The French Revolution

In 1789, in the wake of early morning, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. Rumours spread that the King
would open fire upon the citizens. People started gathering, and they started breaking down a number of
government buildings in search of arms. The commander of the Bastille was killed in the armed fight, and
the prisoners were released. People hated the Bastille as it stood for the despotic power of the king. People
protested against the high price of bread. A new chain of events began, which led to the execution of the
King in France.

French Society During the Late Eighteenth Century

Louis XVI, in 1774, ascended the throne of France. Financial France was drained because of the war. France,
under Louis XVI, helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from Britain. Taxes were
increased to meet regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, and running
government offices or universities. The country of France was divided into three estates in the eighteenth
century. The feudal system was part of the society’s estates dating back to the middle ages. 90 percent of the
population was dominated by peasants, but only a small number of them owned the land they cultivated. 60
percent was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate. The clergy and the
nobility, members of the first two estates, enjoyed certain privileges by birth. These groups of members
were exempted from paying taxes and enjoyed feudal privileges. All members of the third estate had to pay
taxes to the state, which included a direct tax, called taille, and a number of indirect taxes, which were levied
on articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco.

The Struggle to Survive

The increase in population led to a rapid increase in the requirement for food grains. Production of grains
could not keep pace with the demand, due to which the price of bread rose rapidly. Due to the low wages
paid to the labourers, the gap between the poor and the rich widened. Things became worse whenever
drought or hail reduced the harvest.

A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges

Peasants used to participate in revolts against taxes and food scarcity. The group of the third estate had
become prosperous and had access to education and new ideas. In the eighteenth century, new social
groups emerged, termed the middle class, who earned their wealth through expanding overseas trade and
by manufacturing woollen and silk textiles that were either exported or bought by the richer members of
society. The third estate included professions such as lawyers or administrative officials. A person’s social
position was dependent on their merit.

All these groups were educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a
person’s social position must depend on his merit. A new form of government was proposed by Rousseau
based on a social contract between people and their representatives.

Similarly, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the
executive and the judiciary. In the USA, this model of government was put into force. Louis Louis XVI planned
to impose further taxes to meet the expenses.

The Outbreak of the Revolution

In France, the monarch didn’t have the power to impose taxes. They had to call a meeting of the Estates-
General, a political body to which the three estates sent their representatives, to pass proposals for new
taxes. Louis XVI, on 5 May 1789, called an assembly to pass proposals for new taxes. Representatives from
the first and second estates were present, and the third estate was represented by its prosperous and
educated members. According to the principle, each estate had one vote. But, representatives from the third
estate demanded each member would have one vote. The demand was rejected, so members of the third
estate walked out to protest. They swore not to disperse till a constitution was drafted for France that would
limit the powers of the monarch.
Due to the severe winter, bread prices rose, and people had to spend hours in long queues. Rumours spread
that the lords of the manor hired bands of brigands to destroy the ripe crops. In fear, peasants started
looting hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues. Nobles fled from
their homes. Louis XVI accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his
powers would, from now on, be checked by a constitution. The Assembly passed a decree abolishing the
feudal system of obligations and taxes on 4 August 1789. Tithes were abolished, and lands owned by the
Church were confiscated.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

In 1791, The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution, and its main object was to limit the
powers of the monarch. These powers were now separated and assigned to different institutions – the
legislature, executive and judiciary. France became a constitutional monarchy.

Citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly, but unfortunately, not every citizen
had the right to vote. Men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage
were entitled to vote. The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights
such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, and equality before the law were
established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights; that is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could
not be taken away.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

In April 1792, the National Assembly voted for a war against Prussia and Austria. Marseillaise became the
national anthem of France. While men were away fighting in the war, women took care of their families.
Large sections of the population demanded that the revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution
of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society. Political clubs were formed, and among
them, Jacobins became the most successful club. Members of the Jacobin club included small shopkeepers,
artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily-wage
workers. Jacobin members started wearing long striped trousers similar to those worn by dockworkers.
These Jacobins were called the sans-culottes, literally meaning ‘those without knee breeches’. On August 10
1792, Jacobins stormed the Palace of the Tuileries and held the king hostage for several hours. Elections
were held, and all men of 21 years and above got the right to vote. The monarchy was abolished on 21
September 1792, and France was declared a republic. Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the
charge of treason.

The Reign of Terror

The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror. People whom Robespierre saw as enemies
of the republic were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If they were declared
guilty by the court, then they were guillotined. The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade
with which a person is beheaded, named after Dr Guillotin. Laws were issued to place a maximum ceiling on
wages and prices. Meat and bread were rationed. Expensive white flour was forbidden to use. Equality was
practised through forms of speech and address. All French men and women were addressed as Citoyen and
Citoyenne (Citizen). In July 1794, he was convicted by a court, arrested and the next day sent to the
guillotine.

A Directory Rules France

The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power. According to the
new constitution, non-propertied sections of society were denied voting. It provided for two elected
legislative councils. The government appointed a Directory consisting of executives made up of five
members. Political instability paved the way for a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

Did Women have a Revolution?

Women were active participants from the beginning, which brought important changes in the country of
France. Women from the third estate had to work for a living, and they didn’t have access to education or
job training. Daughters of nobles of the third estate were allowed to study at a convent. Working women
also had to care for their families. Compared to men, their wages were lower. Women also started their
political clubs and newspapers. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was one of the most
famous women’s clubs. They demanded equal political rights as men, the right to vote and to hold political
office. The revolutionary government introduced laws to improve the lives of women. Schooling became
compulsory, divorce was made legal, and they could run small businesses. During the Reign of Terror, the
government closed women’s clubs banning their political activities. After much struggle, women in France in
1946 won the right to vote.

The Abolition of Slavery

Jacobin’s regime’s most revolutionary social reform was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies. In the
seventeenth century, the slavery trade began. Slaves were brought from local chieftains, branded and
shackled and packed tightly into ships for the three-month-long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean.
Slave labour met the growing demand in European markets for sugar, coffee, and indigo. Throughout the
eighteenth century, there was little criticism of slavery in France. In 1794, the Convention legislated to free
all slaves in the French overseas possessions. Napoleon introduced slavery after ten years. In 1848, slavery
was abolished in French colonies.

