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Network technologies lll unit

Computer Networks (Anna University)

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UNIT III MOBILE DATA NETWORKS

4G NETWORKS AND COMPOSITE RADIO ENVIRONMENT In the wireless

communications community we are witnessing more and more the existence of the composite
radio environment (CRE) and as a consequence the need for reconfigurability concepts.
Nowadays, a multiplicity of radio access technology (RAT) standards are used in wireless
communications. Cellular networks that include second-generation (2G) mobile systems, such as
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) , and their evolutions, often called 2.5G
systems, such as enhanced digital GSM evolution (EDGE), General Packet Radio Service
(GPRS) and IS 136 in US. These systems are based on TDMA technology. Third-generation
(3G) mobile networks, known as Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS)
(WCDMA and cdma2000) are based on CDMA technology that provides up to 2Mbit/s. In these
networks 4G solutions are expected to provide up to 100 Mbit/s Broadband radio access
networks (BRANs) or wireless local area networks(WLANs), which are expected to provide up
to 1Gbit/s in 4G. These technologies are based on OFDMA and space time coding

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Digital voice and video broadcasting (DVB) [6] and satellite communications will be suing
OFDMA signalling formats. • Ad hoc and sensor networks with emerging applications. Although
4G is open for new multiple access schemes, the CRE concept remains attractive for increasing
the service provision efficiency and the exploitation possibilities of the available RATs.

Composite radio systems and reconfigurability, discussed above, are potential enablers of DSA
systems. Composite radio systems allow seamless delivery of services through the most
appropriate access network, and close network cooperation can facilitate the sharing not only of
services, but also of spectrum.

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PROTOCOL BOOSTERS
A protocol booster is a software or hardware module that transparently improves protocol
performance. The booster can reside anywhere in the network or end systems, and may operate
independently (one-element booster), or in cooperation with other protocol boosters (multi-

element booster). Protocol boosters provide an architectural alternative to existing protocol

adaptation techniques, such as protocol conversion

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One-Element Error Detection Booster for UDP:UDP has an optional 16-bit checksum field in
the header. If it contains the value zero, it means that the checksum was not computed by the
source For wide-area communication, the single-element error detection booster computes the
checksum and puts it into the UDP header. The booster could be located either in the source host
(below the level of UDP) or in a gateway machine.

One-Element ACK Compression Booster for TCP On a system with asymmetric channel
speeds, such as broadcast satellite, the forward (data) channel may be considerably faster than
the return (ACK) channel. On such a system, many TCP ACK‘s may build up in a queue,
increasing round-trip time, and thus reducing the transmission rate for a given TCP window size.
The booster increases the protocol performance because it reduces the ACK latency, and allows
faster transmission for a given window size

One-Element Congestion Control Booster for TCP:Congestion control reduces buffer

overflow loss by reducing the transmission rate at the source when the network is congested. A
TCP transmitter deduces information about network congestion by examining acknowledgments
(ACK‘s) sent by the TCP receiver The TCP receiver would think that data messages have been
lost because of congestion, and would reduce its window size, thus reducing the amount of data
it injects into the network.

One-Element ARQ Booster for TCP: CP uses ARQ to retransmit data unacknowledged by the
receiver when a packet loss is suspected, such as after a retransmission time out expires. The
ARQ booster improves performance by shortening the retransmission path. A typical application
would be if Host X were on a wireless network and the booster were on the interface between the
wireless and wire line networks.

A Forward Erasure Correction Booster for IP or TCP: For many real-time and multicast
applications, forward error correction coding is desirable. The two-element FZC booster uses a
packet forward error correction code and erasure decoding. The FZC booster at the transmitter
side of the network adds parity packets.

Two-Element Jitter Control Booster for IP: For real time communication, we may be
interested in bounding the amount of jitter that occurs in the network. A jitter control booster can
be used to reduce jitter at the expense of increased latency.

