + 𝑃𝑑 + 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑠 (%)
Others performance parameters include the following:
1. Threshing capacity
The threshing capacity (Cth) is expressed amount of crop being threshed per unit time. It
can be calculated by following relation:
𝑊𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐶𝑡ℎ = { }
𝑡 ℎ𝑟
Where:
Ws = Weight of total sample before threshing, ton
t = Time consumed in threshing operation, hr.
2. Threshing productivity
It is also called grain throughput capacity. Threshing productivity (Pth) can be calculated
by the following formula:
𝑊𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑡ℎ = { }
𝑡 ℎ𝑟
Where:
Wg = Weight of total grains after threshing, ton
t = Time consumed in threshing operation, hr.

3. Threshing efficiency
Take 10 samples each of 100 g and separate manually the threshed grains by visual
investigation. Measure the mass of threshed grains. Threshing efficiency can be calculated by the
following formula:
𝑀𝑡ℎ
𝜂𝑡ℎ = × 100 (%)
𝑀𝑠
Where:
ηth = Threshing efficiency, %
Mth = Average mass of threshed grains, g
Ms = Total mass of sample, g (=100 g)
4. Cleaning efficiency
Take 10 samples each of 100 g. Clean again by separating the grain and chaff. After
cleaning, measure the weight of both and calculate the cleaning efficiency as follows:
𝑀𝑠 − 𝑀𝑐ℎ
𝜂𝑐 = × 100 (%)
𝑀𝑠
Where:
ηc = Cleaning efficiency, %
Mch = Mass of the chaff, g
Ms = Mass of the sample, g (=100 g)
5. Power and energy requirements:
It can be calculated according to the following formula:
𝐻×𝑀
𝑃= (𝑘𝑊)
3600
𝑘𝑔
𝑀 =𝑄×𝜌 { }
ℎ𝑟
Where:
P = Fuel equivalent power, kW
H = Gross heating value of fuel, kJ/kg
M = Fuel consumption rate, kg/hr.
Q = Fuel consumption rate, L/hr.
ρ = Fuel density, kg/L
6. Specific energy requirements:
It can be calculated by dividing the consumed power (kW) by the machine productivity (ton/hr.).
𝑃 𝑘𝑊. ℎ𝑟
𝑃𝑠 = { }
𝑃𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜𝑛

7. Threshing drum speed

Peripheral speed of thresher drum or cylinder can be calculated by following relation:
𝑚
𝑉 =𝜋×𝑁×𝐷 { }
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where:
N = Rotational speed of drum or cylinder, rpm
D = Diameter of threshing drum or cylinder, m
8. Pulley dimensions
The dimension of the pulley can be determined by using the following expression:
𝑁1 × 𝐷1 = 𝑁2 × 𝐷2
Where:
N1 = Rotational speed of drive pulley, rpm
N2 = Rotational speed of driven pulley, rpm
D1 = Diameter of drive pulley, m
D2 = Diameter of driven pulley, m

EXPERIMENT NO. 15
TITLE:
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF COMBINE HARVESTER
OBJECTIVE
To study the feasibility of cereal threshing machine for wheat threshing and select the
optimum conditions for operating it.
THEORY
Evaluation of the combine harvester performance was taking into consideration the
following indicators:
Losses for Combine Harvester
Frames of 1.5m × 1.5m (any size cane be used) can be placed at randomly selected places
and the fallen grains are collected and weighted. The losses relating to the combining of grains are
as follows:
1. Shattering loss
Shattering losses in direct combining include heads, pods, or ears, and free seed, lost before
harvesting operations. It can be calculated by the following formula:
𝑀𝑏ℎ 𝑘𝑔
𝐿𝑠ℎ = { }
𝐴 ℎ𝑎
𝑀𝑏ℎ
𝐿𝑠ℎ = (%)
𝑌
Where:
Lsh = Shattering loss, kg/ha OR %
Mbh = Mass of grains lost before harvesting, kg
A = Total area covered, ha
Y = Total yield, kg/ha
NOTE: Y = Grain collected in bags (kg/ha) + Grain loss (kg/ha)
2. Cutter bar losses
Cutter bar loss indicates grains those are lost due to rough handling by the cutter bar. Place
frames at different locations then that for shattering and collect the grains.
𝑀𝑐𝑏 𝑘𝑔
𝐿𝑐𝑏 = { }
𝐴 ℎ𝑎
𝑀𝑐𝑏
𝐿𝑐𝑏 = (%)
𝑌

