UNIT ONE

CONCEPTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

1.1. Meanings and Definitions of Terms
1.1.1 Physical fitness
It is an ability to meet the ordinary, as well as unusual
demands of daily life safely and effectively without
being overly fatigued.
Simply it is the body’s ability to function effectively and
efficiently, and contributes the total quality of life.
The totally fit person has a healthy and happy outlook
towards life.
Physical fitness is essential for human beings to adjust
well with his environment as his mind and body are in
complete harmony.
 The multi-dimensional characteristics of physical
fitness can be divided in to two areas: health related
physical fitness and skill related physical fitness
• health related physical • skill related physical
fitness fitness
➢Cardiorespiratory ❖Speed
➢Muscular endurance ❖Strength
➢Muscular strength ❖Power
➢Flexibility ❖Agility
➢Body composition ❖Balance
❖Coordination
 Physical fitness
• Clarke and Clarke (1989) found that physical
fitness is not a static factor and it varies from
individual to individual and in the same person
from time to time depending on factors.
• United States president’s Council on physical
fitness and sports defined the terms “physical
fitness as the ability to carry out daily task with
vigour and alertness, without undue fatigue, with
ample energy to enjoy leisure time pursuits.
 1.1.2 Physical Activity
It is bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles
that results in energy expenditure. The term,
physical activity, does not require or imply any
specific aspect or quality of movement.
The term encompasses all types, intensities, and
domains. Although the term “physical activity” has
been used often as a short-hand description for
moderate-to-vigorous-intensity forms of physical
activity.
Based on predominant physiologic effect, physical
activity can be categorized in to aerobic physical
activity and anaerobic physical activity.
Aerobic and anaerobic physical activities
• Aerobic physical activity includes forms of activity
that are intense enough and performed long
enough to maintain or improve an individual’s
cardiorespiratory fitness.
• Aerobic activities such as walking, basketball,
soccer, or dancing, commonly require the use of
large muscle groups
• Technically, aerobic physical activity includes any
activity that could be maintained using only
oxygen-supported metabolic energy pathways
and could be continued for more than a few
minutes.
 Cont,
• Anaerobic physical activity refers to high-
intensity activity with out oxygen-supported
metabolic energy pathways.
• Anaerobic activity can be maintained for only
about 2 to 3 minutes. Sprinting and power lifting
are examples of anaerobic physical activity.
 Aerobic Exercise: Anaerobic
Exercise that Exercise: Exercise
requires oxygen to that does not
produce the require oxygen to
necessary energy produce the
(ATP) to carry out necessary energy
the activity (ATP) to carry out
the activity

AEROBIC ANAEROBIC
 Higher maximal Increase in number
oxygen uptake and size of the
Increase in the mitochondria
oxygen-carrying Increase in the
capacity of the blood number of functional
Decrease in resting capillaries
heart rate and an Faster recovery time
increase in cardiac Lower blood pressure
muscle strength and blood lipids
Lower heart rate at An increase in fat-
given workloads burning enzymes
Aerobic Anaerobic
 1.1.3 Physical Exercise
• The term "exercise" has been used interchangeably
with "physical activity", and, in fact, both have a
number of common elements. For example, both
physical activity and exercise involve any bodily
movement produced by skeletal muscles that
expends energy.
• Exercise is physical activity that is planned,
structured, repetitive, and purposive in the sense
that improvement or maintenance of one or more
components of physical fitness is an objective.
• The formula relating physical activity and exercise is:
• kcalExerclse + kcalNonexercise` = kcalTotal daily Physical activity
• Generally, Exercise describes as planned
structured and repetitive bodily movement done
to improve or maintain one or more components
of physical fitness and is subset of physical
activity.
• Exercise is usually goal related and designed in
the sense that the improvement or maintenance
of one or more components of physical fitness
(i.e., endurance, strength, flexibility
 1.1.4 Sport
• It is an organized, competitive form of play
• When we refer to sport as “organized”
competitive activity, we mean that the activity
has been refined and formalized to some degree-
that is, some definite form or process involved.
• Rules, whether they are written or not, are
involved in this form of activity,
• We cannot think of sport without thinking of
competition, for without the competition, sport
becomes simply play or recreation.
• Play is amusement that used for enjoyment or
pass leisure time.
1.2 General Principles of Fitness Training
• The human body adapts well when exposed to
stress. The term stress, within the context of
exercise, is defined as an exertion above the
normal, everyday functioning.