The Revolution and Everyday Life

France during 1789 saw changes in the lives of men, women and children. The abolition of censorship
happened in the summer of 1789. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of
speech and expression to be a natural right. Freedom of the press meant opposing views of events could be
expressed. Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people.

Conclusion

Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France in 1804 and introduced many laws, such as the
protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal
system. Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo in 1815. The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the
most important legacy of the French Revolution. Colonised peoples reworked the idea of freedom to create a
sovereign nation-state.

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Birth of the Weimar Republic

In the early years of the twentieth century, Germany fought the First World War (1914-1918) alongside the
Austrian Empire and against the Allies (England, France and Russia.). All resources of Europe were drained
out because of the war. Germany occupied France and Belgium. But, unfortunately, the Allies, strengthened
by the US entry in 1917, won, defeating Germany and the Central Powers in November 1918. At Weimar, the
National Assembly met and established a democratic constitution with a federal structure. In the German
Parliament, deputies were elected on the basis of equal and universal votes cast by all adults, including
women. Germany lost its overseas colonies. The War Guilt Clause held Germany responsible for the war and
the damages the Allied countries suffered. The Allied armies occupied Rhineland in the 1920s.

The Effects of the War

The entire continent was devastated by the war, both psychologically and financially. The war of guilt and
national humiliation was carried by the Republic, which was financially crippled by being forced to pay
compensation. Socialists, Catholics and Democrats supported the Weimar Republic, and they were
mockingly called the ‘November criminals’. The First World War left a deep imprint on European society and
polity. Soldiers are placed above civilians, but unfortunately, soldiers live a miserable life. Democracy was a
young and fragile idea which could not survive the instabilities of interwar Europe.
Political Radicalism and Economic Crises

The Weimar Republic’s birth coincided with the revolutionary uprising of the Spartacist League on the
pattern of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. They crushed the uprising with the help of a war veterans
organisation called Free Corps. Communists and Socialists became enemies. Political radicalisation was
heightened by the economic crisis of 1923. Germany refused to pay, and the French occupied its leading
industrial area, Ruhr, to claim their coal. The image of Germans carrying cartloads of currency notes to buy a
loaf of bread was widely publicised, evoking worldwide sympathy. This crisis came to be known as
hyperinflation, a situation when prices rise phenomenally high.

The Years of Depression

The years between 1924 and 1928 saw some stability. The support of short-term loans was withdrawn when
the Wall Street Exchange crashed in 1929. The Great Economic Depression started, and over the next three
years, between 1929 and 1932, the national income of the USA fell by half. The economy of Germany was
the worst hit. Workers became jobless and went on streets with placards saying, ‘Willing to do any work’.
Youths indulged themselves in criminal activities. The middle class and small businessmen were filled with
the fear of proletarianisation, anxiety of being reduced to the ranks of the working class or unemployment.
Politically also, the Weimar Republic was fragile. The Weimar Constitution, due to some inherent defects,
made it unstable and vulnerable to dictatorship. One inherent defect was proportional representation.
Another defect was Article 48, which gave the President the powers to impose emergency, suspend civil
rights and rule by decree.

Hitler’s Rise to Power

Hilter rose to power. He was born in 1889 in Austria and spent his youth in poverty. In the First World War,
he enrolled on the army, acted as a messenger in the front, became a corporal, and earned medals for
bravery. Hitler joined a small group called the German Workers’ Party in 1919. He took over the organisation
and renamed it the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, which later came to be known as the Nazi
Party. In 1923, he planned to seize control of Bavaria, march to Berlin and capture power. During the Great
Depression, Nazism became a mass movement. After 1929, banks collapsed, businesses shut down, workers
lost their jobs, and the middle classes were threatened with destitution. In such a situation, Nazi propaganda
stirred hopes of a better future.

Hitler was a powerful speaker, and his words moved people. In his speech, he promised to build a strong
nation, undo the injustice of the Versailles Treaty and restore the dignity of the German people. He also
promised employment for those looking for work and a secure future for the youth. He promised to remove
all foreign influences and resist all foreign ‘conspiracies’ against Germany. Hitler started following a new
style of politics, and his followers held big rallies and public meetings to demonstrate support. According to
the Nazi propaganda, Hitler was called a messiah, a saviour, and someone who had arrived to deliver people
from their distress.

The Destruction of Democracy

President Hindenburg offered the Chancellorship, on 30 January 1933, the highest position in the cabinet of
ministers, to Hitler. The Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 suspended civic rights like freedom of speech, press
and assembly that had been guaranteed by the Weimar Constitution. On 3 March 1933, the famous Enabling
Act was passed, which established a dictatorship in Germany. The state took control over the economy,
media, army and judiciary. Apart from the already existing regular police in a green uniform and the SA or
the Storm Troopers, these included the Gestapo (secret state police), the SS (the protection squads), criminal
police and the Security Service (SD).

Reconstruction

Economic recovery was assigned to the economist Hjalmar Schacht by Hitler, who aimed at full production
and full employment through a state-funded work-creation programme. This project produced the famous
German superhighways and the people’s car, the Volkswagen. Hitler ruled out the League of Nations in 1933,
reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936, and integrated Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan, One
people, One empire and One leader. Schacht advised Hitler against investing hugely in rearmament as the
state still ran on deficit financing.

The Nazi Worldview

Nazis are linked to a system of belief and a set of practices. According to their ideology, there was no
equality between people but only a racial hierarchy. The racism of Hitler was borrowed from thinkers like
Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer. The argument of the Nazis was simple: the strongest race would
survive, and the weak ones would perish. The Aryan race was the finest who retained its purity, became
stronger and dominated the world. The other aspect of Hitler’s ideology related to the geopolitical concept
of Lebensraum, or living space. Hitler intended to extend German boundaries by moving eastwards to
concentrate all Germans geographically in one place.

