UNIT 13 INTRODUCTION INCLUDING ETHNOGRAPHY

13.1.) Meaning of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research can be defined as a type of scientific research that tries to bridge the gap of incomplete information, systematically collects
evidence, produces findings and thereby seeks answer to a problem or question. It is widely used in collecting and understanding specific information
about the behaviour, opinion, values and other social aspects of a particular community, culture or population.

 An example of a qualitative research can be studying the concepts of spiritual development amongst college students. David (1995) had done
such a study at a fairly conservative school. He actually tried to analyse whether there is uniformity or considerable diversity in people’s
understanding of spiritual development or not.

 Qualitative research helps in providing an in depth knowledge regarding human behaviour and tries to find out reasons behind decision
making tendencies of humans.

13.2.) Types of Qualitative Research

Attempting to understand human nature, market research purposes, current trends, changing tastes and preferences of people, there are certain
approaches of qualitative research. They are:

1) Case study: With the help of this method a case of an individual, group, event, institution or society is studied. It helps in providing an in depth
knowledge of the nature, process or phenomena of a specific case under study. Multiple methods of data collection are often used in case
study research (example, interviews, observation, documents, and questionnaires). The final report of the case study provides a rich and
holistic description of the case and its context.

2) Ethnography: This approach mainly focuses on a particular community. It is more of a kind of close field observation and basically tries to
study socio cultural phenomena. For example, judging others based on the researchers’ cultural standards.
 Ethnography can be used for comparative analysis of cultural groups (e.g. eating habits of North Indians and South Indians),
 It is also known ‘Ethnology’.

3) Historical method: This method helps in understanding and analysing the causal relationships. It helps in testing hypothesis concerning cause,
effects and trends of events that may help to explain present events and anticipate future events as well.

4) Grounded theory: This approach involves an active participation of the researcher in the activities of the group, culture or the community
under study. It is generally used in generating or developing theories. This means that the ground theorists can not only work upon
generation of new theories, they can test or elaborate previously grounded theories.

 Four important characteristics of a grounded theory are:

o Fit: It helps in analysing whether the theory corresponds to real existing community
o Understanding: The theory generated by grounding is clear and understandable
o Generality: The theory provides much information and scope for further analysis or generating more theories.
o Control: The theory generated is valid as it has been analysed under controlled conditions.

 Functions of Grounded Theory

o It helps in identifying anchors or codes that allow the key points of the data to be gathered
o It helps in making implicit belief systems explicit with the help of researchers’ questions and analysis.
o It consists of a set of steps whose careful execution is thought to “guarantee” a good theory as the outcome.
o Data collection and analysis continue throughout the study.

5) Phenomenology: In this method, the behavioural phenomena is explained with the help of conscious experience of events, without using any
theory, calculations or assumptions from other disciplines. The concept can be best understood with the help of one of the studies that was
done in which patients were asked to describe about caring and non caring nurses in hospitals Creswell, 1998.
 The patients explained those nurses to be caring who show their existential presence and not mere their physical presence. The
relaxation, comfort and security that the client expresses both physically and mentally are an immediate and direct result of the
client’s stated and unstated needs being heard and responded to by the nurse.

13.3.) Qualitative and Quantitative Research: A Comparison

Comparison Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

General Frame Seeks to explore phenomena using some structured Seeks to confirm hypothesis related to phenomena
work: methods such as in depth interviews, experiences, using highly structured methods such as,
participant observation. questionnaires, surveys, structured observation.
Objectives: It aims to describe variation, explain relationships, It aims to quantify variation, predict causal
describe behaviour, experiences and norms of relationships.
individuals and groups.
Questions: The questions used for data collection are open ended The questions used for data collection are close ended
ones ones
Representation of Data is represented in form of notes, recordings and Data is represented in form of numbers and graphs.
data: video tapes.
Research Design: The research design allows some flexibility in certain The research design is predetermined and stable from
situational aspects. the beginning.