• The specific activities that result in stress vary for
each individual and depend on a person’s level of
fitness.
• Knowing a little about these principles provides
valuable insights needed for organizing an
effective fitness plan.
 Principle cont,
• Types and number of principle of training vary
from literature to literature. But the following
principle of training are common in most sport.
A. Principle of overload
B. Principle of progression
C. Principle of FITT( Frequency, Intensity, Time & Type )
D. Principle of Rest, Recovery, and Periodization
E. Principle of Reversibility
F. Principle of Individual Differences
G. Principle of Specificity
H. Principle of variation
I. Principle of warm-up and cool-down
 Principle of overload
• As a result of the adaptation, more stress than
the usual must be applied to the system in order
to stimulate improvements, a principle known as
the overload principle.
• Consider the old saying, “No pain, No gain.” Does
exercise really have to be painful, as this adage
implies, to be beneficial? Absolutely not.
• Physical stress, such as walking at a brisk pace or
jogging, places increased stress on the regulatory
systems that manage increased heart rate and
blood pressure, increased energy production,
increased breathing, and even increased
sweating for temperature regulation.
• For example, a beginning weightlifter performs
squats with 10 repetitions at 150 pounds. After 2
weeks of lifting this weight, the lifter notices the
150 pounds feels easier during the lift and
afterwards causes less fatigue. The lifter adds 20
pounds and continues with the newly established
stress of 170 pounds.
• This same principle can be applied, not only to
gain muscular strength, but also to gain flexibility,
muscular endurance, and cardiorespiratory
endurance.
Overload can be progressed by:
• Increasing the resistance e.g. adding 5kg to the
barbell
• Increasing the number of repetitions with a
particular weight
• Increasing the number of sets of the exercise
(work)
• Increasing the intensity- more work in the same
time, i.e. reducing the recovery periods
 FITT Principle
• In exercise, the amount of stress placed on the
body can be controlled by four variables:
Frequency, Intensity, Time (duration), and Type,
better known as FITT. The FITT principle, as
outlined by the American College of Sports
Medicine (ACSM) falls under the larger principle
of overload.
➢Frequency- how often the exe.
➢Intensity- how hard the exe.
➢Time- how long the exe.
➢Type- how vary the exe.
A. Frequency and Time
• Each variable can be used independently or in
combination with other variables to impose new
stress and stimulate adaptation. Such is the case for
frequency and time.
• Frequency relates to how often exercises are
performed over a period of time. In most cases, the
number of walking or jogging sessions would be
determined over the course of a week
• The duration of exercise, or time, also contributes to
the amount of stress experienced during a workout.
Certainly, a 30-minute brisk walk is less stressful on
the body than a 4-hour marathon.
B. Type of Exercise
• Simply put, the type of exercise performed should
reflect a person’s goals.
• In cardiorespiratory fitness, the objective of the
exercise is to stimulate the cardiorespiratory system.
Other activities that accomplish the same objective
include swimming, biking, dancing, cross country
skiing, aerobic classes, and much more.
• type and the principle of specificity, a few additional
items should be considered. Stress, as it relates to
exercise, is very specific. There are multiple types of
stress. The three main stressors are metabolic stress,
force stress, and environmental stress
C. Intensity
• Intensity, the degree of difficulty at which the
exercise is carried out, is the most important
variable of FITT.
• More than any of the other components,
intensity drives adaptation. Because of its
importance, it is imperative for those beginning a
fitness program to quantify intensity, as opposed
to estimating it as hard, easy, or somewhere in
between.
• How then can intensity be measured? Heart rate
is one of the best ways to measure a person’s
effort level for cardiorespiratory fitness.
 1.2.3 Principle of Rest, Recovery, and Periodization
The principle of rest and recovery (or principle of
recuperation) suggests that rest and recovery from
the stress of exercise must take place in
proportionate amounts to avoid too much stress.
. One systematic approach to rest and recovery has
led exercise scientists and athletes alike to divide
the progressive fitness training phases into blocks,
or periods.
One systematic approach to rest and recovery has
led exercise scientists and athletes alike to divide
the progressive fitness training phases into blocks,
or periods.
This training principle, called periodization, is
especially important to serious athletes but can be
applied to most exercise plans as well.
The principle of periodization suggests that training
plans incorporate phases of stress followed by
phases of rest.