Establishment of the Racial State

Nazis came into power and quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial
community of pure Germans. They wanted a society of ‘pure and healthy Nordic Aryans’. Under the
Euthanasia Programme, Helmuth’s father had condemned to death many Germans who were considered
mentally or physically unfit. Germany occupied Poland and parts of Russia captured civilians and forced
them to work as slave labour. Jews remained the worst sufferers in Nazi Germany. Hitler hated Jews based
on pseudoscientific theories of race. From 1933 to 1938, the Nazis terrorised, pauperised and segregated the
Jews, compelling them to leave the country.

The Racial Utopia

Genocide and war became two sides of the same coin. Poland was divided, and much of north-western
Poland was annexed to Germany.

People of Poland were forced to leave their homes and properties. Members of the Polish intelligentsia were
murdered in large numbers, and Polish children who looked like Aryans were forcibly snatched from their
mothers and examined by ‘race experts’.

Youth in Nazi Germany

Hitler was interested in the youth of the country. Schools were cleansed and purified. Germans and Jews
were not allowed to sit or play together. In the 1940s, Jews were taken to the gas chambers. Introduction of
racial science to justify Nazi ideas of race. Children were taught to be loyal and submissive, hate Jews and
worship Hitler. Youth organisations were responsible for educating German youth in ‘the spirit of National
Socialism’. At the age of 14, boys had to join the Nazi youth organisation where they were taught to worship
war, glorify aggression and violence, condemn democracy, and hate Jews, communists, Gypsies and all those
categorised as ‘undesirable’. Later, they joined the Labour Service at the age of 18 and served in the armed
forces and entered one of the Nazi organisations. In 1922, the Youth League of the Nazis was founded.

The Nazi Cult of Motherhood

In Nazi Germany, children were told women were different from men. Boys were taught to be aggressive,
masculine and steel-hearted and girls were told to become good mothers and rear pure-blooded Aryan
children. Girls had to maintain the purity of the race, distance themselves from Jews, look after their homes
and teach their children Nazi values. But all mothers were not treated equally. Honours Crosses were
awarded to those who encouraged women to produce more children. Bronze cross for four children, silver
for six and gold for eight or more. Women who maintained contact with Jews, Poles and Russians were
paraded through the town with shaved heads, blackened faces and placards hanging around their necks
announcing, ‘I have sullied the honour of the nation’.

The Art of Propaganda

Nazis termed mass killings as special treatment, the final solution (for the Jews), euthanasia (for the
disabled), selection and disinfection. ‘Evacuation’ meant deporting people to gas chambers. Gas chambers
were labelled as ‘‘disinfection areas’, and looked like bathrooms equipped with fake showerheads. Nazi ideas
were spread through visual images, films, radio, posters, catchy slogans and leaflets. Orthodox Jews were
stereotyped and marked and were referred to as vermin, rats and pests. The Nazis made equal efforts to
appeal to all the different sections of the population. They sought to win their support by suggesting that
Nazis alone could solve all their problems.

Ordinary People and the Crimes Against Humanity

People started seeing the world through Nazi eyes and spoke their Nazi language. They felt hatred and anger
against Jews and genuinely believed Nazism would bring prosperity and improve general well-being. Pastor
Niemoeller protested an uncanny silence amongst ordinary Germans against brutal and organised crimes
committed in the Nazi empire. Charlotte Beradt’s book called ‘The Third Reich of Dreams’ describes how
Jews themselves began believing in the Nazi stereotypes about them.

Knowledge about the Holocaust

The war ended and Germany was defeated. While Germans were preoccupied with their own plight, the
Jews wanted the world to remember the atrocities and sufferings they had endured during the Nazi killing
operations – also called the Holocaust. When they lost the war, the Nazi leadership distributed petrol to its
functionaries to destroy all incriminating evidence available in offices.

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Major Physiographic Divisions

The physical features of India are grouped under the following physiographic divisions:

1. The Himalayan Mountains

2. The Northern Plains

3. The Peninsular Plateau

4. The Indian Desert

5. The Coastal Plains

6. The Islands

Let’s discuss each of them in detail.

The Himalayan Mountains

Himalayan mountains are stretched over the northern borders of India. This mountain ranges run in a west-
east direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas consists of 3 parallel ranges in their
longitudinal extent.

1. The northernmost range is known as the Great or Inner Himalayas or the Himadri. It is the most
continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres.

2. The folds of the Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part of the Himalayas
is composed of granite.

3. The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system and is known
as Himachal or lesser Himalaya.

4. Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important range.
 5. The outermost range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks. These ranges are composed of
unconsolidated sediments.

6. The longitudinal valley lying between the lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks is known as Duns.
Dehradun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns.

The Himalayas have also been divided on the basis of regions from west to east.

1. The part of the Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has been traditionally known as Punjab
Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from west to east,
respectively.

2. The part of the Himalayas lying between the Satluj and the Kali rivers is known as Kumaon
Himalayas.

3. The Kali and Teesta rivers divide the Nepal Himalayas and the part lying between Teesta and Dihang
rivers is known as Assam Himalayas.

4. The Brahmaputra marks the easternmost boundary of the Himalayas.

5. Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and spread along the eastern
boundary of India, which is known as the Purvachal or the Eastern hills and mountains. The
Purvachal comprises the Patkai Hills, the Naga Hills, the Manipur Hills and the Mizo Hills.

The Northern Plain

The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the 3 major river systems – the Indus, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries. It spreads over an area of 7 lahks sq. km.

The Northern Plain is broadly divided into 3 sections, as mentioned below:

1. The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains. This plain is formed by
the Indus and its tributaries – the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.

2. The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread over the states of North
India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand and West Bengal.

3. Brahmaputra Plain lies in the state of Assam.

According to the variations in elevation points, the Northern plains can be divided into 4 regions.

1. The rivers, after descending from the mountains, deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16
km in width, lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks, which is known as Bhabar. All the streams
disappear in this Bhabar belt.

2. The streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet, swampy and marshy region known as terai.

3. The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium. It lies above the floodplains of the
rivers and presents a terrace-like feature which is known as Bhangar.

4. The soil in the Bhangar region contains calcareous deposits and is known as Kankar. The newer,
younger deposits of the floodplains are called Khadar.

