Chapter I.

Particle like Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation

Syllabus
Review of electromagnetic waves – Photoelectric effect – Blackbody radiation –
Compton effect – Other photon processes – What is a photon?

In this chapter, we consider the three early experiments that provided evidence that
light, which we usually regard as a wave phenomenon, has properties that we normally
associate with particles. Instead of spreading its energy smoothly over a wave front, the
energy is delivered in concentrated bundles like particles; a discrete bundle (quantum) of
electromagnetic energy is known as a photon.
Before we begin to discuss the experimental evidence that supports the existence
of the photon and the particle-like properties of light, we first review some of the
properties of electromagnetic waves.
REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
A distribution of electric charges sets up an electric field ⃗E, and current carrying
wires set up a magnetic field ⃗B. If the charges are at rest and the current is steady, then
⃗E and ⃗B are static fields that vary with position but not with time.
However, if the charges are accelerated and the currents vary with time, an
electromagnetic wave is produced in which the ⃗E and ⃗B fields of the wave vary both
with position and time.
One of the mathematical expressions that describes such a wave is the plane wave,
in which the wave fronts are planes. A plane electromagnetic wave traveling in the
positive z direction is described by the expression:

2𝜋
where the wave number k = and the angular frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑣.
𝜆

Note that in general, velocity, 𝑉 = 𝑣𝜆

𝑣 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 , 𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
For electromagnetic wave, V = c = 3 x 108 𝑚/𝑠
∴ 𝑐 = 𝑣𝜆
Also note that the angular frequency 𝜔 = 𝑘𝑉

Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]

 In an electromagnetic wave, the electric field, magnetic field and the propagation
direction are perpendicular to each other.

Let us imagine the following experiment.

Suppose we want to detect the electromagnetic radiation at a place. For this, we can put
a detector/receiver of sensitive area A at that point. The power P
entering the receiver is then

Since B = E/c

There are two important features of this expression:

1. The intensity (the average power per unit area) is proportional to 𝐸02 . This is a
general property of waves: the intensity is proportional to the square of the
amplitude.
2x𝜔
2. The intensity fluctuates with time, with the frequency 2𝑣 = .
2𝜋
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 We don’t usually observe this rapid fluctuation
If T is the observation time, then the average power is

𝐸02 𝐴 𝑇
Or 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝜇 x
0 𝑐𝑇 2

Thus, we obtain the intensity I:

Interference and Diffraction

The property that makes waves a unique physical phenomenon is the principle of
superposition which allows two waves to meet at a point. This special property of waves
leads to the phenomena of interference and diffraction. The simplest and best-known
example of interference is Young’s double-slit experiment. In this experiment, two slits
are made on a barrier.
The plane wave is diffracted by each of the slits, so that the light passing through
each slit covers a much larger area on the screen than the geometric shadow of the slit.
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Recall that, diffraction is the encroachment of light into geometrical shadow. After getting
diffracted, the light from the two slits overlaps on the screen, producing the interference.
If we move away from the centre of the screen just the right distance, we reach a point at
which a wave crest passing through one slit arrives at exactly the same time as the
previous wave crest that passed through the other slit. When this occurs, the intensity is
a maximum, and a bright region appears on the screen. This is constructive interference,
and it occurs continually at the point on the screen that is exactly one wavelength further
from one slit than from the other.

That is, if X1 and X2 are the distances from the point on the screen to the two slits,
then a condition for maximum constructive interference is |X1 − X2| = λ. Constructive
interference occurs when any wave crest from one slit arrives simultaneously with another
from the other slit, whether it is the next, or the fourth, or the forty-seventh. The general
condition for complete constructive interference is that the difference between X1 and X2
is an integral number of wavelengths:

It is also possible for the crest of the wave from one slit to arrive at a point on the
screen simultaneously with the trough (valley) of the wave from the other slit. When this
happens, the two waves cancel, giving a dark region on the screen. This is known as
destructive interference.
Destructive interference occurs whenever the distances X1 and X2 are such that

We can find the locations on the screen where the interference maxima occur in the
following way:

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Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]
Crystal Diffraction of X Rays
Another device for observing the interference of light waves is the diffraction
grating, in which the wave fronts pass through a barrier that has many slits and then
recombine.
The interference maxima corresponding to different wavelengths appear at different
angles 𝜃, according to
d sin 𝜃 = nλ
where d is the slit spacing and n is the order number of the maximum (n = 1, 2, 3…).
The advantage of the diffraction grating is its superior resolution—it enables us to get
very good separation of wavelengths that are close to one another, and thus it is a very
useful device for measuring wavelengths.
In order to get higher resolution, we should use radiations with short wavelength.
But for using short wavelength radiations, the slit separation, d, should be very small. For
example, for X rays with a wavelength of the order of 0.1 nm, we would need to construct
a grating in which the slits were less than 1nm apart, which is roughly the same as the
spacing between the atoms of most materials. Thus, the mechanical construction of such
a grating is not possible.
The solution to this problem has been known since the pioneering discoveries of
Laue and Bragg: use the atoms themselves as a diffraction grating! A beam of X rays sees
the regular spacings of the atoms in a crystal as a sort of three-dimensional diffraction
grating.
Consider the set of atoms shown in Figure:

The X rays are reflected from individual atoms in all directions, but in only one direction
will the scattered “wavelets” constructively interfere to produce a reflected beam, and in
this case, we can regard the reflection as occurring from a plane drawn through the row
of atoms.

Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]

 Suppose the rows of atoms are a distance d apart in the crystal. Then a portion of
the beam is reflected from the upper plane, and a portion is reflected from the plane below,
and so forth. The wave reflected from the second plane must travel an additional distance
of 2d sin 𝜃, where 𝜃 is the angle of incidence as measured from the face of the crystal. If
this path difference is a whole number of wavelengths, the reflected beams interfere
constructively and give an intensity maximum; thus, the basic expression for the
interference maxima in X-ray diffraction from a crystal is

This result is known as Bragg’s law for X-ray diffraction.

All of the examples we have discussed in this section depend on the wave
properties of electromagnetic radiation. However, as we now begin to discuss, there are
other experiments that cannot be explained if we regard electromagnetic radiation as
waves.

Thermal Radiation or Blackbody Radiation

Thermal radiation is the electromagnetic radiation emitted by all objects because
of their temperature. At room temperature the thermal radiation is mostly in the infrared
region of the spectrum, where our eyes are not sensitive. As we heat objects to higher
temperatures, they may emit visible light.
Many experiments were done in the late 19th century to study the wavelength
spectrum of thermal radiation. The results of these experiments totally disagreed with the
predictions of the classical theories of thermodynamics and electromagnetism.
Let’s first review the experimental results. The goal of these experiments was to
measure the intensity of the radiation emitted by the object as a function of wavelength.

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 Figure above shows a typical set of experimental results when the object is at a
temperature T1 = 1000 K. If we now change the temperature of the object to a different
value T2, we obtain a different curve, as shown in Figure for T2 = 1250 K. If we repeat
the measurement for many different temperatures, we obtain systematic results for the
radiation intensity that reveal two important characteristics:
1. The total intensity radiated over all wavelengths (that is, the area under each
curve) increases as the temperature is increased. This is not a surprising result:
we commonly observe that a glowing object glows brighter and thus radiates
more energy as we increase its temperature. From careful measurement, we find
that the total intensity increases as the fourth power of the absolute temperature:

where we have introduced the proportionality constant 𝜎. This equation is called

Stefan’s law and the constant 𝜎 is called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. Its
value is

2. For a given temperature, there is a maximum intensity of radiation. The

wavelength corresponding to this intensity is called λmax . It is observed that
λmax inversely proportional to the temperature:
1
λmax ∝
𝑇
𝑂𝑟 λmax 𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 2.8978 × 10−3 𝑚 ⋅ 𝐾
This result is known as Wien’s displacement law; the term “displacement” refers
to the way the peak is moved or displaced as the temperature is varied. Wien’s
law is qualitatively consistent with our common observation that when we heat
a piece of metal, it gives off visible light whose colour varies with the
temperature of the metal, going from red to yellow to white as it becomes hotter
and hotter. We recall the behaviour of an iron bar as it is heated to progressively
higher temperatures: at first it glows dull red, then bright orange-red, and
eventually it becomes “white hot.”
The theoretical analysis of the emission of thermal radiation from an arbitrary
object is extremely complicated. So, in order to simplify our analysis, we consider a
special type of object called a blackbody, which absorbs all radiation incident on it and
reflects none of the incident radiation.