Training phases can be organized on a daily, weekly,
monthly, and even multi-annual cycles, called
micro-, meso-, and macrocycles, respectively. An
example of this might be:
• Periodization Example
Week Frequency Intensity Time Type
1 3 days 40% HRR 25 min Walk
2 4 days 40% HRR 30 min walk
3 4 days 50% HRR 35 min walk
4 2 days 30% HRR 30 min other
Without periodization, the stress from exercise
would continue indefinitely eventually leading to
fatigue, possible injury, and even a condition known
as overtraining syndrome
Symptoms of overtraining include the following:
➢ weight loss
➢ loss of motivation
➢ inability to concentrate or focus
➢ feelings of depression
➢ lack of enjoyment in activities normally
considered enjoyable
➢ sleep disturbances
➢ change in appetite
 1.2.4 Principle of Reversibility
• Chronic adaptations are not permanent. As the
saying goes, “Use it or lose it. ”The principle of
reversibility suggests that activity must continue
at the same level to keep the same level of
adaptation. As activity declines, called detraining,
adaptations will recede.
 1.2.5 Principle of Individual Differences
• While the principles of adaptation to stress can
be applied to everyone, not everyone responds
to stress in the same way.
• Along with other studies, this has led researchers
to believe individual differences in exercise
response are genetic. Some experts estimate
genes to contribute as much as 47% to the
outcome of training.
• In addition to genes, other factors can affect the
degree of adaptation, such as a person’s age,
gender, and training status at the start of a
program.
 UNIT TWO
THE HEALTH BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
•Describe the health benefits of physical activity
•Identify diseases which are associated with a
sedentary lifestyle and the major risk factors for
these diseases
•Realize regular physical activity in terms of disease
prevention and healthy aging?
•Estimate physical activity needed for improved
health benefits?
•Identify physical activities suitable for typical
people, and how often should they exercise?
 INTRODUCTION
• Physical activity and physical fitness have been
linked with health and longevity since ancient
times.
• The earliest records of organized exercise used for
health promotion are found in China, around
2500 BC.
• the Greek physicians of the fifth and early fourth
centuries BC who established a tradition of
maintaining positive health through ‘regimen’;
the combination of correct eating and exercise
Hippocrates (460–370 BC), often called the Father
of Modern Medicine, wrote all parts of the body
which have a function, if used in moderation and
exercised in labours in which each is accustomed.
 2.1. Physical Activity and Hypokinetic
Diseases/ Conditions
Hypokinetic diseases are conditions related to
inactivity or low levels of habitual activity.
The term “hypokinetic” was coined by Kraus and
Raab in their book Hypokinetic Disease (Kraus
&Raab, 1961).
This term is now widely accepted and can be used
to describe many of the diseases and conditions
associated with inactivity and poor fitness such as
those conditions outlined in Physical Activity and
Health: A Report of the Surgeon General (USDHSS,
1996.
Individuals who do not exercise regularly are at a
greater risk for developing chronic diseases such
as:-
➢ coronary heart disease (CHD),
➢hypertension,
➢hypercholesterolemia,
➢cancer,
➢Metabolic disordered
➢Psychological disordered
➢obesity, and
➢musculoskeletal disorders
Role of physical activity and exercise in disease
prevention and rehabilitation
Exercise scientists and health and fitness professionals
have maintained that regular physical activity is the
best defence against the development of many
diseases, disorders, and illnesses.
Scientific evidence has increased our understanding of
the benefits of physical activity for improved health
and quality of life.
The intensity of exercise is expressed in metabolic
equivalents (METs).
A MET is the ratio of the person’s working (exercising)
metabolic rate to the resting metabolic rate.
One MET is defined as the energy cost of sitting quietly.
Summary of the ACSM and AHA physical activity
recommendations for adults
• Improvements in health benefits depend on the
volume (i.e., combination of frequency, intensity, and
duration) of physical activity. This is known as the
dose-response relationship.
• Physical activity lowers the risk of hypokinetic
conditions including:-
• dying prematurely,
• coronary artery disease,
• stroke,
• type 2 diabetes,
• metabolic syndrome,
• high blood lipid profile,
• cancers (colon, breast, lung, and endometrial), and
• hip fractures
• For adults (18–65 yr) and older adults (>65 yr),
the ACSM recommends a minimum of 30 min of
moderate-intensity aerobic activity 5 days per
week or 20 min of vigorous-intensity aerobic
exercise 3 days per week.
