Reconsidering French Pedagogy: The Crucial Role of the Teacher and Teaching

Author(s): Sally Sieloff Magnan and François V. Tochon

Source: The French Review , May, 2001, Vol. 74, No. 6, Special Issue on Pedagogy (May,
2001), pp. 1092-1112
Published by: American Association of Teachers of French

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/399831

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THE FRENCH REVIEW, Vol. 74, No. 6, May 2001 Printed in U.S.A.

Reconsidering French Pedagogy:

The Crucial Role
of the Teacher and Teaching

by Sally SieloffMagnan and

Frangois V Tochon

WHAT DOES IT MEAN to teach French at the turn of the millennium? W

know that French, like all languages, is not limited to linguistic feature
communication is embedded in culturally specific situations. We mu
take into account how French is shaped by, and reflects, many Franco-
phone cultures. We realize that our task as French teachers is multidisci-
plinary because French cannot be separated from the contexts through
which thinking in French occurs. We know too that the time we have to
share the rich world of French language, culture, and contents with ou
students is limited, and that our students come to us with varying moti
vations and abilities, and, sometimes, under difficult instructional cir-
cumstances. In this article, we attempt to provide a snapshot of French
teaching in the United States as we enter the new century and suggest
how we might turn to the European discipline of Didactics, and specifi
cally to its Francophone versions, to stimulate our thinking in the future
We build our picture primarily from leading American sources in orde
to demonstrate that, in the United States, our view of learning and teach
ing French is heavily learner focused through approaches of Comm
nicative Language Teaching (CLT). Despite our advocacy of the interna-
tional and interdisciplinary nature of French studies, we put little foc
on the critical role of the teacher in conveying these perspectives. To pre
pare this piece, we surveyed the ERIC database (.org), with the crossed
key words French and pedagogy and processed those contents thematical
ly using the qualitative analysis software Nvivo (Richards). We also re-
viewed pedagogically based articles appearing in the past two years
the French Review, Foreign Language Annals, and the Modern Language Jour-
nal, three leading American journals whose mission statements include
foreign or second language learning and teaching. In addition, we draw
upon our own knowledge of professional history.
This article begins by asking the age-old question "Why study French?
This question remains important because teacher and student responses
1092

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RECONSIDERING FRENCH PEDAGOGY 1093

to it have shaped our pedagogical

ing views about how foreign lang
beliefs have given rise to our cur
briefly to a summary of the data
stop to focus on a new line of res
we look toward Didactics, a Fra
English-speaking world, which, w
reconsidering how we conceive ou

Why Study French?

Teachers of French have ponde

began. Reviewing 84 years of the
Sunderman discovered four basic
has been voiced for French over th
triotic, practical, and utilitarian r
(d) pleasure. They see each argume
marily wars and social and econom
from scholars in the humanities, la
searchers in Second Language Acq
study continue to motivate studen
Humanistic benefits, Lantolf and Sunderman found, constitute the
"most robust set of justifications" (8). In the early 1920s, when French led
American enrollments for the last time (Lambert), Purin suggested that
reading literature in the original language would promote understanding
other cultures. In line with this goal, a 1934 study showed that students
wanted primarily to learn reading and translation: 48% and 44% respec-
tively (Fornwalk and Rogers). In the 1940s the American public, discour-
aged by how long it took students to become proficient readers in another
language, concluded that learning FL was inefficient and embraced litera-
ture in translation. French, with its rich literary and cultural traditions,
lost ground to the more practical appeal of Spanish. Speaking became the
goal of choice during post-World War II audiolingual times. Oral expres-
sion continued to be privileged under proficiency efforts in the 1980s as
French pedagogy sought to develop quasi-native competence (cf. ACTFL,
Proficiency Guidelines). In 1992, students at two state universities and one
college enrolled in beginning literature courses indicated their positive at-
titudes toward studying literature (Davis, Kline, Gorell, and Hsieh). In
1996, 82% of students from second-year French at the University of Ore-
gon reported studying French to learn about French art, history, and liter-
ature and 94% for cultural enrichment (Siskin, Knowles, and Davis). At
Michigan State University, 80% of freshmen surveyed mentioned the ben-
efits of global and domestic cultural diversity as primary reasons for FL
study (Roberts). In 1993, 1995, and 1999 Magnan surveyed first- through
fourth-semester French students at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