13.4.) Relevance of Qualitative Research in Psychology

a.) Qualitative research methods has gained much importance in the discipline of psychology leaving other human sciences far below such as
sociology and nursing, with the main motive of maintaining the historical attempt to frame psychology as a natural science.
b.) Comparatively, natural science methods use experimental means in order to examine the causal relationships, wherein, this approach uses a
large number of participants and effectively captures aspects of our human nature.
c.) Qualitative research is less interested in explaining phenomena than in understanding them and that is why it has several good relevance and
implications in psychology.
It has several implications in the discipline of psychology, as it:
i) Helps in textual description of experiences of people.
ii) Helps in identifying and explaining social norms, religion, roles of gender and socio economic status.
iii) Helps in understanding those behavioural phenomena which cannot be quantified.
iv) Helps in collecting data under more natural situations.
v) Helps in determining those factors which are meaningful and are important to the respondents under study

13.5.) Ethical Guidelines in Qualitative Research

The respondents and their responses should be respected by the researcher. The researcher must show respect and belongingness to the community
he or she is studying. The respondents must be made aware of what is being analysed by the researcher. Researcher must ensure and maintain the
confidentialities of the researcher. Researcher should be aware of the expected risks and benefits including the psychological and social aspects while
performing the research.

13.6.) Ethnography: The Meaning

a.) The method is also known as ‘ethnomethodology’ or ‘methodology of people’. This type of research method basically intends to study culture
through close observation and active participation. It focuses on studying socio cultural phenomena of a community. The ethnographer/
researcher collect information regarding the socio cultural phenomena from a lot of people belonging to the community under study.

b.) The ethnographer stays within the community for months in order to gain more information through chaining process and collect data in
form of observational transcripts and interview recordings. The analysis of data leads to development of theories for the socio cultural
phenomena under study, only on basis of the views and perspectives of its respondents.

Some Common Terms Used by Ethnographers

1) Symbols: Symbols refers to any tradition or material artifact of a particular culture such as art, clothing, food, technology and rituals.
2) Cultural patterning: Ethnographic research believes that the meaning of symbols can not be understood until it is paired with one or more
symbols.
3) Tacit knowledge: It refers to those cultural beliefs which are firm in nature. They are so deeply embedded in their culture that they rarely need
to be discussed by the members in an explicit way.
4) Situational reduction: It refers to the belief of ethnographers that social structures and social dynamism are a result of interactions of several
social situations (e.g criminal acts can be due to the poor economic condition, frustration, parenthood, neighbours and peer group of the
criminals)

Assumptions in Ethnography
a. Ethnographic research assumes that the main objective of research depends upon and is affected by the interpretation of community
cultural understandings.
b. It also assumes that it is very important as well as difficult to identify the target community that requires to be studied by the
researcher. Nature and size of the community as well as individuals’ perception may play an important role on the subject that needs
to be studied.
c. Ethnography further assumes that that the researcher is an expert and is thorough with the norm and mores of the culture. The
researcher is also assumed to be an expert in the language spoken in the community.

Types of Ethnographic Research

1) Macro ethnography: It is the study of broadly defined cultural groupings such as – “the Indians”, “the Turkish”. The common perspectives are
studied at a more larger level, which are found to be common under a more broader strata.
2) Micro ethnography: It is the study of more specific cultural groupings such as the “local government”, the “terrorists”.
3) Emic perspectives: It is the ethnographic approach under which the view points and responses of the ‘ingroup’ or the members of the culture
under study are noted down.
4) Etic perspective: It is the ethnographic approach under which the view points and responses of the ‘out groups’ or the members who do not
belong to the culture under study are noted down. Their viewpoints highlight the phenomena being followed under a particular culture.

Purpose of Ethnographic Research

It helps in cross cultural analysis. It helps in analysing the past events or the history of the culture It helps in studying the behaviour, experiences and
attitudes of individuals in a more natural environment. Close observation increases the chances of validity in the reports and theory formulated

Steps of Ethnographic Method

a.) Selection: The ethnographic method begins with selection of a culture. The researcher selects the culture/ community or population according
to his or her interest.
b.) Review of Literature: Then the researcher reviews the literature pertaining to the culture to get a brief idea and historical sketch of the culture
selected for study.
c.) Identification of variables: The researcher then identifies variables which interests him or her as well as the members of the culture and needs
to be explored.
d.) Entry: The ethnographer then tries to enter the culture and gain the acceptance of the members of the culture.
e.) Cultural Immersion: Ethnographers live in the culture for months or even years which they have chosen to study. The middle stages of the
ethnographic method involve gaining informants, using them to gain yet more informants in a chaining process.
f.) Data Collection: After gaining the confidence of the respondents, the researcher collects information in form of observational transcripts and
interview recordings and tapings.
g.) Development of theory: After analysing the data, the researcher formulates theory on the basis of interpretation of the results and reports
achieved.