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 A practical blackbody can be considered as a hole in a hollow metal box whose
walls are in thermal equilibrium at temperature T. The box is filled with electromagnetic
radiation that is emitted and reflected by the walls. A small hole in one wall of the box
allows some of the radiation to escape. It is the hole, and not the box itself, that is the
blackbody. Radiation from outside that is incident on the hole gets lost inside the box and
has a negligible chance of re-emerging from the hole; thus, no reflections occur from the
blackbody (the hole). The radiation that emerges from the hole is just a sample of the
radiation inside the box, so understanding the nature of the radiation inside the box allows
us to understand the radiation that leaves through the hole.
Let’s consider the radiation inside the box. It has an energy density (energy per unit
volume) per unit wavelength interval u(λ). That is, if we could look into the interior of
the box and measure the energy density of the electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
between λ and λ + dλ in a small volume element, the result would be u(λ)dλ.
Classical Theory of Thermal Radiation
1. Wien’s energy density distribution
Using thermodynamic arguments, Wien took the Stefan–Boltzmann law and obtained
the energy density per unit frequency of the emitted blackbody radiation as

A and 𝛃 are empirically defined parameters. Note: u(𝛎,T) has the dimensions of an
energy per unit volume per unit frequency. Although Wien’s formula fits the high-
frequency data remarkably well, it fails badly at low frequencies

2. Rayleigh’s Energy Density Distribution

He considered the radiation to consist of standing waves having a temperature T with
nodes at the metallic surfaces. Standing waves are equivalent to harmonic oscillators since
they result from the harmonic oscillations of a large number of electrical charges
(electrons) that are present in the walls of the cavity. Total energy of the radiation in the
cavity can be obtained by multiplying the average energy of the oscillators by the number
of standing waves of the radiation
Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]
The number of modes (standing waves) of the radiation in the frequency interval 𝝼 to
𝝼+d𝝼 is

According to the equipartition theorem of classical thermodynamics, all oscillators

in the cavity have the same mean energy, irrespective of their frequencies. The energies
are distributed according to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. Therefore, the average
energy per oscillator is

is Boltzmann constant.
∴ the energy density is

Ultraviolet Catastrophe
Except for low frequencies, this law is in complete disagreement with experimental
data. As the frequency increases toward the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, this formula

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predicts that the energy density should increase as 𝑣 2 . In the limit of infinitely high
frequencies, u(𝑣)d𝑣 therefore should also go to infinity. In reality, of course, the energy
density (and radiation rate) falls to 0 as 𝑣 tends to infinity. This discrepancy became
known as the ultraviolet catastrophe of classical physics.
The failure of the Rayleigh–Jean’s formula at short wavelengths is known as the
ultraviolet catastrophe and represents a serious problem for classical physics. It is
apparent in the case of blackbody radiation that the classical theories do not work and that
a new kind of physical theory is needed.
Quantum Theory of Thermal Radiation
The new physics that gave the correct interpretation of thermal radiation was
proposed by the German physicist Max Planck in 1900. The ultraviolet catastrophe occurs
because the Rayleigh–Jean’s formula predicts too much intensity at high frequencies. We
have to make u → 0 as 𝜈 → ∞. Here also the electromagnetic waves were considered to
form standing because of the oscillations of atoms in the walls of the cavity. Planck tried
to find a way to reduce the number of high-frequency standing waves by reducing the
number of high-frequency oscillators. He did this by a bold assumption that formed the
cornerstone of a new physical theory, quantum physics. This led to a new version of
mechanics, known as wave mechanics or quantum mechanics.
The formulation of energy density is same here. i.e.,

But in Planck’s theory, the calculation of <E> is different.