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 1094 FRENCH REVIEW

Of the humanisti
80%-83% of the s
French life and cu
painters, and musi
ca"; and 40%-46%,
knowledged that
need to develop cu
through time revea
argument.
French study is also sensitive to the utilitarian argument. We remind
students about the proximity of Quebec; about French presence in the
sciences, social sciences, and humanities; and about Francophone
Africa's potentially important role in global trade (Ossipov). Practical
motivation is clearly important. Indeed, 82% of University of Oregon stu-
dents took French in 1996 because they believed it would help them find
a job and 59% because they considered French useful in business (Siskin,
Knowles, and Davis). Less than half of Magnan's students in 1993, 1995,
and 1999 rated career objectives a reason why they were studying French
(a steadily declining 48%-43% over the three years); in Ossipov's 2000 re-
port, 50% of students believed that knowing French would give them an
employment advantage. Antes's 1999 study put a wider scope on useful-
ness: of French students from four regions in the United States, 47% said
they expected to use French for travel, 15% for business, and 15% for per-
sonal endeavors. Although these data suggest considerable interest in
studying French for utilitarian goals, it would appear that humanistic
benefits of French study seem to draw today's students to courses more
than career goals.
The third rationale for FL study, intellectual and linguistic develop-
ment, has been especially important for French studies. French was tradi-
tionally associated with sharpening mental agility because of its
"crispness of phrase" and because its "logical consciousness" increases
capacity for abstract thought" (Olmsted 4). Recalling the humanistic ben-
efit, Olmsted in 1921 suggested that French also offered the model of
France's "hate of hypocrisy, love of intemperance in all things" (4). More
recently, Cooper correlated SAT scores with FL study to suggest that FL
study improves native language ability, as well as general reasoning. In
1996, 84% of students in Siskin, Knowles, and Davis's study explained
their decision to study French by agreeing with the statement "French is
a precise language."
The fourth rationale appeared as early as 1925: pleasure from learning
language and culture and from reading literature (Fitz-Gerald). It was
echoed in 1934 by 37% of Lafayette College students who cited personal
enjoyment as their reason for FL study. In 1996 Siskin, Knowles, and
Davis's quantitative study showed that students taking French found the
language "beautiful" (98%) and that they were studying French because

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 RECONSIDERING FRENCH PEDAGOGY 1095

they "enjoyed" it (82%). The gr

claimed to study French because t
82%-85% over the years 1993, 1995
tor, as well as to the humanitarian
prestige. In 1996, 49% of Siskin, K
learn French for its prestige. In 20
zona State University cited the sam
How do we French teachers res
studying French? Recently AATF
"Why Learn French?". It gave fou
utilitarian message: "French mean
means world travel! French me
this brief review of professional
set of goals for our classrooms.
According to Lantolf and Sunde
Standards promote a framework
utilitarian goals: "FL study is seen
municate with and develop an app
tures and at the same time develo
over, individuals will be able to ac
'participate more fully in the g
(Kenyon, Farr, Mitchell, and Arm
man 23). Kramsch (Context) bring
ment. She suggests that FL study
between their native and acquired
ception on both cultures than wo
the other. Mental agility thus exte
tural. The role of pleasure also tak
and language play (e.g., Cook), in
guage building feed their language
vation for continued efforts. Stu
multidisciplinary enterprise in wh
way to looking at different mode
tional, interpersonal) for interacti
purposes. Although French studen
as their top priority (Ossipov), we
cultural lens provided by sociolin
from the letters.

How Do We Believe French Is Learned?