Two-Element Selective ARQ Booster for IP or TCP: For links with significant error rates
using a selective ARQ protocol (with selective acknowledgment and selective retransmission)
can significantly improve the efficiency compared to using TCP‘s ARQ (with cumulative
acknowledgment and possibly go-back-N retransmission)
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HYBRID 4GWIRELESS NETWORK PROTOCOLS

There are two basic types of structure for WLAN.

Infrastructure WLAN: BS-oriented network. Single hop (or cellular) networks that require
fixed base stations interconnected by a wired backbone.

Non-infrastructure WLAN: Ad hoc WLAN. Unlike the BS-oriented network, which has BSs
providing coverage for MHs, ad hoc networks do not have any centralized administration or
standard support services regularly available on the network to which the hosts may normally be
connected.

The LTE Channel Model in Downlink Direction : All higher layer signaling and user data
traffic are organized in channels Mapping DTCHs to a single shared channel is done in two
steps. First, the logical DTCHs of all users are mapped to a transport layer Downlink Shared
Channel (DL-SCH). In the second step, this data stream is then mapped to the Physical
Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH).

Downlink Management Channels: The downlink control information occupies the first one to
four symbols over the whole channel bandwidth in each sub frame. The number of symbols that
are used for this purpose is broadcast via the Physical Control Format Indicator Channel
(PCFICH), which occupies 16 symbols and finally, some symbols are reserved to acknowledge
the proper reception of uplink data blocks or to signal to the mobile device that a block was not
received correctly. This functionality is referred to as Hybrid Automatic Retransmission Request
(HARQ) and the corresponding channel is the Physical Hybrid Automatic Retransmission
Request Indicator Channel (PHICH).

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The LTE Channel Model in Uplink Direction: In the uplink direction, a similar channel model
is used as in the downlink direction. There are again logical, transport and physical channels to
separate logical data streams from the physical transmission over the air interface and to
multiplex different data streams onto a single channel the most important channel is the Physical
Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH).
Its main task is to carry user data in addition to signaling information and signal quality
feedback the mobile has been dormant for some time and wants to reestablish the connection. A
radio link failure has occurred and the mobile has found a suitable cell again. During a handover
process, the mobile needs to synchronize with a new cell before user data traffic can be resumed.
Optionally for requesting uplink resources.

Concepts of 5G:
5G is the 5th generation mobile network. ... 5G wireless technology is meant to deliver higher
multi-Gbps peak data speeds, ultra low latency, more reliability, massive network capacity,
increased availability, and a more uniform user experience to more users.

This recommendation defines three usage scenarios namely:

1. enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB): provides higher speeds for applications such as
web browsing, streaming, and video conferencing.
2. Ultra-reliable and Low-latency Communications (URLLC): enables mission critical
applications, industrial automation, new medical applications, and autonomous driving
that require very short network traversal times.
3. massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC): extends LTE IoT capabilities to
support a huge number of devices with enhanced coverage and long battery life.

CHANNEL ACCESS METHOD/AIR INTERFACE:

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 Wireless connectivity in mobile communications is directly associated with frequency

spectrum and channel access method (multiple access method).
 Spectrum is scarce and expensive but is a must-have to run a mobile network.
 The channel (atmosphere in this case) is unpredictable and beyond anyone’s control. The
daunting challenge is to squeeze in more bps/Hz/km2 (bits per second per hertz per square
kilometer), which is called system spectral efficiency.
 The 2G systems use FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) and TDMA (Time
Division Multiple Access) techniques.
 The 3G systems use CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) while LTE, WiMAX, and 4G
systems employ OFDMA (Orthogonal FDMA).
 Thus, it can be safely said and with almost certainty that 5G will be embedded with one or
more new and improved multiple access method(s) or implanted with an existing one with
sufficient improvements.
 The focus is on some of the developing channel access methods which are under
consideration for 5G systems.