The Peninsular Plateau

The Peninsular Plateau is a tableland composed of old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was
formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land. One of the distinct features of the Peninsular
Plateau is the black soil area known as Deccan Trap.

This plateau consists of 2 divisions:

 1. The Central Highlands: The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada River,
covering a major area of the Malwa plateau, is known as the Central Highlands. The eastward
extensions of this plateau are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.

2. The Deccan Plateau: It is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada. An
extension of the Plateau is also visible in the northeast, which is known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-
Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills.

The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau,
respectively.

Western Ghats Eastern Ghats

Western Ghats lie parallel to the western coast. The Eastern Ghats stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the
Nilgiris in the South.

They are continuous and can be crossed through They are discontinuous and irregular. They can be dissected by
passes only. rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal.

They are higher than the Eastern Ghats. Their Their average elevation is 600 metres.
average elevation is 900–1600 metres.

Anamudi is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the Eastern
Ghats.

The Indian Desert

The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.

 It is a sandy plain covered with sand dunes.

 This region receives very low rainfall, below 150 mm per year.

 It has a dry climate with low vegetation cover.

The Coastal Plains

A coastal plain is a flat, low-lying piece of land next to the ocean. To the east and west of the peninsular
plateau, 2 narrow strips of plain lands are found, which are respectively called Eastern Coastal Plain and
Western Coastal Plain.

Eastern Coastal Plain

The Eastern Coastal Plains is a wide stretch of landmass lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of
Bengal. In the northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar, while the southern part is known as
the Coromandel Coast. Large rivers, such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri, have
formed an extensive delta on this coast. Lake Chilika is an important feature along the eastern coast.

Western Coastal Plain

The western coast is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. It is a narrow plain and
consists of 3 sections, as mentioned below:
  The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan (Mumbai – Goa)

 The central stretch is called the Kannad Plain

 The southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast

The Islands

An island is a piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Lakshadweep Islands group is
composed of small coral islands which were earlier known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive.

The entire group of islands is divided into 2 broad categories:

1. The Andaman in the north

2. The Nicobar in the south

These islands lie close to the equator and experience an equatorial climate, and have thick forest cover.

The diverse physical features of India have immense future possibilities for development because of the
following reasons.

 The mountains are the major sources of water and forest wealth.

 The northern plains are the granaries of the country. They provide the base for early civilisations.

 The plateau is a storehouse of minerals, which has played a crucial role in the industrialisation of
India.

 The coastal region and island groups provide sites for fishing and port activities.

The area drained by a single river system is called a drainage basin. Any elevated area, such as a mountain or
an upland which separates two drainage basins, is known as a water divide.

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Drainage Systems in India

The Indian rivers are divided into two major groups:

 The Himalayan rivers

 The Peninsular rivers

The Himalayan rivers The Peninsular rivers

Most of the Himalayan rivers are perennial, which means Peninsular rivers are seasonal.
they have water throughout the year.

These rivers receive water from rain as well as from melted The flow of these rivers is dependent on rainfall.
snow from high mountains.

Two major Himalayan rivers, the Indus and the Most of the rivers of peninsular India originate in the
Brahmaputra originate from the north of the mountain Western Ghats and flow towards the Bay of Bengal.
ranges.
 The Himalayan rivers have long courses from their source These rivers have shorter and shallower courses as
to the sea. compared to the Himalayan rivers.

The Himalayan Rivers

The major Himalayan rivers are the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. A river, along with its tributaries,
may be called a river system.

1) The Indus River System

 Indus is one of the longest rivers in the world, with a total length of 2900 km.

 The river Indus rises in Tibet near Lake Mansarovar.

 It enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir, where it forms a picturesque gorge.

 The Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum join together to enter the Indus near
Mithankot in Pakistan.

2) The Ganga River System

 The source of the Ganga called the ‘Bhagirathi’, is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and joined by the
Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Uttarakhand.

 The Ganga emerges from the mountains to the plains at Haridwar.

 The Ganga is joined by many tributaries from the Himalayas, a few of them being major rivers, such
as the Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi.

 The length of the Ganga is over 2500 km.

Farakka in West Bengal is the northernmost point of the Ganga Delta where the Ganga River divides into 2
parts.

1. The Bhagirathi-Hooghly flows southwards through the deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal.

2. The mainstream flows southwards into Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra. Further
downstream, it is known as the Meghna. The Meghna River flows into the Bay of Bengal and forms
Sundarban Delta.

3) The Brahmaputra River System

 The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of Mansarowar Lake.

 It is slightly longer than the Indus.

 On reaching the Namcha Barwa (7757 m), it takes a ‘U-turn’ and enters India in Arunachal Pradesh,
where it is called the Dihang.

 Dihang is joined by the Dibang, the Lohit, and many other tributaries to form the Brahmaputra in
Assam.

The Peninsular Rivers

The main water divide in Peninsular India is formed by the Western Ghats. Most of the major rivers of the
Peninsula, such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Kaveri, flow eastwards and drain into
the Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths. The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long
rivers which flow west and make estuaries.

1) The Narmada Basin

  The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh.

 The Narmada flows through a deep gorge at the ‘Marble Rocks’ near Jabalpur.

 At Dhuadhar Falls, the river jumps over steep rocks.

 The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.

2) The Tapi Basin

 The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.

 Its basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

3) The Godavari Basin

 The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river. Its length is about 1500 km.

 It rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nasik district of Maharashtra.

 The basin covers parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

 The Godavari is joined by a number of tributaries, such as the Purna, the Wardha, the Pranhita, the
Manjra, the Wainganga and the Penganga.

 Owing to its length and the area it covers, it is also known as the Dakshin Ganga.

4) The Mahanadi Basin

 The Mahanadi rises in the highlands of Chhattisgarh.

 The length of the river is about 860 km.

 Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.

5) The Krishna Basin

 It rises from a spring near Mahabaleshwar.

 The length of the river is about 1400 km.

 Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

6) The Kaveri Basin

 The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range of the Western Ghats.

 The total length of the river is about 760 km.