When curricular, teacher, and student goals differ, it is a considera

challenge to establish sequences of study that "we consider profession
ly credible, intellectually stimulating, and socially responsive" (Henn
23). The effort must be based on how we believe French is learned. Th

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 1096 FRENCH REVIEW

remains considerabl
what degree is ther
and second langua
both L1 and L2 rese
trastive analysis, er
they explain the inf
hypotheses: univers
guage transfer. If w
only French in clas
productive for learn
ring phenomenon in
Krashen's well know
curs naturally in a
spontaneously to i
proach, associated w
class time exclusive
work outside of clas
tion to structures in
bate about whether and how student's attention should be focused on
linguistic form appears in research known as Focus on Form (Doughty
and Williams).
Advocates of Focus on Form propose incorporating grammar in class-
room instruction by flooding input with target features, by designing ex-
planations and tasks that draw students' attention to these features, and
by offering various types of explicit and implicit feedback to students
about the accuracy of their production. Doughty explains that such a
focus on form does not return us to the contrived dialogues and struc-
tured practice of audiolingualism because instruction privileges the
meaning-form interrelationship and prioritizes communicative interac-
tion. Moreover, it is students who notice the forms in the content rather
than teachers who extract them for presentation. Questions still remain,
however, relating to authentic norms (Which forms are to be noticed?), to
sequences of interlanguage development (In what order should they be
targeted for attention?), and to practice (Is an implicit or explicit focus
better for assuring student focus on the forms targeted?). After reviewing
the contradictory results of studies on the pedagogical benefits of Focus
on Form, Ellis suggests that teachers use their professional knowledge
and experience to guide future investigations. Teacher thinking is miss-
ing: "Surprisingly, very little research has explored how teachers arrive
at a decision about what grammar to teach and when and how to teach
it" (Ellis 56).
This revalorization of linguistic form brings forth the next question: At
least for adult L2 learners in an instructed setting, is it productive to
have a metalinguistic awareness, for example, awareness of forms and
structures? There has been recent emphasis on "meta" processes (self-

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 RECONSIDERING FRENCH PEDAGOGY 1097

referential processes). Do activitie

flections, such as using gramma
teacher, strengthen the perceived
Galatanu studied communication a
language learning by adults in t
tance to grammatical explanatio
meaning to conclude that visual in
discovery of linguistic fact throu
ceptualization are complementary
quisition. Teachers who believe in
often incorporate the conceptuali
munication in the following ways
communication through cooperativ
criminating the linguistic forms
tions; (c) by spontaneously explain
graphic aids to encourage visualiza
ture of drawing the learner's atten
in line with the belief in education
sition are not possible without attent
acquisition (Schmidt). If compet
(self-referential cognition), which
mance of experts in different dis
pothesis is contradicted by find
stages of expertise and proficienc
Tochon, L'Enseignant). In this w
helped discover how awareness of
learning.

How Are We Teaching?

Where then do we position our language teaching and learning as we

enter the twenty-first century? After a quarter century of development,
CLT is widely accepted in North America and Europe (Germain). Its as-
sumptions supply the language-cultures-content weave for the national
Standards for Foreign Language Learning (ACTFL, Standards). Largely based
on Hymes's sociolinguistic conception of Communicative Competence
and on Canale and Swain's recognition of multiple communicative com-
petencies (sociolinguistic, linguistic, discourse, and strategic), CLT im-
plies an ability to use a language in all its forms appropriately in all situa-
tions. More importantly, it implies a multiplicity of culturally specific
discourses and interactional practices. In such culturally-charged aspects
of communication, knowledge, values, and expectations flavor what is
understood and what is conveyed. Having communicative competence
as a pedagogical goal implies, then, that teachers possess multiple litera-
cies which allow them to interpret sociocultural norms and, in designing

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 1098 FRENCH REVIEW

their lessons, be r
understanding. To
disciplinary, as we
translated the noti
To simplify our dis
ticle, we focus on f
of context, integra
each category, we h
theories we profess

Authenticity

The problem of au
ing. Through applie
and to the type of
the nature of the l
how juxtaposition o
First, let us consid
loway as texts writ
tive for a French-s
ficial for reading,
texts contain the h
in pedagogically s
texts are culturally
and thereby serve
communication, pa
An Introduction). Bu
typically facilitate
task. Herein lies a
gogically simplifie
which it is exercise
classroom reading o
structional situatio
Extending the noti
linguistic norm be
both oral and writt
thentic input expos
of linguistic norm
and social registers
What are authentic
clearly face the dil
Can authentic talk
and in the classroo
mentally different
of the classroom lies in its mediation between the learner's world and the