Fundamental Concepts:

1. Air-Interface: The air-interface defines the method for transmitting/receiving information

over the air between mobiles and base stations. The air interfaces of 2G, 3G, and 4G were all
designed while keeping certain KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) in mind (for example,
mean opinion score for voice, dropped/blocked call rates, data throughput, etc.).
2. Channel Capacity: Communicating messages from one location to another 1q``requires some
form of pathway or medium. The communications channel is any medium (wired or wireless)
over which information can be transmitted/received. Channel capacity is the tight upper
bound on the rate at which information can be transmitted with an arbitrarily small error
probability over a communications channel. The famous Shannon–Hartley theorem provides
this channel capacity as

C=B log2(1+S/N)
where
C is the channel capacity in bits per second
B is the bandwidth of the channel in Hertz
S is the average received signal power over the bandwidth, measured in watts
N is the average noise or interference power over the bandwidth, measured in watts (or
volts squared)

3. Spectral Efficiency: The spectral efficiency refers to the information rate that can be
transmitted over a given bandwidth in a specific communication system. The spectral
efficiency of a mobile communications system largely depends on the choice of a multiple
access method. The other factors may include the type of modulation used, error correction
methods, frequency reuse factor, the number of users served, radio capability, and the
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percentage of time a service is active. However, spectral efficiency of a technology is largely

independent of the frequency at which it operates, since modulation and coding are the same
at different frequencies.

Multiple Access/Waveform:

 First, since the available spectrum bands for 5G can be distributed over a large range of
frequencies, including even the millimeter wave bands.
 The air-interface should be flexible enough so that it can operate in different frequency
bands.
 Together with advanced radio frequency (RF) architecture and RF-related signal processing,
it needs to support either flexible switching between different frequency bands or
simultaneous operation in several frequency bands, including fragmented usage of certain
bands.
 For this purpose, flexible numerology and frame structure as well as adaptive configuration
are needed.

1. OFDM:
 OFDM is a multi-carrier modulation technique developed in the 1960s.
 OFDM has been part and parcel of many telecom/broadcasting standards and its CP-
OFDM form is currently used in LTE, WiMAX, and LTE-Advanced (4G) standards.
 OFDM capitalizes on the use of cyclic prefixes to reduce intersymbol interference
(ISI) and IFFT/FFT operations. IFFT/FFT (Inverse/Fast Fourier transform) allows
combining multiple carriers at the baseband leading to OFDMA.
 OFDMA offers bandwidth scalability, robustness to multipath, and effective
integration with MIMO.
 OFDM suffers from high PAPR (Peak-to-Average Power Ratio) and inferior
frequency localization due to the use of pulse shape filters.

2. GFDM:

 Generalized Frequency Division Multiplexing (GFDM) is one of the non orthogonal

multi-carrier transmission methods that has been considered for 5G systems.
 It provides low OOB radiation and frequency localization due to variable pulse
shaping filters, making it an attractive choice for IoT and cognitive radios operating
in TV white spaces.
 Studies have shown its superiority over OFDM due to low OOB radiation and low
PAPR.
 GFDM employs variable pulse shaping filters to achieve frequency localization. This
localization allows the waveform to fit into narrow spectral holes eliminating
interference to adjacent frequency bands.
 The GFDM transceiver is similar to an OFDM transceiver except it uses pulse-shaped
filters for each subcarrier and a tail biting technique.

3. NOMA:

 NOMA (Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access) has been considered for 5G.

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 In NOMA, multiple users can transmit at the same time using the same code and
frequency but with different power levels.
 In this access method, multiple users are multiplexed in the power domain on the
transmitting end and on the receiving side, SIC (Successive Interference
Cancellation) can be used for multi-user signal separation.
 NOMA introduces additional complexity and delay due to the use of SIC and the
performance gain is also insignificant at low SNR.
 NOMA is suitable for both eMBB and mMTC (Massive Machine-Type
Communications) types of services, but perhaps not for URLLC due to the inherent
delay associated with SIC.

4. UFMC:

 The UFMC or Universal Filtered Multicarrier is a modification of the well-known

waveform CP-OFDM.
 UFMC, however, applies filtering on a per sub-band (i.e., a block of subcarriers) basis
and avoids use of CP.
 The sub-band wise filtering approach was investigated since time-frequency
misalignments normally occur between blocks of subcarriers.
 It may be noted that the use of zero padding instead of CP improves spectral
efficiency; however, it makes UFMC more sensitive to time misalignment as
compared to the CP-OFDM waveform.