 Its basin drains parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Besides these major rivers, there are some smaller rivers flowing towards the east. Some of them are:

 The Damodar

 The Brahmani

 The Baitarni

 The Subarnrekha

Lakes

India has many lakes. These lakes differ from each other in size and other characteristics.
 1. Most lakes are permanent

2. Some contain water only during the rainy season

3. Some lakes are the result of the action of glaciers and ice sheets

4. Some have been formed by wind, river action and human activities

These lakes are attractive to tourists in places like Srinagar, Nainital. Different lakes are:

 A meandering river across a floodplain forms cut-offs that later develop into ox-bow lakes.

 Spits and bars form lagoons in the coastal areas. Eg, the Chilika Lake, the Pulicat Lake and the
Kolleru Lake.

 Lakes in the region of inland drainage are sometimes seasonal. For example, the Sambhar Lake in
Rajasthan is a saltwater lake which is used for producing salt.

 Most of the freshwater lakes are in the Himalayan region. They are of glacial origin. The Wular Lake
in Jammu and Kashmir is the result of tectonic activity, which is the largest freshwater lake in India.
Some other important freshwater lakes are Dal Lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak and Barapani.

Importance of Lakes

Lakes are useful to human beings in many ways:

1. Lakes help to regulate the flow of a river.

2. During heavy rains, these lakes prevent flooding.

3. During the dry season, these lakes help to maintain an even flow of water.

4. Lakes can also be used for developing hydel power.

5. Lakes moderate the surrounding climate, maintain the aquatic ecosystem, enhance natural beauty,
and provide recreation.

Role of Rivers in the Economy

 Rivers have been of fundamental importance throughout human history.

 Water from rivers is a basic natural resource, essential for various human activities.

 Rivers are used for irrigation, navigation, hydropower generation etc.

River Pollution

The growing domestic, municipal, industrial and agricultural demand for water from rivers is affecting the
quality of water. Rivers are getting polluted as a heavy load of untreated sewage and industrial effluents are
getting emptied into the rivers. Concern over rising river pollution led to the launching of various action
plans to clean the rivers.

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What Is Democracy? Why Democracy?

Definition of Democracy

Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people. One chief factor common
to all democracies is that the government is chosen by the people. It also helps students to demarcate
between democratic and non-democratic governments. For the non-democratic government, take the
example of Myanmar, where rulers were not elected by the people. Those who were in charge of the
country’s army took over as rulers, and people had no say in this decision. Dictators like Pinochet (Chile) are
not elected by the people. This also applies to monarchies.

Features of Democracy

The simple definition of democracy gives rise to various questions, which are given below:

 Who are the rulers in this definition?

 What kind of election constitutes a democratic election?

 Who are the people who can elect the rulers or get elected as rulers?

 Finally, what form of government is a democracy?

Major Decisions by Elected Leaders

Some countries like Pakistan do not follow this rule. In Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf led a military
coup in October 1999. He overthrew the democratically elected government and went on to become the
President of the country. In 2002, he also held a referendum in the country that granted him a five-year
extension. Meanwhile, after the passing of this ‘Legal Framework Order’, elections were held in the national
and provincial assemblies, and elected representatives were granted some powers. But the final power
rested with military officers and General Musharraf himself. Hence, we can conclude it was not a democratic
country. The same thing happens in many dictatorships and monarchies. Thus, we can conclude that in a
democracy, the final decision-making power must rest with those elected by the people.

Free and Fair Electoral Competition

In China, elections are held after every five years to elect the country’s parliament, called Quanguo Renmin
Daibiao Dahui (National People’s Congress). Before contesting elections, a candidate needs the approval of
the Chinese Communist Party. The government is always formed by the Communist Party. Alternatively,
since its independence in 1930, Mexico has held elections after every six years to elect its President. But until
2000, every election was won by a party called PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party). Should we consider
the elections described above as examples of people electing their rulers? Reading these examples, we get a
sense that we cannot. Democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power
have a fair chance of losing.

One Person, One Vote, One Value

Democracy is based on a fundamental principle of political equality. However, there are many instances of
denial of the equal right to vote. Until 2015, in Saudi Arabia, women did not have the right to vote. Estonia
has made its citizenship rules in such a way that people belonging to the Russian minority found it difficult to
get the right to vote. In Fiji, the electoral system is such that the vote of an indigenous Fiji has more value
than that of an Indian-Fijian. Definitely not a democratic government. The feature of democracy this
highlights is that in a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote, and in turn, each vote must have
one value.

Rule of Law and Respect for Rights

Zimbabwe attained independence from White minority rule in 1980, and since then, the country has been
ruled by the party that led the freedom struggle, ZANU-PF. Its leader,

Robert Mugabe has ruled the country since independence. Even if elections were held regularly, it was
always won by ZANU-PF. President Mugabe was popular but also used unfair practices in elections. There
was a law that limited the right to criticise the President. Television and radio were controlled by the
government and gave only the ruling party’s version. There were independent newspapers, but the
government harassed those journalists who went against it and so on. Not a democratic government.
Democratic government rules within limits set by constitutional law and citizens’ rights.
Hence, we can deduce that democracy is a form of government in which:

 Rulers elected by the people take all the major decisions

 Elections offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers

 This choice and opportunity is available to all people on an equal basis

 The exercise of this choice leads to a government limited by basic rules of the constitution and
citizens’ rights

Why Democracy?

Cons of Democracy

 Leaders keep changing in a democracy leading to instability.

 Democracy is all about political competition and power play, leaving no scope for morality.

 Many people have to be consulted in a democracy, which leads to delays.

 Elected leaders do not know the best interest of the people, resulting in bad decisions.

 Democracy leads to corruption since it is based on electoral competition.

 Ordinary people don’t know what is good for them; they should not decide anything.

From these arguments, we can see that democracy of the kind we see may not be the ideal form of
government. However, we will see if democracy is better than other forms of government that are there for
us to choose from.

Arguments in Favour of Democracy

A democratic government is a better government because it is a more accountable form of government: Take
the example of the famines of 1958-1961 in India and China. While China was hit badly, India did not fare as
badly, despite its economic condition. The reason for this could be that India responded to the food scarcity
in a way that the Chinese government did not. Here, we see that democracy is better than any other form of
government in responding to the needs of the people.