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RECONSIDERING FRENCH PEDAGOGY 1099

target cultures, then is our classr

different from authentic usage in F
Next, we consider authenticity
experience. The educational comm
learning performance. These sch
being placed in roles and faced
spond to those of daily life. For
reader chooses to read it, applies
responds to it in a personal mann
are in conflict and create a parad
target cultural values in order to
be read through the lens of the f
learning, then, not presumptive
and students prepare for situatio
these situations are actualized in a
ally less than authentic. Terwi
should be about the possibility o
representative of true performan
remains a gap between authent
room and authentic experience as

The Importance of Context

How has the profession come to

of authenticity? First and fore
meaning in context. We offer stu
teractions in a contextual frame that recalls and elucidates critical cultur-
al features. Because, for French, our contexts must be diverse to reflect
the diversity and expansiveness of the Francophone world, we offer a se-
ries of contexts, each true, we hope, to its appropriate sociocultural
frame. Bragger and Rice characterize the Standards as primarily "content
standards," which intertwine all facets of language and content. With
their implications for a strong interdisciplinary focus and opportunities
for cooperative learning, the Standards, they believe, offer the stimulus of
a paradigm change that will push content-oriented instruction to teach-
ing other disciplines, such as biology, either in French class or in French
in biology classes. Perhaps because we have come so far in CLT, we can
now consider incorporating science or social science modules even in
lower-level classes. We need teacher experience and pondering to tell us
how far we can go.

Integration ofCompetencies

Teaching across disciplines implies integration of competencies. Such

integration fits our notion of sociolinguistic authenticity because, when

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 1100 FRENCH REVIEW

accessing new kno

terrelated linguist
sociocultural norm
communicative sit
petencies plays in
change and the re
Hudson used a Jul
Century," publish
oral exercises abou
and the changes t
enhance the conne
such as Schultz ha
guage learners' cr
in which poetry c
cussing the creati
words to evoke em
teacher can becom
create stories to st
oping language sk
nouns (e.g., "le fe
ing a story using
using only body-l
that in order for
them culturally a
students may iden
Reading their Fren
logy, chemistry,
proposes "action-
and the construct
tion literature by
poetic act is more
speaking-a politica
of French pedagog
sociocultural focu
and literacy, the
negotiation, and,
French worlds. T
by teachers who
cross-disciplinary

Focus on the Learner

Horwitz hoped that the 1990s would be the "decade of the learner"
(30). Indeed, CLT has created a privileged position for the learner as the

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RECONSIDERING FRENCH PEDAGOGY 1101

receiver of input, the decipherer o

the conveyer of personal meaning
tion. Evidence of this shift is fo
study French?" at the beginning
decade or two teachers answered t
often than not posed the question
to the student perspective is sign
American educational desire to "serve the clients" of instruction.
Learners are clearly more diverse in preparation today than in any time
in U.S. history. Cognitive psychology and related SLA research have illus-
trated the benefits of attention to learners' styles, strategies, and beliefs and
the style-war problems that may arise when teachers' and students' beliefs
and strategies are at odds (Oxford, Erhman, and Lavine). The communica-
tive classroom today places much responsibility on learners, who work in
pairs or small groups and independently with the Intemrnet, all outside the
teacher's direct control. There is a profusion of collaborative learning tasks,
whose purpose is to allow learners to negotiate meaning and mediate un-
derstanding. Hypothesis testing is critical for interlanguage development,
but in a supportive environment that keeps anxiety low.
This focus on the learner has led to research on the learner as a negotia-
tor of meaning often in a Bahktinian, dialogic sense. It considers learners'
personal struggles with identity as they try on new roles and values,
which, in turn, challenge and reshape their identities (e.g., Kaplan). What
is the teacher's role in this classroom? We have frequently heard "the
guide at the side." The teacher unobtrusively builds a support system or
scaffolding for the learners' linguistic journeys, helping them activate
personal schemata to match their background knowledge against new in-
formation found in the instructional input. Ideally, the teacher is directly
involved only minimally in the interpersonal interaction. We suggest that
this ideal be changed: the role of teacher should be reconsidered to be a
co-negotiator of classroom interaction and a primary elucidator of con-
tent, particularly of the cultural values underlying Francophone ways of
thinking.