• They also recommend moderate- to high-
intensity (8- to 12-repetition maximum (RM) for
adults and 10- to 15-RM for older adults)
resistance training for a minimum of 2 non-
consecutive days per week.
• Balance and flexibility exercises are also
suggested for older adults.
• The Exercise and Physical Activity Pyramid
illustrates a balanced plan of physical activity and
exercise to promote health and to improve
physical fitness.
• You should encourage your clients to engage in
physical activities around the home and
workplace on a daily basis to establish a
foundation (base of pyramid) for an active life
style.
• They should perform aerobic activities a
minimum of 3 days/wk; they should do weight-
resistance exercises and flexibility or balance
exercises at least 2 days per week.
• Low intensity physical activities (bottom of
pyramid) require light physical exersice.
• Recreational sport activities (middle levels of
pyramid) are recommended to add variety to the
exercise plan.
• High-intensity training and competitive sport (top
of pyramid) require a solid fitness base and
proper preparation to prevent injury; most adults
should engage in these activities sparingly
The Exercise and Physical Activity Pyramid
Physical Activity and Cardiovascular Diseases
• According to World Health Organization (WHO,
2011) cardiovascular disease (CVD) caused 17.3
million deaths (30%) worldwide in 2008, and it is
projected to cause more than 26 million deaths
by 2030.
• More than 80% of those cardiovascular deaths
occurred in low- and middle-income countries.
 Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
• CHD is caused by a lack of blood supply to the
heart muscle (myocardialischemia) resulting from
a progressive, degenerative disorder known as
atherosclerosis.
• Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory process
involving a build-up of low-density lipoprotein
(LDL) cholesterol, scavenger cells (monocytes),
necrotic debris, smooth muscle cells, and fibrous
tissue.
• This is how plaques form in the intima, or inner
lining of the medium- and large-sized arteries
throughout the cardiovascular system
• Coronary Heart Disease Risk Factors: The greater the
number and severity of risk factors, the greater the
probability of CHD. The positive risk factors for CHD
are:
• Age,
• Family History,
• Hypercholesterolemia,
• Hypertension,
• Tobacco use,
• Diabetes Mellitus or Prediabetes,
• Overweight and Obesity, and
• Physical Inactivity.
• Physical Activity and Coronary Heart
Physically active people have lower incidences of
myocardial infarction and mortality from CHD and
tend to develop CHD at a later age compared to
their sedentary counterparts.
Individuals who exercise regularly reduce their
relative risk of developing CHD by a factor of1.5 to
2.4. Leading a physically active lifestyle may prevent
20%to 35% of cardiovascular diseases.
 Hypertension
• Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a
chronic, persistent elevation of blood pressure
that is clinically defined as a systolic pressure
≥140 mmHg or a diastolic pressure ≥90 mmHg.
• Regular physical activity prevents hypertension
and lowers blood pressure in younger and older
adults who are normotensive, prehypertensive, or
hypertensive
Hyper-cholesterolemia and Dyslipidemia
• Hypercholesterolemia, is an elevation of total
cholesterol (TC) in the blood, is associated with
increased risk for CVD.
• Hypercholesterolemia is also referred to as
hyperlipidemia, which is an increase in blood lipid
levels;
• dyslipidemia refers to an abnormal blood lipid
profile.
• Age, gender, family history, alcohol, smoking are
risk factors for hypercholesterolemia and regular
activity reduced the chance of getting
hypercholesterolemia and hyslipidemia.
• LDLs, HDLs, and TC: Cholesterol is a waxy, fatlike
substance found in all animal products (meats,
dairy products, and eggs). The body can make
cholesterol in the liver and absorb it from the
diet.
• Lipoproteins are classified by the thickness of the
protein shell that surrounds the cholesterol.
• The four main classes of lipoproteins are
chylomicron, derived from the intestinal
absorption of triglycerides (TG);
• very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), made in the
liver for the transport of triglycerides;
• low-density lipoprotein (LDL), a product of VLDL
metabolism that serves as the primary
transporter of cholesterol; and
• high-density lipoprotein (HDL), involved in the
reverse transport of cholesterol to the liver.
 Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes is a global epidemic. More than 346
million people worldwide have the disease (WHO,
2011).
Factors linked to this epidemic include urbanization,
aging, physical inactivity, unhealthy diet, and
obesity.
