Electron diffraction in the TEM

K. Leifer
Electron microscopy and nano-engineering
Uppsala University

Contents

- Examples
- Electron Scattering
- Sample Preparation
- Imaging
- Diffraction
- High resolution imaging
- Chemical analysis (Energy dispersion X-ray
spectroscopy and Electron energy loss spectroscopy)

1
 Elastic Electron Scattering
When transmitting the sample,
the electrons (i.e. E0=200keV)
are scattered elastically
predominantely into angles <
50 mrad (i.e. 3˚)
k0

k = 1/λ : wavevector
sample Θ: scattering angle

k1 θ k2 Here: we only consider elastic

scattering, i.e.
|k0| = |k1| = |k2|

How can we describe scattering:

• When we describe the propagation of the electrons

through the lenses in the TEM, we can quite well do
this using the particle nature of the electron
• But, when we describe the electron sample interaction,
we need the wave nature of the electron -> Quantum
Mechanics and wave-description of electron scattering
needed.
• In this lecture: description of electron scattering by
understanding their wave-nature qualitatively

2
 Single elastic scattering event
Describe scatter
probability by differential
cross-section dσ/dΩ *

When only scattering at nucleus

Is considered
-> Rutherford cross section

dσ/dΩ = const. * Z2/(E0 sin4 θ/2)

* dσ/dΩ is called ”differential” since it is the derivation of σ with respect to the

space angle Ω.

Modified Rutherford cross-section

taking into account nucleus + electron cloud

Only the electrons passing close

to the nucleus, are scattered using
the Rutherford cross-section

For electrons passing the nucleus

at some distance, the potential of
the nucleus is partially screened
by the electron cloud.

Easy screening model:

Replace sin2 θ/2
By sin2 θ/2 + (θ0/2)2
Θ0 : screening parameter

3
Cross section as function of scattering angle

or: How does the strength of the interaction between primary

electron and atoms in the sample depend on the scattering angle

100 keV
Screened Rutherford
cross section

σ decreases with increasing scattering angle

σ higher when E0 decreases

Scattering of plane wave at the atom

the wavefunction description

Ψsc = ψ0 ( exp(2π k0 r) + i f(θ) exp(2π k0 r) / r )

i.e. Ψsc is the superposition

between initial planar wave and
scattered spherical wave.

f(θ) atomic scattering factor

(i.e. scattering strength)

f(θ) is related to the cross secion

| f(θ) |2 = dσ/dΩ

4
 Now: from scattering to diffraction

Diffraction is the collective scattering from

an object (i.e. a large entity of atoms)

Repetition: Bragg condition

Lattice
Path difference 2l between eI and eD
plane
hkl eI 2l = 2 d sin θ
θ Constructive interference appears,
l d atoms when:
2l = λ = 2 d sin θ
θ The angle θ is then denoted as
eD Bragg angle θB

Let us formulate the scatter

formalism in reciprocal space!
Attention: here, e is a vector
characterising the electron wavelength

5
 Repetition: Basics of reciprocal space

Lattice vector rn in real space crystalline lattice:

rn = n1 a + n2 b + n3 c
In the same manner, a vector in the reciprocal lattice can be defined:
rm*= m1 a* + m2 b* + m3 c*
Where a, b, c and a*, b*, c* are vectors describing the unit cell in real and reciprocal space
A lattice plane dhkl is described by its Normal Vector ghkl in reciprocal space:
ghkl = h a* + k b* + l c*
The lattice plane spacing dhkl is then:
dhkl = 1/ | ghkl |

Lattice planes in a cubic unit cell

b
c
a
Simple relation between lattice planes in real and reciprocal space:
The lattice (hkl) cuts the a, b, c axis at 1/h, 1/k, 1/l respectively

6
 Formulation of Scattering in Reciprocal Space/ 1

The vectors eI and eD are now written as kI and kD

Where |kI|= |kD|= 1/λ

Scatter geometry in reciprocal space K = kI - kD scattering vector

-> |K| = 2 sin θ / λ

Then, we can rewrite the

Bragg condition as:
|ghkl|=1/dhkl =2 sin θ / λ =|K|

We observe Bragg reflection when the Scattering

Vector equals to a reciprocal lattice vector

Formulation of Scattering in Reciprocal Space/ 1

Let’s bring reciprocal lattice and scatter geometry in one figure

The Ewald Sphere construction

Where the Ewald sphere goes

through a point in reciprocal space,
we observe a Bragg reflection

kD But:
ki There are not so many of
these Bragg reflections!!