Democracy improves the quality of decision-making: Democracy is based on consultation and discussion. A
democratic decision always involves many people, discussions and meetings, and they are able to point out
possible mistakes in any decision. This may take time. However, the advantage of taking time over important
decisions is that it reduces the chances of rash or irresponsible decisions.

Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts: In any society, people are bound to
have differences of opinions and interests. These differences are particularly more in a country like ours,
with amazing social diversity. People belong to different regions, speak different languages, practise different
religions and have different castes. The preferences of one group can clash with those of other groups. How
do we resolve such a conflict? Democracy provides the only peaceful solution to this problem. In a
democracy, no one is a permanent winner or loser. Different groups can live with one another peacefully.

Democracy enhances the dignity of citizens: Democracy is based on the principle of political equality. It
recognises that the poorest and the least educated have the same status as the rich and the educated.

Democracy is better than other forms of government because it allows us to correct our own mistakes: Even
if no government can guarantee that no mistakes will be made, in a democracy, one can be sure that it will
not be hidden for too long. It makes space for public discussion on these mistakes. There is also room for
correction. Rulers have to change their decisions, or they could themselves be changed.
Thus, we can correctly infer that while democracy may not be the solution to all problems, it is still clearly
better than any other alternative.

Broader Meanings of Democracy

In this chapter, the meaning of democracy is discussed in a descriptive sense. Students get to learn about
democracy as a form of government, thus helping them to identify a clear set of minimal features that
democracy requires. The common form adopted by democracy is representative democracy. In democratic
countries, all people do not rule. A majority is allowed to take decisions on behalf of all the people through
their elected representatives. This has become necessary for the reasons given below:

 Modern democracies involve such a large number of people that it is physically impossible for them
to sit together and take a collective decision.

 Even if they could, the citizen does not have the time, the desire or the skills to take part in all the
decisions.

Democracy, as a principle, can go beyond the government and can be applied to any sphere of life. People
use the word democracy not to describe any existing government but to set up an ideal standard that all
democracies must aim to become. However, if the ideals of democracy are considered, then no country in
the world is correctly democratic. Still, having an understanding of democracy as an ideal will explain why to
value democracy. It enables people to judge an existing democracy and identify its weaknesses. It also helps
to distinguish between a minimal democracy and a good democracy. The most common form of democracy
in today’s world is being ruled by people’s elected representatives. However, for a small community, there
can be other ways of making democratic decisions. All people can sit together and make decisions directly.
This is how the Gram Sabha should work in a village.

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Why Do We Need Elections?

Elections take place regularly in any democracy. There are more than 100 countries in the world in which
elections take place to choose people’s representatives. The mechanism by which people can choose their
representatives at regular intervals and change them is called an election.

In an election, the voters make many choices:

 They can choose who will make laws for them.

 They can choose who will form the government and take major decisions.

 They can choose the party whose policies will guide the government and law-making.

What Makes an Election Democratic?

The minimum conditions of a democratic election include the following points.

1. Everyone should be able to choose their own representative.

2. Parties and candidates should be free to contest elections and should offer some real choice to the
voters.

3. Elections must be held regularly after every few years.

4. The candidate preferred by the people should get elected.

5. Elections should be conducted in a free and fair manner where people can choose as they really
wish.

Is It Good to Have Political Competition?

Elections are all about political competition. This competition takes various forms. At the constituency level,
it takes the form of competition among several candidates. Here are a few reasons that support political
competition as being good for people.

1. Regular electoral competition provides incentives to political parties and leaders.

2. Political parties know that if they raise issues that people want to be raised, their popularity and
chances of victory will increase in the next elections. On the contrary, if they fail to satisfy the voters
with their work, they will not be able to win again.

3. If a political party is motivated only by the desire to be in power, despite that, it will be forced to
serve the people.

What Is Our System of Election?

Elections are held in India in Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha (Assembly) regularly after every five years. After
five years, the term of all the elected representatives comes to an end.

Elections held in all constituencies at the same time, either on the same day or within a few days, are
called General Elections. Sometimes elections are held only for one constituency to fill the vacancy caused by
the death or resignation of a member. This is called a By-Election.

Electoral Constituency

India is divided into different areas for the purpose of elections. These areas are called electoral
constituencies. The voters living in an area elect one representative.

 For the Lok Sabha elections, India is divided into 543 constituencies. The representative elected
from each constituency is called a Member of Parliament or an MP.

 Each state is divided into a specific number of Assembly constituencies. In this case, the elected
representative is called the Member of the Legislative Assembly or an MLA. Each Parliamentary
constituency has within it several assembly constituencies.

The same principle applies to Panchayat and Municipal elections. Each village or town is divided into several
‘wards’ that are like constituencies. Each ward elects one member of the village or the urban local body.
Sometimes these constituencies are counted as ‘seats’, for each constituency represents one seat in the
assembly.

Reserved Constituencies

Some constituencies are reserved for people who belong to the Scheduled Castes [SC] and Scheduled Tribes
[ST]. In the Lok Sabha, 84 seats are reserved for the SC and 47 for the ST.

 In SC reserved constituency, only someone who belongs to the Scheduled Caste can stand for
election.

 Only those belonging to the Scheduled Tribes can contest an election from a constituency reserved
for ST.

In many states, seats in rural (panchayat) and urban (municipalities and corporations) local bodies are now
reserved for Other Backward Classes (OBC) and women candidates as well.

Voters’ List

In a democratic election, the list of those who are eligible to vote is prepared much before the election and
given to everyone, which is officially called the Electoral Roll and is commonly known as the Voters’ List. It is
the responsibility of the government to get the names of all the eligible voters put on the voters’ list.
The voters are required to carry Election Photo Identity Card [EPIC] when they go out to vote so that no one
can vote for someone else. But the card is not yet compulsory for voting as voters can show many other
proofs of identity, like the ration card or the driving licence.