5. FBMC:

 Filter bank multicarrier (FBMC) is one of the potential 5G waveforms where filtering
is considered at a very granular level, that is, on a per subcarrier basis.
 In simple terms, FBMC represents a multi-carrier system where single subcarrier
signals are individually filtered with prototype filters.
 FBMC has been proposed for cognitive radio applications.
 During multipath propagation, the multicarrier symbols overlap at the receiver input
resulting in ISI.
 FBMC addresses this challenge by adding some additional processing to the FFT
while keeping the timing and the symbol duration as it is. This additional processing
together with the FFT constitutes a bank of filters.
 FBMC also offers higher robustness against Doppler and time and frequency
impairments compared to OFDM due to the use of appropriate filters.

6. SCMA:

 Sparse Code Multiple Access (SCMA) is a developing non orthogonal codebook

based multiple access technique.
 In SCMA, coded bits are directly mapped to multi-dimensional sparse code words.
 Each layer has a specific SCMA codebook set and a large number of layers enables
massive connectivity. The layers are non orthogonally superimposed on top of each
other.
 Code words are sparse and non orthogonal and can be detected with fewer complex
detection techniques at the receiving end.
 SCMA provides better spectral efficiency than CDMA/LDS due to multi-dimensional
coding gains of codebooks while keeping the benefits of LDS in terms of overloading
and moderate complexity of detection

COGNITIVE RADIO:
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 Cognitive Radio (CR) is one of the potential solutions to increase the effectiveness of the
underutilized assigned spectrum.
 CR extends the software radio with radio domain model-based reasoning about radio
etiquette.
 Radio etiquette is the set of RF bands, air interfaces, protocols, and spatial and temporal
patterns that moderate the use of the radio spectrum.
 FCC states that a CR is one that has the ability to change its parameters based on the
interaction with the environment it operates in to maximize the utilization of the radio
spectrum.
 This interaction may involve active negotiation or communication with other spectrum
users and/or passive sensing and decision making within the radio.
 The primary objective of the CR is to obtain the best available spectrum through
cognitive capability without interfering with the transmission of primary users.
 It enables the utilization of the temporarily unused licensed spectrum which is
commonly known as the white space or spectrum hole.

SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT:

 A CR-based network identifies two types of users, namely primary users and secondary
users.
 The primary users (licensed users) use traditional wireless communication systems with
static spectrum allocation and have priority in spectrum utilization within the band.
 Secondary Users (SU) are equipped with CRs and exploit spectrum opportunities to
sustain their communication activities without interfering with primary user (PU)
transmissions.
 This requires spectrum aware operations which can consist of four steps, namely
spectrum sensing, spectrum decision, spectrum sharing, and spectrum mobility

1. Spectrum Sensing:

 The spectrum sensing function involves probing the spectrum, capturing the information,
and locating an unused part of it for sharing.
 Spectrum sensing schemes can be classified either as narrowband or wideband.
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Narrowband Spectrum Sensing

 Narrowband sensing implies that the frequency range is sufficiently narrow such that
the channel frequency response can be considered flat.
 Matched filter detection, energy detection, and cyclostationary feature detection are
the three key methods that fall under this category.
 Matched Filter Detection depends on the prior knowledge of the characteristics of
the PUs. However, if that is not accurate, then the performance of the filter is not
satisfactory. It requires CRs to be equipped with synchronization and timing devices.
 Energy Detection uses energy detectors to detect the PU based on the energy of the
received signals (e.g., Gaussian noise). The energy detector can be easily
implemented; however, it cannot differentiate signal types. Thus, the energy detector
often results in false detection and its performance is also susceptible to uncertainty in
noise power.
 Cyclostationary Feature Detection scheme determines the presence of PU signals by
separating the modulated signal from the additive noise. This dissimilarity is due to
the fact that noise has no correlation while modulated signals are cyclostationary. The
main advantage of this particular detection scheme is its sturdiness to the uncertainty
in noise power. It is an effective and robust scheme

Wideband Spectrum Sensing

 Wideband spectrum sensing is intended to find more spectral opportunities over a
wide frequency range.
 The key sensing technique in this category is cooperative detection.