7
 The first experimental electron diffraction pattern

A GaAs diffraction pattern

1) We observe a multitude of reflections
Zone axis [011] in the same diffraction pattern, i.e. for
i.e. the incident electrons are
ONE angle of incidence kI of the
parallel to crystal direction [011]
electron beam.
2) These reflections are (quasi)
reciprocal lattice points on a
(-200) reciprocal lattice plane (for details see
(-1-11) (-11-1) next slide)
3) Their distance from the transmitted
(0-22) 0 (02-2)
spot ( 0 ) corresponds to ghkl
(1-11) (11-1) 4) The angles between the reciprocal
(200) spots reflect the crystalline symmetry

How comes that we have so

many Bragg reflections for just
One angle of incidence?

Understanding the electron diffraction pattern

In the TEM:
Ewald sphere has a large radius
-> it is close to many points in
reciprocal space.
Furthermore:
When we use a thin electron
transparent foil as in the TEM,
kI θ
the reciprocal lattice points are
kD elongated.
-> the Ewald sphere intersects
many of the elongated reciprocal
lattice points
-> the electron diffraction
pattern consists of a multitude of
reflections for ONE single
Ewald S. Reciprocal
K incident electron wavevector kI
lattice

8
Obtaining lattice plane spacings from the diffraction pattern

When one switches to

diffraction mode in the
TEM, the camera length L is
given (the camera length in diffraction
mode is proportional to the magnification

Rhkl of the diffraction pattern)

The length R, measured in
the diffraction pattern, is
directly related to the lattice
plane spacing:

dhkl = L λ / Rhkl
-> We obtain lattice plane
spacings from distances in
the diffraction pattern

Selected Area Diffraction

Insert aperture into the plane of an

intermediate lens to select the zone
on the sample, where the diffraction
pattern should be taken

-> Selected Area Diffraction

Typical diameter of the selected area:

several 100nm – several microns

9
 Kikuchi patterns
• When sample is thick:
-> many electrons are scattered incoherently into all
angles
-> they keep mostly an energy close to the energy of the
incident electrons E0
-> each of these electrons can be considered as primary
electron with a wavelength close to λ0
-> since all electron directions are offered the
diffraction pattern will be determined by the crystal
orientation and symmetry!

Electron scattering in a thick sample

The primary electrons

are scattered into many
directions, also into
large angles.
-> it are these scattered
electrons that are
considered as primary
electrons for the
”Kikuchi” scattering
event

10
Diffuse Scattering in a crystalline sample

1) Diffraction spots are generated

on both sides of the lattice
a planes
b 2) The spots on the (hkl) side are
weaker than on the (-h-k-l) side
r and are therefore called excess
line and deficient line
c respectively
d 3) The same (hkl) reflections will
be generated, when the vectors
a, b, c, d are rotated around the
axis r
-> the generated cones are called
the Kossel cones (-> next slide)

Kossel cones

Where the Kossel cones meet

the Ewald sphere, the Kikuchi
lines will appear

11
 Example of a Kikuchi pattern

Excess line

Deficient line
O
Why is the excess line
always further away from
the 0 beam than the
deficient line?

Example Kikuchi map

Kikuchi map for an fcc crystal

Kikuchi maps
- show the position of zone axis in
reciprocal space
-are road maps indicating the
orientation of the sample inside the
TEM -> they are used to orient the
TEM sample

12
 Electron diffraction in superlattices
Si/Mo superlattice
Two lattices
1) Crystalline
superlattice
2) Artifical 1-
dimensional
superlattice

How does the diffraction

pattern look like?

What can you say about the nature

of the sample when observing these
two diffraction patterns?

13