Where:
Lcb = Cutter bar losses, kg/ha OR %
Mcb = Mass of grains lost due to rough handling of cutter bar, kg (Mcb = Mah – Mbh)
Mah = Mass of grains lost due to shattering and harvesting
3. Cylinder loss
Grains lost out the rear of the combine in the form of threshed heads indicate cylinder loss.
It can be calculated by the following formula:
𝑀𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑘𝑔
𝐿𝑐 = { }
𝐴 ℎ𝑎
𝑀𝑢𝑡ℎ
𝐿𝑐 = (%)
𝑌
Where:
Lc = Cylinder losses, kg/ha OR %
Muth = Mass of un-threshed grains lost out the rear of combine, kg
4. Separating Loss
Separating loss means the grains lost out the rear of the combine in the form of threshed
grain. It can be calculated by the following formula:
𝑀𝑡ℎ 𝑘𝑔
𝐿𝑠 = { }
𝐴 ℎ𝑎
𝑀𝑡ℎ
𝐿𝑠 = (%)
𝑌
Where:
Ls = Separating losses, kg/ha OR %
Mth = Mass of threshed grains lost out the rear of combine, kg
5. Percentage of Damaged grains
Visual investigation and manual separation of 10 samples each of 100 grams can be used to
calculate percentage of damaged grains as follows:
𝑀𝑑𝑔
𝑃𝑑 = × 100 (%)
𝑀𝑠
Where:
Pd = Percentage of damaged grains, %
Mdg = Average mass of damaged grains, g
Ms = Mass of sample (about 100 g)
6. Percentage of Un-threshed grains
Visual investigation and manual separation of 10 samples each of 100 grams can be used
to calculate percentage of un-threshed grains.

𝑀𝑢𝑔
𝑈𝑡ℎ = × 100 (%)
𝑀𝑠
Where:
Uth = Un-threshed grains, %
Mug = Average mass of un-threshed grains, g
7. Reel Index
Reel index is the ratio of reel velocity to the header forward speed. It can determined by
using the following equation:
𝜔×𝑅
𝐾=
𝑉
Where:
K = Reel index (dimensionless)
ω = Angular velocity of reel, rad/s (𝜔 = (2 × 𝜋 × 𝑁)/60)
N = Rotational Speed of reel, rpm
R = Radius of reel, m
V = Header advance velocity, m/s
8. Cutting efficiency
An average length of 100 plants from different 10 locations in the field during and after
harvesting can be measured to calculate cutting efficiency as follows:
𝐻𝑎𝑐
𝜂𝑐 = × 100 (%)
𝐻𝑏𝑐
Where:
Hac = Average height of plant after cutting, cm
Hbc = Average height of plant before cutting, cm.
9. Cleaning efficiency
It can be calculated by following formula:
𝑀𝑔
𝜂𝑐 = × 100 (%)
𝑀𝑜
Where:
ηc = Cleaning efficiency, %
Mg = Mass of output grains (Threshed + Un-threshed + Damaged) per unit area, kg/ha
Mo = Mass of all output material per unit area, kg/ha

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PRACTICAL MANUAL

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING &

Prepared By: Engr. Rana Shahzad Noor

2 Study, Identification and Understanding the Working of Primary Tillage

3 Study, Identification and Understanding the Working of Secondary Tillage

5 Measurement of Theoretical & Actual Field Capacity and Field Efficiency

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

10. Controls weeds.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

1. Mold Board Plow

Types and Parts of M. B. Plow

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Advantages of Disc Plow over M. B. Plow

Disadvantages of Disc Plow over M. B. Plow

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Figure 1.1: Moldboard Plow (having two bottoms)

Figure 1.2 (a): Major parts of Moldboard Plow

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Figure 1.2 (b): Major parts of Moldboard Plow

Figure 1.3: Disc Plow (having three discs)

Figure 1.4: Disc Angle and Tilt Angle

Figure 1.5: Chisel Plow (left) and Subsoiler (right)

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Structure of Disc Harrow

Difference between disc plow and disc harrow

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

5 Heavy framework Lighter framework

Spring tooth harrow

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Figure 2.2: Arrangement of Discs and gangs in different types of Harrows

Figure 2.3: Spike-tooth harrow

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Figure 2.4: Spring-tooth Harrow

Figure 2.5: Rotavator

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Figure 2.6: Tine Cultivator

Figure 2.7: Sweep Cultivator

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Figure: 3.1 Three point hitch system and parts

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Figure 3.2: Basic parts of hitch system (a)

Figure 3.2: Basic parts of hitch system (b)

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

10. Measure the field efficiency of the implement as discussed.

Observations and Calculation:

Farm Machinery & Earth Moving Equipments Lab.

Speed of travel: Measure the rate of distance travelled as follows:

Measure the TFC, EFC and FE as discussed.

Figure 4.1: Furrow Terminologies