At least 65% of people with diabetes mellitus die
from some form of heart or blood vessel disease
(AHA, 2008).
Diabetes is a major contributor toward the
development of CHD, stroke and kidney failure .
• Pre-diabetes, in addition to being a positive risk
factor for CVD, is a medical condition identified by
fasting blood glucose or glycated,hemoglobin
(HbA1c) levels that are above normal values but
lower than the threshold for a diagnosis of
diabetes.
• Fortunately, pre-diabetes appears to respond
favourably to weight loss and increases in physical
activity.
• Type 1 diabetes, formerly referred to as insulin-
dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), usually
occurs before age 30 but can develop at any age.
• Type 2 diabetes, previously known as non-insulin-
dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), is more
common; 90% of individuals diagnosed with
diabetes mellitus worldwide have type 2 diabetes
(WHO, 2011). Age, gender, family history, calorie
intake, physical inactivity are risk factors for
developing diabetes.
Type 1 diabetes may be caused by autoimmune,
genetic, or environmental factors, but the specific
cause is unknown. Unfortunately, there is no known
way to prevent type 1 diabetes (CDC, 2011).
Healthy nutrition and increased physical activity,
however, can reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes by
as much as 67% in high-risk individuals.
Nearly 90% of cases of type 2 diabetes worldwide
may be related to obesity
• The effect of exercise alone as an intervention for
people with type 2 diabetes is not well
researched. However, exercise (30–120 min, 3
days/wk for 8 wk) produced clinically significant
improvements in HbA1c and reduced visceral and
subcutaneous adipose tissue stores in people
with type 2 diabetes.
• Both resistance and aerobic exercise alone or in
combination improve HbA1c values in people
with type 2 diabetes
 Obesity and Overweight
• overweight and obesity are classified using the
body mass index(BMI) (BMI = weight [kg] / height
squared [m2]).
• Individuals with a BMI between 25 and 29.9
kg/m2 are classified as overweight; those with a
BMI of 30 kg/m2 or more are classified as obese.
• Age, gender, family history, cholesterol intake,
and physical inactivity are the major factors
associated with increased risk of obesity.
• Excess body weight and fatness pose a threat to
both the quality and duration of one’s life.
• Obese individuals have a shorter life expectancy
and greater risks of CHD, stroke, dyslipidemia,
hypertension, diabetes mellitus, certain cancers,
osteoarthritis, sleep apnea, abnormal menses,
and infertility.
• Restricting caloric intake and increasing caloric
expenditure through physical activity and exercise
are effective ways of reducing body weight and
fatness while normalizing blood pressure and
blood lipid profiles
 Metabolic Syndrome
• Metabolic syndrome refers to a combination of
CVD risk factors associated with hypertension,
dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and abdominal
obesity.
• Age and BMI directly relate to metabolic syndrome
• Lifestyle must be modified in order to manage
metabolic syndrome.
• The combination of healthy nutrition and increased
physical activity is an effective way to increase HDL-
C and to reduce blood pressure, body weight,
triglycerides, and blood glucose levels.
 Aging
• A sedentary lifestyle and lack of physical activity
reduce life expectancy by predisposing the
individual to aging-related diseases and by
influencing the aging process itself.
• With aging, a progressive loss of physiological and
metabolic functions occurs; however, biological
aging may differ considerably among individuals
due to variability in genetic and environmental
factors that affect oxidative stress and
inflammation.
• regular exercise benefits in retarding the aging
process and diminishing the risk of aging-related
diseases.
 Physical Activity and Postural Deformity
• Posture is the position from which movement
begins and ends.
• Having proper postural alignment enables the
body to perform movements quicker with less
joint and muscular strain.
• The body is designed to work at the most
economical level, thus saving energy for future
use.
• We spend more energy maintaining misaligned
posture, which can cause muscle and joint pain.
• Women in general tend to develop poor posture
because of many factors.
• They often have more clerical and computer
oriented jobs that require sitting in a chair, eyeing
a computer screen for long periods of time.
• They also wear high-heeled shoes, which lead to
an alteration and compensation of their posture.
• To improve your posture and reduce structural
damage, you should adhere to a corrective
postural exercise program
Exercises for correcting posture:
• Prone Cobra
• Axial Extension Trainer
• Wall Leans
• Cervical Extension using a blood pressure cuff
Musculoskeletal Diseases and Disorders
• Diseases and disorders of the musculoskeletal
system, such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, bone
fractures, connective tissue tears, and low back
syndrome, are also related to physical inactivity
and a sedentary lifestyle.
• Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by the
loss of bone mineral content and bone mineral
density due to factors such as aging, amenorrhea,
malnutrition, menopause, and physical inactivity
• Osteopenia, or low bone mineral mass, is a
precursor to osteoporosis.
• Adequate calcium intake, vitamin D intake, and
regular physical activity help counteract age-
related bone loss.
• Exercise Prescription for Preserving Bone Health
of Adults
➢Mode
➢Intensity
➢Frequency
➢Duration
 Low back pain
• Low back pain afflicts millions of people each
year. More than 80% of all low back problems are
produced by muscular weakness or imbalance
caused by a lack of physical activity.
• the muscles are not strong enough to support the
vertebral column in proper alignment, poor
posture results and low back pain develops.
• Excessive weight, poor flexibility, and improper
lifting habits also contribute to low back
problems
• While some risks of associated with low back pain
are not modifiable, such as gender and age,
lifestyle behaviour such as smoking, physical
inactivity, flexibility, and muscular strength and
endurance can all be improved.
• Because the origin of low back problems is often
functional rather than structural, in many cases,
the problem can be corrected through an exercise
program that develops strength and flexibility in
the appropriate muscle groups
 UNIT THREE
MAKING WELL-INFORMED FOOD CHOICES
• UNIT OBJECTIVES
• By the end of this unit students should be able to:-
•Summarize the basics of nutrition
•Define macronutrients and micronutrients
•Categorize and describe the body’s sources of energy
•Analyse intake of nutrition and make appropriate
changes for sound eating practices
•Realize the management of nutrition for better
physical performance
 Introduction
• Regular exercise taxes every cell and every system
in your body: your muscles, joints, ligaments,
tendons, respiratory, circulatory and immune
systems all have to work harder when you
exercise.
• Eating a healthy diet can help minimize the
damage caused by exercise and help your body
rebuild itself even stronger.
 Sound Eating Practices
• What is Nutrition? And
• what is Nutrient?
• Nutrition can be defined as the science of the action
of food, beverages, and their components in
biological systems.
• A nutrient is a compound that provides a needed
function in the body.
• Nutrients can be further classified based on the
amount needed in the body.
• Macronutrients are the nutrients the body needs in
larger amounts.
• Micronutrients are also important nutrients, but ones
the body needs in smaller amounts.
• The food you eat is a source of nutrients.
Nutrients are defined as the substances found
in food that keep your body functioning.
• Your body needs nutrients to…
• Fuel your energy.
• Help you grow.
• Repair itself.
• Maintain basic bodily functions
 Macronutrients
•Carbohydrates: The word carbohydrate literally
means "hydrated carbon," or carbon with water.
Thus, it is no surprise that carbohydrates are made
up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Sucrose (table sugar) is an example of a commonly
consumed carbohydrate. Some dietary examples of
carbohydrates are whole-wheat bread, oatmeal,
rice, sugary snacks/drinks, and pasta.
•Proteins: Like carbohydrates, proteins are
comprised of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but
they also contain nitrogen. Several dietary sources of
proteins include nuts, beans/legumes, skim milk, egg
whites, and meat.
Function in the Body:
Provides energy.
Help to build, maintain, and repair body tissues.
Proteins are made up of chemical compounds called
amino acids. There are 20 amino acids.
Lipids: Lipids consist of fatty acids, triglycerides,
phospholipids, and sterols (cholesterol). Lipids
are also composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. Some dietary sources of lipids include
oils, butter, and egg yolks.
•Water: Water is made up of hydrogen and
oxygen and is the only macronutrient that
provides no energy.
 Micronutrients
•Vitamins: These compounds are essential for
normal physiologic processes in the body.
Unlike carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, vitamins
DO NOT provide energy (calories).
•Minerals: Minerals are the elements (think periodic
table) that are essential for normal physiologic
processes in the body.
Unlike carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, minerals
DO NOT provide energy (calories).
 Calories (Food Energy)
• Food energy is measured in kilocalories (kcals),
commonly referred to as calories. Although
technically incorrect, this terminology is so familiar
that it will be used throughout this course.