 Cooperative Detection refers to spectrum sensing methods where information from

multiple CR users is incorporated for the detection of PUs. Cooperative detection
can be implemented either in a centralized or in a distributed manner.

2. Spectrum Decision:

 The detection of the spectrum to find the best available channel for the CR users.
 The selection of a spectrum involves a number of steps
 Spectrum Characterization/Analysis: Spectrum analysis shall be conducted for
characterization of different spectrum bands to get the best channel appropriate for the
CR users’ requirements.
 Communication Features Selection : After the selection of the channel, CR users then
adaptively select the appropriate modulation types, error control schemes, and upper
layer protocols to meet the application requirements. These communication
characteristics have to be adaptable to allow for changes in the characteristics of the
spectrum.

3. Spectrum Sharing:
 Spectrum is expected to be shared between primary and secondary (cognitive) users in
5G networks.
 The basic goal behind spectrum sharing is that it shall not cause interference to the
PUs while maintaining QoS for cognitive users.
 The task is performed by coordinating the channel access as well as adaptively
allocating communication resources.

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 This coordination is required to prevent multiple users from colliding in overlapping

portions of the spectrum.

4. Spectrum Mobility:
 The need for spectrum mobility arises when current channel conditions become worse
for CR users or a PU appears in the area.

CENTRALIZED RAN/CLOUD RAN (C-RAN):

 The term C-RAN was first likely introduced to the world by China Mobile during
2010 and refers to the nonstatic relationship between BBUs and RRUs.
 The name comes from the four “C”s, that is, Centralized processing, Clean (Green),
Collaborative radio, and Cloud Radio Access Network.

C-RAN Architecture:
 There are two approaches to split base stations, functions between RRU and BBU within
the C-RAN architecture.
 With full centralization, the baseband (i.e., layer 1), layer 2, and layer 3 functions are
located in the BBU pool.
 In partial centralization, the RRU integrates layer 1/radio functions, while all other higher
layer functions are still in BBU.
 Both approaches have pros and cons. Though the full centralization technique will ease
the network upgrade process, it requires very high transmission bandwidth between BBU
and RRU.
 The partial centralization approach requires certain lower transmission bandwidths
between the units, but it gives less flexibility for upgrading.

Fully centralized partially centralized

RRU
RRU
RRU
RRU

BBU pool BBU pool

Some key elements and functionalities of this architecture are as follows:

Transport: The connectivity between BBUs and RRUs in C-RAN is provided through front haul
which is for the most part is supported via optical fiber cable, but in some cases, wireless links
are also used.
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In fronthaul, BBU and RRU communicate using an analog RF signal, while backhaul which
connects the base transceiver station (BTS) to the Radio Controller in 3G and to the core network
in 4G is primarily Ethernet/IP based.
Carrier Ethernet can also be applied from RRU toward the BBU pool. However, if Ethernet is
chosen as the transport method for C-RAN, a CPRI (common protocol radio interface) Ethernet
gateway will be needed. This gateway maps CPRI data to Ethernet packets, close to or at the
interface of RRU toward the BBU pool.

Interface(s): Today, C-RAN is primarily supported by CPRI (common protocol radio interface).
protocol is sensitive to latency and the synchronization performance of a transmission system, so
in a number of cases, it is limited to a distance of about 40 km.
Other interfaces, such as OBSAI (Open Base Station Architecture Initiative) and ORI (Open
Radio equipment Interface) are also used/specified. Thus, these existing protocols may need to
be revised to allow for high volume transmission over long distances.
China Mobile is currently working on developing a new interface, that is, Next Generation
Fronthaul Interfaces (NGFI), to address the low transmission efficiency and scalability of
CPRI/OBSAI interfaces.