Data That Informs Teaching

Data to inform American teaching of French has come over the years
primarily from three sources: (a) content sources from the disciplines
(e.g., literary studies, culture studies, language studies such as lexicogra-
phy or phonetics); (b) reports of methods and pedagogical innovation
from teachers; (c) SLA or Foreign Language Education Research. Begin-
ning with the NDEA institutes and associated research after World War
II, the emphasis has shifted slowly but continuously from the former two
to the latter. What kind of data has SLA and FL Education investigated?

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 1102 FRENCH REVIEW

Describing the sco

forward, for there
ment among schola
includes such are
Haiti, with, for som
loss and maintanenc
language in classr
guistic perspectiv
input, how they re
ances that they per
techniques from co
Another line of i
some SLA researchers, stems from the "scientific" revolution of the
NDEA era. It produces both surveys and studies evaluating the effective-
ness of instructional approaches, techniques, and materials. This research
has typically been quantitative in nature, attempting to test theories by
controlling groups in order to test hypotheses and generalize results. Re-
cently, there has been a growing concern particularly in the educational
community and also among some SLA researchers about the sociocultur-
al aspects of language acquisition (e.g., Lantolf ); these investigations
often use hermeneutic frames, which facilitate teachers' direct involve-
ment in researching their own teaching.
In addition to this emphasis on the learner and learning, scholars work-
ing in cognitive and educational psychology have begun to reconsider
the role of the teacher and the curriculum, especially in terms of their
contribution to the mediation processes (De Corte; Greeno; Schoenfeld).
For instance, in (teacher-organized) cooperative activities, is the media-
tion of the subject-matter by other students or by the teacher particularly
effective (Leblanc and Lally)?
Because learning is a social endeavor, we need to examine the entire
ecology and history of each learning interaction between the poles of the
learner, the specific instructional content, and the knowledge mediator
(teacher, materials, pedagogical environment, social situation). Of the
three poles, the third has been studied least. What is missing from the
pedagogical picture is a clear sense of how the teacher interprets and me-
diates learning. Characterized as "teacher thinking," this line of research
considers teachers' reflections and behaviors as they participate in the
learning experience.

Toward Teacher Thinking Research

The 1980 ACTFL Priorities Conference Report recognized action re-

search that teachers would do in their own classrooms with their own
students as a "worthwhile and valuable activity for practitioners" (70)
The 1998 Northeast Conference Reports put forth, as its title announce

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RECONSIDERING FRENCH PEDAGOGY 1103

Stories Teachers Tell (Hartman). R

the "goodness of fit" that the sto
practice and contemporary theo
teacher participation in research
the silent voices of teachers as an
final analysis, practitioners thems
communicative teaching happen i
we recommend a specific type of
teachers view themselves as the ob
ine their problem-solving initiati
students, and what knowledge th
found that this line of research, a
nal, dates back primarily to the la
observation instruments. In the l
sion of research on task-based inte
vation of the teacher's role (see G
teacher talk and its mediating role
Johnstone's 1999 review on lan
seven articles on teachers' though
provide an initial view of teach
they know about teaching accordin
management" and "facilitating the
actual beliefs stem from a number
stantially from theoretical concept
to follow (Sato and Kleinsasser). T
pedagogical approaches in order
bull). To change their beliefs an
fidence and self-efficacy, teacher
(Bruning, Flowerday, and Trayer;
Like these reports, most studies
teacher thinking have tended to c
ods they use; they do not typical
ing of the cultures that their t
Allen's 2000 report. She describe
increased in-service teachers' und
cultures they teach and their own
need comparisons of teacher thin
as about their methods. We nee
with different knowledge bases a
ent cultures.

A Look toward Francophone Didactics in the Teaching of French

Didactics appears to be an almost unknown field in the English-speak-

ing world, although it constitutes a major movement internationally and

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1104 FRENCH REVIEW

in French-speakin
tics valorizes the
processes in each
tics are based on t
objects, ideas, and
construct a unique
that pedagogy, D
current theories
Knowledge is tea
dents' interaction
ground and expe
teacher's contribu
tics builds on teac
background lie in
comfortably lead
while others, or p
on sociocultural as
of linguistic com
knowledge, becom
and more collectiv
enced by learners
fessional thinking
can be elucidated
ers' spontaneous
teachers look inwa
ed competence.
Because Francoph
and institutional c
verse, this varied
stands. Using the
construction of na
ence teachers' re
both culturolingui
that sociopolitical
guage (cf. Gee, "T
conceived, resear
teaching Francoph
to their lack of fa
"Individuals perce
and people throug
culturally conditio
graphic interview
cultural lenses and
Martel analyzed t
associations in the