Nomination of Candidates

Anyone who can be a voter can also become a candidate in elections. The candidate should be a minimum of
25 years of age. Every person who wishes to contest an election has to fill out a ‘nomination form’ and give
some money as a ‘security deposit’. The candidate has to make a legal declaration, giving full details of:

1. Serious criminal cases pending against the candidate,

2. Details of the assets and liabilities of the candidate and his or her family, and

3. Educational qualifications of the candidate.

This information is made available to the public so that voters can make their decision on the basis of the
information provided by the candidates.

Election Campaign

The election campaigns are conducted to have a free and open discussion about who is a better
Representative and, in turn, which party will make a better government. In India, Election Campaigns take
place for a two-week period between the announcement of the final list of candidates and the date of
polling. During this period, the candidates contact their voters, political leaders address election meetings
and political parties mobilise their supporters.

Some of the successful slogans given by different political parties in various elections:

 Save Democracy

 Land to the Tiller

 Protect the Self-Respect of the Telugus

According to India’s Election Law, no party or candidate can:

1. Bribe or threaten voters.

2. Appeal to them in the name of caste or religion.

3. Use government resources for election campaigns.

4. Spend more than 25 lahks in a constituency for a Lok Sabha election or more than 10 lahks in a
constituency in an Assembly election.

If any political party does so, their election can be rejected by the court. In addition to the laws, all the
political parties in our country have agreed to a Model Code of Conduct for election campaigns. According to
this, no party or candidate can:

 Use any place of worship for election propaganda.

 Use government vehicles, aircraft and officials for election.

 Once elections are announced, ministers shall not lay the foundation stones for any projects, take
any big policy decisions or make any promises of providing public facilities.

Polling and Counting of Votes

The day when the voters cast or ‘poll’ their vote is called election day. The voting is done in the following
manner.
 1. Every person whose name is on the voters’ list can go to a nearby polling booth.

2. Once the voter goes inside the booth, the election officials identify her, put a mark on her finger and
allow her to cast her vote.

3. An agent of each candidate is allowed to sit inside the polling booth and ensure that the voting
takes place in a fair way.

A ballot paper is a sheet of paper on which the names of the contesting candidates, along with party names
and symbols, are listed. The ballot paper was used earlier. Nowadays, electronic voting machines (EVM) are
used to record votes.

 The machine shows the names of the candidates and the party symbols.

 The voter has to just press the button against the name of the candidate she wants to give her vote
to.

 Once the polling is over, all the EVMs are sealed and taken to a secure place.

 A few days later, all the EVMs are opened, and the votes secured by each candidate are counted.

 The candidate who secures the highest number of votes from a constituency is declared elected.

What Makes Election in India Democratic?

1) Independent Election Commission

In India, elections are conducted by the Election Commission (EC). The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) is
appointed by the President of India. Election Commission is independent and has a wide range of powers
which are:

1. EC takes decisions on every aspect of conduct and control of elections, from the announcement of
elections to the declaration of results.

2. It implements the Code of Conduct and punishes any candidate or party that violates it.

3. During the election period, the EC can order the government to follow some guidelines, to prevent
the use and misuse of governmental power to enhance its chances of winning elections or to
transfer some government officials.

4. When on election duty, government officers work under the control of the EC and not the
government.

2) Popular Participation

The quality of the election process can also be checked by seeing the participation of people. People’s
participation in the election is measured by voter turnout figures. Turnout indicates the per cent of eligible
voters who actually cast their vote.

1. In India, the poor, illiterate and underprivileged people vote in larger proportion as compared to the
rich and privileged sections.

2. Common people in India feel that through elections, they can bring pressure on political parties to
adopt policies and programmes favourable to them.

3. The interest of voters in election-related activities has been increasing over the years.

3) Acceptance of Election Outcome

One final test of the freedom and fairness of the election is the outcome of the election.

1. The ruling parties routinely lose elections in India both at the national and state level.
 2. In the US, an incumbent or ‘sitting’ elected representative rarely loses an election. In India, about
half of the sitting MPs or MLAs lose elections.

3. Candidates who are known to have spent a lot of money on ‘buying votes’ and those with known
criminal connections often lose elections.

4. Barring very few disputed elections, the electoral outcomes are usually accepted as ‘people’s
verdicts’ by the defeated party.

Challenges to Free and Fair Elections

Elections in India are essentially free and fair. Sometimes this may not be true for every constituency. There
are many limitations and challenges to Indian elections. These include:

1. Candidates and parties with a lot of money enjoy a big and unfair advantage over smaller parties.

2. Candidates with criminal connections have been able to push others out of the electoral race and to
secure a ‘ticket’ from major parties.

3. Tickets are distributed to relatives from their families.

4. Elections offer little choice to ordinary citizens as major parties are quite similar to each other, both
in policies and practice.

5. Smaller parties and independent candidates suffer a huge disadvantage compared to bigger parties.

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Constitutional Design

Democratic Constitution in South Africa

Apartheid

Apartheid is a system of racial discrimination unique to South Africa imposed by white Europeans. During
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the trading companies from Europe occupied it with arms and
force and became the local rulers. The system of apartheid divided the people and labelled them on the
basis of their skin colour. The white rulers treated all nonwhites as inferiors. The non-whites did not have
voting rights and were forbidden from living in white areas. The blacks, coloured and Indians fought against
the apartheid system from 1950. The African National Congress (ANC) was the umbrella organisation that led
the struggle against the policies of segregation. Nelson Mandela was one of the leaders amongst the eight
who were tried for treason by the white South African government. They were sentenced to life
imprisonment in 1964 for daring to oppose the apartheid regime in the country.

Giving Rise to a New Constitution

As the protests and struggles against apartheid increased, the blacks could no longer be kept under the rule
of the government through repression. The white regime changed its policies. Discriminatory laws were
repealed. Ban on political parties and restrictions on the media were lifted. Nelson Mandela was released
after 28 years in the Robben Island Prison. The apartheid government came to an end on midnight of 26
April 1994, paving the way for the formation of a multi-racial government.

Following the emergence of the new democratic South Africa, the party that ruled through oppression and
brutal killings and the party that led the freedom struggle sat together to draw up a common constitution.
This constitution gave its citizens the most extensive rights available in any country. Together, they decided
that in the search for a solution to the problems, nobody should be excluded.