Virtualization: The placement of a number of BBUs in a centralized pool while distributing

RRUs according to targeted RF strategies means that operators employ virtualization technology
that maps radio signals from/to one RRU to any BBU processing entity in the pool. The
functions of BBUs may be realized through software instances making those virtual base
stations. However, full virtualization is more of a long-term solution necessitating the use of
virtualized BBUs running on commercial servers within an NFV (Network Function
Virtualization) platform.

VEHICULAR COMMUNICATIONS:

Vehicular communications (VC) is envisioned to improve road safety, increase efficiency in

traffic flow, reduce environmental impacts, and provide additional information/services to
travelers on the road.

1. From V2Vto V2X: In the early stages of development and until the recent past, V2V and
V2I [89–93] were envisioned as the highpoints of vehicular communications.

 V2V: Using V2V communication, a vehicle can detect the position and movement of
other vehicles for short distances. The vehicles communicate with each other to support
applications such as cooperative driver assistance, slow vehicle warning, and so on.
 V2I: V2I enables vehicles to communicate with fixed infrastructure along the side of the
road in order to provide user communication and information services such as Internet
access, mobile advertising, and so on.

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V2X:
 As technology evolves, so do the services that run on top of those technologies.
Similarly, vehicular communication is evolving from V2V/V2I to V2X to keep up with
the demands of the automotive industry and to take advantage of LTE/5G developments.
 V2X includes C-ITS (Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems) which is a critical
component of the connected car and automated driving of the future. V2X is comprised
of four forms, namely V2V, V2I, V2N (Vehicle-to-Network), and V2P (Vehicle-to-
Pedestrian).
 V2V and V2P communications are primarily based on broadcast capability between
vehicles and vehicles and road users.
 These two forms exchange information such as location, velocity, and direction to avoid
accidents and mishaps.
 V2I and V2N on the other hand also involve infrastructure/network sending messages to
the vehicles.
 V2I communication is between vehicles and roadside units (RSUs) and between vehicles
and nearby traffic control devices. V2N transmission is between vehicles and application
servers through cellular networks such as LTE.

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2. Key Standards:
 The IEEE 802.11p is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard and
adds a vehicular communication system, that is, Wireless Access in Vehicular
Environments (WAVE).
 It defines the enhancements to IEEE 802.11 required to support ITS applications.
DSRC, defined in IEEE 802.11p and IEEE 1609 family of standards for WAVE
allows high-speed data exchange between vehicles and between the vehicles and
the roadside infrastructure using a licensed ITS band of 5.9 GHz (5.855–5.925
GHz).
 The IEEE 1609 standards define architecture, security protocols, management
functions, and a standardized set of services and interfaces for enabling V2V and
V2I communications.
 The DSRC protocol stack is based on IEEE 1609 and IEEE 802.11p standards.
The latter provides physical and MAC layers while the higher layers are defined
by the former.
 V2V communications mainly rely on lightweight WAVE Short Message Protocol
(WSMP) while TCP/IP are used in V2I and V2N modes.

3. VC Architecture:
 VC architecture is derived from the multitude of V2V and V2I and, in general,
V2X projects.
 Vehicles, in particular high-end ones, are equipped with multiple processors and
micro controllers dedicated to tasks such as fuel injection, braking, transmission,
battery charging, and so on, and are also equipped with navigation systems such
as GPS and sensors for velocity, direction, temperature, airbag status, rear and
front cameras, and so on.
 The VC computing functionality is expected to be independent and responsible
for running the V2X communication protocols and the supported applications.

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 compares the current protocol stack with a probable C-V2X one. The key difference
between the two is at the lower layers.
 In the case of DSRC/WAVE, the physical layer is based on IEEE 802.11p standard,
while in C-V2X, it can be based on LTE and/or 5G.
 The MAC is divided into lower and upper MAC supported by IEEE 802.11p and 1609.4
standards, respectively, in DSRC, while MAC is based on cellular standards in C-V2X.
 The upper layers, security mechanisms, and management services can be similar in the
two stacks.
 LTE/5G wireless transmission and medium access technologies will further enrich the
VC environment as DSCR/WAVE can only support V2V and V2I based applications.
The DSCR/WAVE protocol stack is split above the MAC layer between WAVE Short
Message Protocol (WSMP) which is non-IP and IP.
 A wide variety of user cases that require low latency and high reliability can be addressed
by LTE such as “do not pass warning” at highway speeds and ADAS (Automated
Driving and Advanced driver assistance Systems).