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RECONSIDERING FRENCH PEDAGOGY 1105

Canadian meetings were very met

France appeared more knowledg
logical difference between what i
tion de didactique du franrais lan
and associations like the American
Languages (ACTFL) and the Asso
enseignantes du frangais langue s
and Canadian associations take kn
with little questioning of its natu
dertake to question knowledge itse
teacher practice?
Freeman suggests that we study
points: "teaching as doing" (techn
(what teachers know about lesson
learning); and "teaching as knowin
ter, classroom context, and peopl
analysis of the 2000 conferences o
of French (AATF) and la F6ddrati
Franrais (FIPF) held jointly in Par
North Americans (United States a
as doing" and lesson planning, w
often with "teaching as knowing w
influence, there seems to be an ef
Paris, nonnative French speakers
papers with methods orientations
cused more on content issues. One
enhanced instruction where nat
methods-oriented sessions.
The difference between the North American and European perspec
tives suggests that Didactics might offer new insights to American teach
ers. Didactics is the word used in Francophonie to speak of issues in
curriculum and instruction. For instance, the "D~partements de didac-
tique" in Francophone Canada are often translated "Department of Cur-
riculum and Instruction." However, the meaning of Didactics is mor
method-oriented in Quebec, and more oriented toward reflective practice
and theorization in specific disciplines in Francophone European an
African countries.
Given the crucial status that input plays in L2 acquisition and the multi-
dimensional goals for French study, it is critical to examine the relation-
ship of people to knowledge (rapport au savoir). Didactics offers interesting
solutions in this direction. First, it does not consider acquisition as the iso-
lated process of a single cognition being submitted to an input environ-
ment: interchange and dialogue between the three poles of the learner, the
content knowledge, and the knowledge mediator are understood as deter-
mining factors in this sociocultural, as well as linguistic, acquisition

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 1106 FRENCH REVIEW

process. Second, D
rooms and in natu
ers and real studen
Didactics attempts
ucation in practic
edge. It is deeply
art of teaching as
"didactic transpos
practice can come
ravolas). Didactic
coaching role of t
best investigated t
findings represent
tator (the teacher
would fit well with current research in American education and the trend
of reflective practice. Fourth, work in Didactics recognizes the role of me-
diation in the learning and acquisition processes. From that perspective,
we might expect the normal sequence for language acquisition to be: first,
mediation of input; second, learning; and then, acquisition.
Finally, and perhaps most important, Didactics is an integrated part of
European and Francophone culture. As such, Didactics becomes itself
part of the content associated with the "5 Cs" of the national Standards. It
is a cultural archetype. If we truly believe that cultural archetypes should
be integrated into language teaching, we should use Didactics to pass
from studying ways of knowing French to studying Francophone ways
of knowing. To make this change would be truly to incorporate cultural
lessons into our teaching and valorize Francophone ways of thinking. It
would make the study of French more culture-bound, with a return to its
humanistic dimensions, while not losing sight of its social ones. Teaching
French would be much more than putting French words on an American
frame. Our perspective would change, and through it, we could perhaps
offer students a richer experience and greater critical reflection of what it
means to be from part of the Francophone world. Is this not a compelling
reason to teach and study French in the twenty-first century?

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON

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 Appendix
A Comparison of the 2000 meetings of FIPF and

Fiddration Internationale des Professeurs de Frangais Americ

Les enseignants comme filtres des r~giolectes en franrais Standar

langue seconde France
Les nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la classroom
communication mettent-elles du lien entre les savoirs? Evaluati
(a se peu
French th

00
Number of 170 of 478 = 36% about one third of them devoted 126 of 18
methods- to new technologies and their applications
related
presentations 308 non-methods related sessions 62 non-m
with direct which p
classroom
applications
and pedagogical
materials

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 RECONSIDERING FRENCH PEDAGOGY 1109

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