In contrast to Rayleigh’s assumption that a standing wave can exchange any
amount (continuum) of energy with matter, Planck considered that the energy exchange
between radiation and matter must be discrete. In Planck’s theory, each oscillator can
emit or absorb energy only in quantities that are integer multiples of a certain basic
quantity of energy 𝜀
𝐸𝑛 = n𝜀 where n = 1, 2, 3…
where n is the number of quanta. Furthermore, the energy of each of the quanta is
determined by the frequency
𝜀=h𝜈
where h is the constant of proportionality, now known as Planck’s constant. The energy
of an oscillator at a certain wavelength or frequency is no longer a continuous variable—
it is a discrete variable.
i.e., 𝐸𝑛 = n h 𝜈

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 So, assuming that the energy of an oscillator is quantized, Planck showed that the
correct thermodynamic relation for the average energy can be obtained by merely
replacing the integration of the below equation by summation corresponding to the
discreteness of the oscillators’ energies.

Replacing integration by summation in the above equation and substituting E = n h 𝜈:

Note from this equation that <E> ≅ kT at small 𝜈 (large λ) but that <E> → 0 at large 𝜈
(small λ). Thus, the small-wavelength oscillators carry a vanishingly small energy, and
the ultraviolet catastrophe is solved!
A comparison of various formulations is given below. Note that Planck’s law totally
agrees with experimental observations.

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 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
When a metal surface is illuminated with light, electrons can be emitted from the surface.
This phenomenon, known as the photoelectric effect, was discovered by Heinrich Hertz
in 1887. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons.
The minimum quantity of energy needed to remove an electron is called the work
function 𝜙 of the material. It is different for different materials.
A sample experimental arrangement for observing the photoelectric effect is
illustrated in Figure below:

Light falling on a metal surface (the emitter) can release electrons, which travel to the
collector. The experiment must be done in an evacuated tube, so that the electrons do not
lose energy in collisions with molecules of the air. This setup can also be used to measure
the rate of electron emission and the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
The rate of electron emission can be measured as an electric current i by
an ammeter in the external circuit.
To find the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons, we need to use a varying
voltage source and reverse the terminals. When the potential V across the tube is reversed,
the liberated electrons will be prevented from reaching the anode. Only those electrons
with kinetic energy larger than eV will make it to the negative plate and contribute to the
current.
We vary V until it reaches a value Vs, called the stopping potential, at which all of
the electrons, even the most energetic ones, will be turned back before reaching the
collector; hence the flow of photoelectric current ceases completely.
The stopping potential Vs is connected to the electrons’ kinetic energy by
𝟏
e𝑽𝒔 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝑲
𝟐
∴ 𝒆𝑽𝒔 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝑾
Or,

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Experimental Findings of the Photoelectric Effect
1. The minimum frequency of the incident radiation in order to release the electron is
called Threshold frequency (𝜈0 ). If the frequency of the incident radiation is
smaller than the metal’s threshold frequency, no electron can be emitted regardless
of the intensity of radiation. Threshold frequency depends on the properties of the
metal.
The minimum quantity of energy needed to remove an electron is called the work
function 𝜙 of the material. It is different for different materials.
∴ The work function 𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0
2. No matter how low the intensity of the incident radiation, electrons will be ejected
instantly the moment the frequency of the radiation exceeds the threshold
frequency 𝜈.
Photoelectric Effect is an instantaneous process. i.e., there is no time lag between
incidence of radiation and ejection of electrons.
3. At any frequency above the threshold frequency, 𝜈, the number of electrons ejected
increases with the intensity of the light but does not depend on the light’s frequency
4. The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency but not on the
intensity of the beam; the kinetic energy of the ejected electron increases linearly
with the incident frequency.