4. V2X Use Cases:

 The primary objective of V2X is to improve transportation safety and reduce the
number of accidents.
 The US Department of Transportation (USDoT) announced in December 2016
that it requires automakers to include V2V technologies in all new light-duty
vehicles. This ruling can prevent hundreds and thousands of crashes in the U.S.
Additionally, the U.S.
 In the whole scheme of things, the screen in a vehicle can be considered as the
fourth screen after TV, computer, and mobile phone, and can be used for safety as
well as for infotainment.
 DSRC has limitations such as a shorter range and no certain evolution path. V2X
by way of its anticipated design and implementation attempts to address a number
of use cases including and beyond the scope of WAVE/DSRC.
The following are some key use cases:
 ADAS: Advanced driver-assistance systems require high reliability and low
latency message transfer at high speeds. Examples include blind spot warning,
control loss warning, and so on.
 Situational Awareness: Contrary to ADAS, this requires longer wait/latency
requirements such as queue warnings and hazardous road condition warnings.
 Road Travel Services: This may include providing communication support for
intermodal travel that includes more than one mode of transportation.
 Auxiliary Services: This includes flexible types of communication such as route
planning, infotainment, and so on.
 3GPP defines a number of use cases in TS 22.185 such as forward collision
warning, automated parking system, road safety services, and so on.

5. VC Challenges:
 VC brings a number of technical but also behavioral challenges (financial,
privacy, legal, and organizational issues) because a number of industries are
involved in the upbringing.
 One such challenge is related to the security of such systems. To protect VC
systems from information contamination such as false warnings, and other such
attacks, strong and efficient security mechanisms are required.
 security measures such as beaconing, neighbor discovery, and geocasting must be
taken in order to ensure vehicle identification methods are effectively
implemented.

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 Similarly, the mobility management aspects of VC systems including location

management and handover mechanisms between cellular infrastructure and RSUs
demand further investigations.
 A fully implemented V2X system can address some of the above-mentioned
challenges. However, it may be noted that V2X also has limitations.

6. VC Evolution:
 The debate on VC started over two decades ago and has come a long way. The
inception of WAVE/DSRC for V2V and V2I applications by IEEE along with the
allocation of 5.9 GHz band in some countries was a significant milestone.
 In the last few years, 3GPP has joined the bandwagon and conceptualized V2X.
 3GPP Rel-14 established the foundation of V2X by setting requirements along
with use cases.
 V2X use cases such as forward collision warning, control loss warning,
emergency vehicle warning, queue warning, and so on have been envisioned in
Rel-14.
 Taking advantage of IEEE’s ineffectiveness in defining a meaningful evolution
path for DSRC, 3GPP has been putting requirements for low latency and higher
reliability V2X applications in its Rel-15.

NETWORK SLICING
 Network slicing is an end-to-end logical instance of a network with at least the following
attributes

a. Runs on a physical or virtual network

b. Optimizes use of network for each intended usage scenario
c. Uses a set of access and core network functions
d. Is controlled and managed independently
e. Created on demand, and
f. Does not interfere with other functions and services on coexisting slices
 Network slicing is identified as a key technology for 5G, but a great amount of work is
needed to turn it into a successful reality.