Why the Need for a Constitution?

Take the example of South Africa to see why we need the Constitution and what the constitutions do. The
oppressor and oppressed were planning to live together as equals in the new democracy. Each section
wanted to safeguard its interests and wanted substantial social and economic rights. Through negotiations,
both parties came to a compromise. The whites agreed to the principle of majority rule and that of one
person, one vote. They also agreed to accept some basic rights for the poor and the workers. The blacks
agreed that majority rule would not be absolute and that the majority would not take away the property of
the white minority. How was this compromise to be implemented? The only way to build and maintain trust
in such a situation was to write down some rules of the game that everyone would abide by. These supreme
rules that no government would be able to ignore are called a constitution.

Every country has diverse groups of people. All over the world, people have differences of opinion and
interests. The constitution is the supreme law that determines the relationship among people living in a
territory (called citizens) and also the relationship between the people and the government. Find what
constitutions do below:

 First, it generates a degree of trust and coordination that is necessary for different kinds of people
to live together.

 Second, it specifies how the government will be constituted and who will have the power to take
which decisions.

 Third, it lays down limits on the powers of the government and tells us what the rights of the
citizens are.

 Fourth, it expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good society.

All countries that have constitutions are not necessarily democratic. But all countries that are democratic
will have constitutions.

Making of the Indian Constitution

India’s Constitution was drawn up under very difficult circumstances. The country was born through a
partition on the basis of religious differences, and it was a traumatic experience for the people of India and
Pakistan. The British had left it to the rulers of the princely states to decide whether they wanted to merge
with India or with Pakistan or remain independent. The merger of these princely states was a difficult and
uncertain task. When the Constitution was written, the future of the country did not look as secure as it
does today.

The Path to the Constitution

One of the major advantages for the makers of the Indian Constitution was that consensus about what a
democratic India should look like had already evolved during the freedom struggle. In 1928, Motilal Nehru
and eight other Congress leaders drafted a constitution for India, and In 1931, the resolution at the Karachi
session of the Indian National Congress dwelt on how independent India’s Constitution should look. Both
these documents included features such as Universal Adult Franchise, the Right to Freedom and Equality,
and to protect the rights of minorities in the constitution of independent India. These basic values were
accepted by all leaders much before the Constituent Assembly met to deliberate on the Constitution. That is
why the Indian constitution adopted many institutional details and procedures from colonial laws like the
Government of India Act 1935. Many of our leaders were inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution, the
practice of parliamentary democracy in Britain and the Bill of Rights in the US.

The Constituent Assembly

The drafting of the constitution was done by an assembly of elected representatives called the Constituent
Assembly. Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946, and its first meeting was held in
December 1946. Soon after, the country was divided into India and Pakistan and the Constituent Assembly
was also divided into the Constituent Assembly of India and of Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly that
wrote the Indian constitution had 299 members. The Assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November
1949, but it came into effect on 26 January 1950. To mark this day, we celebrate January 26 as Republic Day
every year.

Why should we accept the Constitution made by this Assembly more than six decades ago?

 The Constitution does not reflect the views of its members alone. It expresses a broad consensus of
its time.

 The second reason for accepting the Constitution is that the Constituent Assembly represented the
people of India.

 Finally, the manner in which the Constituent Assembly worked gives sanctity to the Constitution.
The Constituent Assembly worked in a systematic, open and consensual manner.

First, some basic principles were decided and agreed upon. Then a Drafting Committee chaired by Dr B.R.
Ambedkar prepared a draft constitution for discussion. Several rounds of thorough discussion took place on
the Draft Constitution, clause by clause. More than two thousand amendments were considered. Every
document was presented, and every word spoken in the Constituent Assembly has been recorded and
preserved. These are called ‘Constituent Assembly Debates.’

Guiding Values of the Indian Constitution

First, understand the overall philosophy of what our Constitution is all about. Read the views of some of our
major leaders on our Constitution and read what the Constitution says about its own philosophy. This is
what the preamble to the Constitution does.

The Dream and the Promise

There were many members who followed the vision of Mahatma Gandhi. This dream of an India that has
eliminated inequality was shared by Dr Ambedkar, who played a key role in the making of the Constitution,
but his vision of removing inequalities from India was different from Gandhiji’s.

Philosophy of the Constitution

Values that inspired and guided the freedom struggle and were, in turn, nurtured by it formed the
foundation for India’s democracy. Given below are the values embedded in the Preamble of the Indian
Constitution.

We, the People of India: The Constitution has been drawn up and enacted by the people through their
representatives and not handed down to them by a king or any outside powers.

Sovereign: People have the supreme right to make decisions on internal as well as external matters. No
external power can dictate the Government of India.

Socialist: Wealth is generated socially and should be shared equally by society. The government should
regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce socioeconomic inequalities.

Secular: Citizens have complete freedom to follow any religion. But there is no official religion. The
government treats all religious beliefs and practices with equal respect.

Democratic: A form of government where people enjoy equal political rights, elect their rulers and hold
them accountable. The government is run according to some basic rules.

Republic: The head of the state is an elected person and not a hereditary position.

Justice: Citizens cannot be discriminated against on the grounds of caste, religion and gender. Social
inequalities have to be reduced. The government should work for the welfare of all, especially the
disadvantaged groups.
Liberty: There are no unreasonable restrictions on the citizens in what they think, how they wish to express
their thoughts and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action.

Equality: All are equal before the law. The traditional social inequalities have to be ended. The government
should ensure equal opportunity for all.

Fraternity: All of us should behave as if we are members of the same family. No one should treat a fellow
citizen as inferior.

Institutional Design

A Constitution is not merely a statement of values and philosophy. It is mainly about embodying these
values into institutional arrangements. It is a very long and detailed document. Therefore, it needs to be
amended quite regularly to keep it updated. Provisions are made to incorporate changes, known as
constitutional amendments, from time to time. Like any Constitution, the Indian Constitution also lays down
a procedure for choosing persons to govern the country. It defines who will have how much power to make
which decisions. And it puts limits to what the government can do by providing some rights to the citizen
that cannot be violated.

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