The Classical Theory of the Photoelectric Effect

According to the classical wave theory, the predictions about the photoelectric
effect are as follows:
1. The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons should be proportional to the
intensity of the radiation. As the brightness of the light source is increased, more
energy is delivered to the surface (the electric field is greater) and the electrons
should be released with greater kinetic energies.
2. The photoelectric effect should occur for light of any frequency or wavelength.
According to the wave theory, as long as the light is intense enough to release
electrons, the photoelectric effect should occur no matter what the frequency or
wavelength.
3. The first electrons should be emitted in a time interval of the order of seconds after
the radiation begins to strike the surface. In the wave theory, the energy of the wave
is uniformly distributed over the wave front. If the electron absorbs energy directly
from the wave, the amount of energy delivered to any electron is determined by
how much radiant energy is incident on the surface area in which the electron is
confined. Assuming this area is about the size of an atom, a rough calculation leads
to an estimate that the time lag between turning on the light and observing the first
photoelectrons should be of the order of seconds.

Why Classical Physics failed?

The dependence of the effect on the threshold frequency cannot be explained.
According to classical physics, any (continuous) amount of energy can be exchanged
with matter. Also, the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square
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of its amplitude, any frequency with sufficient intensity can supply the necessary energy
to free the electron from the metal.
But what would happen when using a weak light source?
According to classical physics, an electron would keep on absorbing energy until it
gained a sufficient amount; then it would leave the metal.
If this argument is to hold, then for a very weak radiation, the P.E effect would not
take place for a long time, possibly hours, until an electron gradually accumulated the
necessary amount of energy. But we know that the Photoelectric Effect is an
instantaneous process. There is no time lag between incidence of radiation and ejection
of electrons.
This conclusion, however, disagrees utterly with experimental observation.
Experiments were conducted with a light source that was so weak it would have taken
several hours for an electron to accumulate the energy needed for its ejection, and yet
some electrons were observed to leave the metal instantly.
An increase in intensity (brightness) alone can in no way dislodge electrons from the
metal. But by increasing the frequency of the incident radiation beyond a certain
threshold, even at very weak intensity, the emission of electrons starts immediately. These
experimental facts indicate that the concept of gradual accumulation, or continuous
absorption, of energy by the electron, as predicted by classical physics, is not true.
This suggests the complete failure of the classical wave theory to account for the
photoelectric effect.

The Quantum Theory of the Photoelectric Effect

Inspired by Planck’s quantization of electromagnetic radiation, Einstein in 1905
gave a theoretical explanation for the dependence of photoelectric emission on the
frequency of the incident radiation. Einstein proposed that the energy of electromagnetic
radiation is not continuously distributed over the wave front, but instead is concentrated
in localized bundles or quanta (also known as photons). Thus, he assumed that light is
made of corpuscles (particles) each carrying an energy h𝛎, called photons.
When a beam of light of frequency 𝛎 is incident on a metal, each photon transmits all its
energy h𝛎 to an electron near the surface; in the process, the photon is entirely absorbed
by the electron.
The energy of a photon associated with an electromagnetic wave of frequency 𝛎 is
E=h𝛎
where h is a proportionality constant known as Planck’s constant.
The value of ℎ = 6.626 x 10−34 𝐽𝑆
We often speak about photons as if they were particles, and as concentrated bundles of
energy they have particle-like properties. Like the electromagnetic waves, photons travel
at the speed of light. Because a photon travels at the speed of light, it must have zero mass.
In Einstein’s interpretation, a photoelectron is released as a result of an encounter
with a single photon. The entire energy of the photon is delivered instantaneously to a
single photoelectron. The energy of the incident photon ℎ𝜈 is used to lift the electron from
the metal surface and the remaining energy is given as the kinetic energy of the ejected
electron.
i.e., Energy of incident radiation = work function + kinetic energy
Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]
 ∴ ℎ𝜈 = 𝜙 + 𝐾
ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈0 + 𝐾
This is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
The maximum kinetic energy achieved by the electron:
𝐾 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈0
𝐾 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈0 )
The intensity of the light source does not appear in this expression! For a fixed
frequency, doubling the intensity of the light means that twice as many photons strike the
surface and twice as many photoelectrons are released, but they all have precisely the
same maximum kinetic energy.
Moreover, this expression explains the concept of threshold frequency:
If 𝜈 < 𝜈0 , then the kinetic energy becomes negative, which is not allowed.
AT 𝜈 = 𝜈0 , K = 0, i.e., the electron is just lifted from the surface with zero K.E.
Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for his photon theory as applied to the
photoelectric effect.
For doing numerical problems following may be helpful:
𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆
ℎ𝑐
𝜙=
𝜆0
𝜆0 is the threshold wavelength.
Since work function has the unit of energy, the value of 𝜙 in electron volts is
−34 108 𝑚
ℎ𝑐 6.626 x 10 𝐽. 𝑆 x 3 x
𝜙= = 𝑠
𝜆0 𝜆0 x 1.6 x 10 −19
ℎ𝑐 1240𝑒𝑉.𝑛𝑚
Or 𝜙 = =
𝜆0 𝜆0 𝑛𝑚
Note that the wavelength should be taken in nanometre.
Example 1:

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Example 2:

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 THE COMPTON EFFECT
The increase in wavelength of an electromagnetic radiation that have been
elastically scattered by electrons is called Compton effect or Compton scattering. In this
process, the radiation scatters from a loosely bound electron. Part of the energy of the
radiation is given to the electron; the remaining energy is reradiated as electromagnetic
radiation.

Classical physics couldn’t explain this. According to the wave picture of Classical
physics, the scattered radiation is less energetic than the incident radiation (the difference
in energy will be the kinetic energy of the electron) but has the same wavelength.
Quantum mechanically, the scattering process is analysed simply as an interaction
between a single photon and an electron at rest. Initially, the photon has energy E and
linear momentum p given by
ℎ𝑐 𝐸
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 =
𝜆 𝑐

The electron, initially at rest, has rest energy 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 . After the scattering, the photon
ℎ𝑐 𝐸′
has energy 𝐸 ′ = and momentum p′ = , and it moves in a direction at an angle 𝜃
λ′ 𝑐
with respect to the direction of the incident photon. The electron has total final energy
𝐸𝑒 and momentum 𝑝𝑒 and moves in a direction at an angle 𝜙 with respect to the initial
photon.

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 Before collision:
ℎ𝑐 𝐸 ℎ𝜈
For the photon: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = and Momentum, 𝑝 = =
𝜆 𝑐 𝑐
2
For the electron at rest: 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 and Momentum, p = 0
After Collision:
ℎ𝑐 𝐸′ ℎ𝜈′
For the photon: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 ′ = ′ and Momentum, 𝑝 = =
𝜆 𝑐 𝑐
For the electron: 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑒 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑒 2 𝑐 4 and Momentum, 𝑝𝑒

The conservation laws for total relativistic energy and momentum are then applied:
Law of conservation of momentum:
Momentum Before collision = Momentum After collision
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑝′ + 𝑝𝑒
𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝′ − 𝑝
𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑝𝑒2 = 𝑝2 + 𝑝′2 − 2𝑝𝑝′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − − − −(1)
Law of conservation of Energy:
𝐸 + 𝐸0 = 𝐸 ′ + 𝐸𝑒
𝑜𝑟 𝐸 + 𝐸0 − 𝐸 ′ = 𝐸𝑒
𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶)2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 + 2𝐴𝐶 + 2𝐵𝐶

(𝐸 + 𝐸0 − 𝐸 ′ )2 = 𝐸𝑒 2
2
𝐸 2 + 𝐸0 2 + 𝐸 ′ + 2𝐸𝐸0 − 2𝐸𝐸 ′ − 2𝐸0 𝐸 ′ = 𝐸𝑒 2
For the electron, the energy after the collision using relativistic formula is
𝐸𝑒 = √𝑝𝑒 2 𝑐 2 + 𝐸02
2
∴ 𝐸 2 + 𝐸0 2 + 𝐸 ′ + 2𝐸𝐸0 − 2𝐸𝐸 ′ − 2𝐸0 𝐸 ′ = 𝑝𝑒 2 𝑐 2 + 𝐸02 − − − −(2)