1. E2E Slicing:
 Network slicing can be considered an evolution of network sharing, which is a proven
business model for operators to reduce CAPEX and OPEX. Network slicing goes
beyond sharing and envisions using virtualization and softwarization to improve user
experience, increase network usage, and add on to operators’ revenues.
 The slicing manifests the resolution of many complex issues including slice design,
instantiation, implementation, and operations that requires new thinking.
 Fronthaul in the case of C-RANs and transport area may have to be considered for
some cases. Furthermore, virtualization and softwarization through NFV and SDN are
also key building blocks of network slicing.
 The slicing is realized through network functions which provide the tailored
capabilities needed to entertain a specific demand. Network functions could be slice-
specific or could be used across multiple slices.
 In today’s cut throat competition environment, operators are working to maximize
their return on investment and utilization of their networks. E2E (end-to-end) slicing
is an instrument which can achieve this goal, is making headlines, and is an important
area of 5G research and development.

1.1 Slicing in RAN:

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 A slice in the RAN relies on Radio Access Technology (RAT) and configuration
of radio resources to carry what it is intended to deliver. There could be separate
RATs in 5G designed to address different services.
 RAN related configuration, which is customized to a particular slice, may include
access control, load balancing, and resource scheduling.
 To activate a slice, an access point/base station may allocate radio resources for
the slice and enable all radio and network functions required for the operation of
the slice. The slices in RAN may require slice-specific control-plane/user-plane
and slice on/off operations

1.2 Slicing in Core Network:

 Network slicing, if implemented correctly, allows core networks to be logically separated
making each core network slice operate independently while likely running on the same
shared infrastructure.
 The slices can be defined to different support services/applications with a targeted set of
radio/core network functions.
 Slice pairing functions are defined to pair RAN and core network (CN) slices to form end-
to-end slices.
 Mapping among devices, RAN and CN slices, can be 1:1:1 or 1:M:N, for example, a device
can have RAN slices while a RAN slice can connect to multiple CN slices.

2. SDN and NFV in Slicing:

 SDN and NFV are essential for the effective working of network slicing. SDN separates
the C-plane and U-plane to optimize the performance of the network while NFV enables
virtualization of networks.

2.1 SDN Overview:

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 The SDN architecture defined by Open Networking Foundation (ONF) enables a

common architecture to efficiently support diverse slices tailored for different services
with different requirements. The SDN architecture is technology neutral, thus it can
support wired, wireless, and mobile technologies. SDN consists of two key components,
namely resources and controllers.
 In addition to resources and controllers, the following key concepts are critical for the
implementation of SDN based networks:
 Virtualization is a function of a controller to abstract the underlying resources it manages.
Network virtualization assists in the creation of isolated virtual networks that are
dissociated from the underlying physical network and run on top of it.
 Orchestration by definition brings disparate things into a coherent whole. Within slicing,
it is defined as the responsibility of the controller to dispatch resources to address the
demands of the client in an optimal manner.
 Recursion, which could be hierarchical or federated, allows the controller to use
resources from a lower level controller and provides services to a higher level controller
(hierarchical scheme) while federation works on an equal level.

 SDN provides extensive control plane functions for enabling network slicing, however, to
efficiently manage the lifecycle of slices and their constituent resources, NFV is needed.

2.2 NFV Overview:

 ETSI NFV standard GS (Group Specification) NFV 002 defines the lifecycle
management of network services. A network service according to ETSI GS NFV 003 is
a composition of network functions and is defined by its functional and behavioral
specifications. Thus, the concept of lifecycle management can be reused for network
slicing.
 NFV envisions the implementation of network functions as software-only entities
(virtualization) that run over the NFV Infrastructure (NFVI). Virtualization means that
the Network Function (NF) and part of the network infrastructure are implemented in
software, that is, a decoupling of software from hardware.

3. Benefits/Challenges/Future:

 Virtualization and softwarization bring a number of challenges and opportunities.

 Network slicing may assist in containing such rouge devices to particular slice(s) while
keeping other slices unaffected
 Network slices are deployed over a common underlying infrastructure which has a finite
number of resources. This implementation has two challenges, namely isolation and
resource management. Without proper isolation, slices may not be able to perform
adequately.
 For close to perfect collaboration between SDN and NFV, it would be mandatory to
formalize interfaces through which either could query or invoke the services of the
other. Along the same lines, interfaces between 3GPP and NFV MANO also require
research and investigation for smooth operation.

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