The energy of initial photon is E = pc and for the final photon 𝐸 ′ = 𝑝′ 𝑐

for the initial electron, the rest energy, 𝐸0 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2
Substitute in equation (2) above:
2
∴ 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑝′ 𝑐 2 + 2𝑝𝑐𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 − 2𝑝𝑐𝑝′ 𝑐 − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 𝑝′ 𝑐 = 𝑝𝑒 2 𝑐 2
Cancelling 𝑐 2 on both sides:
2
𝑝2 + 𝑝′ + 2𝑝𝑐𝑚𝑒 − 2𝑝𝑝′ − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑝′ 𝑐 = 𝑝𝑒 2 − − − − − (3)
Substituting for 𝑝𝑒 2 from equation (3) in equation (1):
2
𝑝2 + 𝑝′ + 2𝑝𝑐𝑚𝑒 − 2𝑝𝑝′ − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑝′ 𝑐 = 𝑝2 + 𝑝′2 − 2𝑝𝑝′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2𝑝𝑐𝑚𝑒 − 2𝑝𝑝′ − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑝′ 𝑐 = −2𝑝𝑝′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑝𝑐𝑚𝑒 − 𝑝𝑝′ − 𝑚𝑒 𝑝′ 𝑐 = −𝑝𝑝′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑚𝑒 𝑐(𝑝 − 𝑝′ ) − 𝑝𝑝′ = −𝑝𝑝′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 -----(4)
For a photon, the energy E = pc = ℎ𝜈
ℎ𝜈 ℎ
∴𝑝= =
𝑐 𝜆
ℎ𝜈′ ℎ
Similarly, 𝑝′ = =
𝑐 𝜆′

Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]

Equation (4) becomes:
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝑚𝑒 𝑐 ( − ′ ) − x ′ = − x ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

ℎ(𝜆′ − 𝜆) ℎ2 ℎ2
𝑚𝑒 𝑐 − ′ = − ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜆𝜆′ 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆

𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒 𝑐(𝜆′ − 𝜆) − ℎ = ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒 𝑐(𝜆′ − 𝜆) = ℎ − ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒 𝑐(𝜆′ − 𝜆) = ℎ(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

ℎ
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡: (𝜆′ − 𝜆) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐
The quantity
ℎ 6.626 x 10−34
= 𝜆𝑐 =
𝑚𝑒 𝑐 9.1 x10−31 x 3 x 108

Or 𝜆𝑐 = 2.426 x 10−12 𝑚 = 2.426 𝑝𝑚

is called Compton Wavelength.

Example 1

Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]

Example 2

Experimental setup for Compton Effect

The first experimental demonstration of this type of scattering was done by Arthur
Compton in 1923. A diagram of his experimental arrangement is shown in Figure. A beam
of X rays of a single wavelength λ is incident on a scattering target, for which Compton
used carbon. A movable detector is used to measure the energy of the scattered X rays at
various angles 𝜃.

Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]

OTHER PHOTON PROCESSES
There are numerous other experiments that can also be interpreted correctly only if
we assume the existence of photons as discrete quanta of electromagnetic radiation. In
this section, we discuss some of these processes, which cannot be understood if we
consider only the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation.

1. Interactions of Photons with Atoms

The emission of electromagnetic radiation from atoms takes place in discrete
amounts characterized by one or more photons.
When an atom emits a photon of energy E, the atom loses an equivalent amount of
energy. Consider an atom at rest that has an initial energy 𝐸𝑖 . The atom emits a photon
of energy E. After the emission, the atom is left with a final energy 𝐸𝑓 . Because of
conservation of momentum, the final atom must have a momentum that is equal and
opposite to the momentum of the emitted photon, so the atom must also have a “recoil”
kinetic energy K (which is very small).
Conservation of energy then gives
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸𝑓 + 𝐾 + 𝐸
or 𝐸 = (𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 ) – 𝐾
The energy of the emitted photon is equal to the net energy lost by the atom, minus
a negligibly small contribution to the recoil kinetic energy of the atom.
In the reverse process, an atom can absorb a photon of energy E. If the atom is
initially at rest, it must again acquire a small recoil kinetic energy in order to conserve
momentum. Now conservation of energy gives
𝐸𝑖 + E = 𝐸𝑓 + 𝐾
𝑂𝑟 𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑖 = E − 𝐾

2. Bremsstrahlung and X-Ray Production

Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]

 When an electric charge, such as an electron, is accelerated or decelerated, it radiates
electromagnetic energy; according to the quantum interpretation, we would say that it
emits photons. Suppose we have a beam of electrons, which has been accelerated through
a potential difference ΔV, so that the electrons acquire a kinetic energy of K = e ΔV.
When the electrons strike a target, they are slowed down and eventually come to rest,
because they make collisions with the atoms of the target material. In such a collision,
momentum is transferred to the atom, the electron slows down, and photons are emitted.
The recoil kinetic energy of the atom is small (because the atom is so massive) and can
be neglected. If the electron has a kinetic energy K before the encounter and if it leaves
after the collision with a smaller kinetic energy K′, then the photon energy is
ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝜈 = = 𝐾 − 𝐾′
𝜆
The amount of energy lost, and therefore the energy and wavelength of the emitted
photon, are not uniquely determined, because K is the only known energy. An electron
usually will make many collisions, and therefore emit many different photons with
different energies. Maximum energy is lost when K’ = 0. The smallest emitted
wavelength 𝜆min is therefore determined by the maximum possible energy loss
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝜆min = =
𝐾 eΔ𝑉
For accelerating voltages in the range of 10,000V, 𝜆min is in the range of a few tenths
of nanometres, which corresponds to the X-ray region of the spectrum. This continuous
distribution of X rays is called bremsstrahlung, which is German for braking, or
decelerating, radiation.
Symbolically, we can write the bremsstrahlung process as:
electron → electron + photon
This is just the reverse process of the photoelectric effect, which is:
electron + photon → electron
However, neither process occurs for free electrons. In both cases, there must be a
heavy atom in the neighbourhood to take care of the recoil momentum.

3. Pair Production and Annihilation

Pair Production
As we have seen, in a collision a photon can give an electron all of its energy (the
photoelectric effect) or only part (the Compton effect). It is also possible for a photon to
materialize into an electron and a positron. A positron is a particle that is identical in mass
to the electron but has a positive electric charge. In this process, called pair production,
electromagnetic energy is converted into matter. Like bremsstrahlung, this process also
will occur only in the presence of an atomic nuclei for conserving energy and momentum.
Minimum Energy for pair production:
In pair production, a photon of energy ℎ𝜈 is converted in to an electron and a positron.
If the photon has extra energy, it is given as kinetic energy of the particles produced.
𝑖. 𝑒, ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸0 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒− + 𝐸0 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒+
𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝜈 = 2𝐸0 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒− + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒+
For finding the minimum energy, we want to just produce the electrons with zero kinetic
energy.
Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]
Hence the minimum energy, 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝜈𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝐸0
The rest energy of an electron or positron is
2 −31 8
9.1 x 10−31 x 3 x 108
𝐸0 = 𝑚𝑐 = 9.1 x 10 x 3 x 10 𝐽 = 𝑒𝑉 = 0.51 𝑀𝑒𝑉
1.6 x 10−19
∴ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.02𝑀𝑒𝑉

The corresponding minimum photon frequency is 2.4 x 1020 Hz. The corresponding
maximum photon wavelength is 1.2 pm. Electromagnetic waves with such wavelengths
are called gamma rays, symbol, and are found in nature as one of the emissions from
radioactive nuclei and in cosmic rays.

Pair annihilation
The inverse of pair production occurs when a positron is near an electron and the two
come together under the influence of their opposite electric charges. Both particles vanish
simultaneously, with the lost mass becoming energy in the form of two gamma-ray
photons:
𝑒− + 𝑒+ = 𝛾 + 𝛾
The total mass of the positron and electron is equivalent to 1.02 MeV, and each photon
has an energy of 0.51 MeV plus half the kinetic energy of the particles relative to their
centre of mass. The directions of the photons are such as to conserve both energy and
linear momentum, and no nucleus or other particle is needed for this pair annihilation to
take place.

Notes By Saleem M.A [https://www.youtube.com/c/a2zMedias]