• A kilocalorie is the amount of energy needed to raise
1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius. A food’s
kilocalories are determined by putting the food into a
bomb calorimeter and determining the energy
output:
• Energy = Measurement of Heat Produced. Below is a
picture of a bomb calorimeter and a link to a video
showing how one is used. The number of kilocalories
per gram for each nutrient is shown below:
 Amount of calories obtained from
nutrients
Nutrient Energy (kcal/g)
Carbohydrate 4
Protein 4
Lipids 9
Water 0
Vitamins 0
Minerals 0

carbohydrates, protein, and lipids provide energy.

However, there is another dietary energy source
that is not a nutrient— alcohol. To emphasize,
alcohol is not a nutrient, but it does provide 7
kilocalories of energy per gram.
daily calorie needs will depend on your genetic
make-up, age, weight, body composition, your daily
activity and your training programme. It is possible
to estimate the number of calories you need daily
from your body weight (BW) and your level of daily
physical activity.
Step 1: Estimate your Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
As a rule of thumb, BMR uses 22 calories for every
kg of a woman’s body weight and 24 calories per kg
of a man’s body weight.
Women: BMR = weight in kg x 22
Men: BMR = weight in kg x 24
Step 2: Work out your Physical Activity Level (PAL)
This is the ratio of your overall daily energy
expenditure to your BMR; a rough measure of your
lifestyle activity.
• Mostly inactive or sedentary (mainly sitting): 1.2
• Fairly active (include walking and exercise 1–2 x
week): 1.3
• Moderately active (exercise 2–3 x weekly): 1.4
• Active (exercise hard more than 3 x weekly): 1.5
• Very active (exercise hard daily): 1.7
Step 3: Multiply your BMR by your PAL to work
out your Daily Calorie Needs
• Daily calorie needs = BMR x PAL
• This figure gives you a rough idea of your daily
calorie requirement to maintain your weight.
If you eat fewer calories, you will lose weight;
if you eat more then you will gain weight.
I. Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrate is an important fuel for exercise. It
is stored as glycogen in your liver and muscles,
and must be re-stocked each day.
• Approximately 100 g glycogen (equivalent to
400 kilocalories) may be stored in the liver, and
up to 400 g glycogen (equivalent to 1600
kilocalories) in muscle cells.
• The purpose of liver glycogen is to maintain
steady blood sugar levels.
• The more active you are, the higher your
carbohydrate needs. Guidelines for daily
intakes are about 5–7 g per kg of body weight
per day for moderate duration/low intensity
daily training.
• Those who do moderate–heavy endurance
training should consume 7–10 g per kg body
weight per day; and those training more than
4 hours per day are advised to consume 10 g
or more per kg body weight per day.
• During exercise lasting longer than 60
minutes, consuming 20–60 g carbohydrate per
hour helps maintain your blood glucose level,
delay fatigue and increase your endurance.
Choose high GI carbohydrates (e.g. sports
drinks, energy gels and energy bars, bananas,
fruit bars, cereal or breakfast bars), which
convert into blood sugar rapidly.
 II. Protein
Protein is another major macronutrient that, like
carbohydrates, consists of small repeating units. But
instead of sugars, proteins are made up of amino
acids.
Proteins can be classified as either complete or
incomplete. Amino acids from proteins form the
building blocks for new tissues and the repair of
body cells.
They are also used for making enzymes, hormones
and antibodies.
Protein also provides a (small) fuel source for
exercising muscles.
• As protein is found in so many foods, most
people, including athletes eat a little more
protein than they need.
• This isn’t harmful, the excess is broken down into
urea (which is excreted) and fuel, which is either
used for energy or stored as fat if your calorie
intake exceeds your output.
• Several studies have found that carbohydrate and
protein eaten together immediately after exercise
enhances recovery and promotes muscle building
 III. Fat
• Some fat is essential, it makes up part of the
structure of all cell membranes, your brain tissue,
nerve sheaths, bone marrow and it cushions your
organs.
• Fat in food also provides essential fatty acids, the
fat-soluble vitamins A, D and E, and is an
important source of energy for exercise.
• about 20–33% of the calories in your diet should
come from fat.
• ‘Bad’ fats (saturated and trans fats) should be kept to
a minimum (the UK government recommends less
than 10% of calories), with the majority coming from
‘good’ (unsaturated) fats.
• Omega-3s may be particularly beneficial for athletes
as they help increase the delivery of oxygen to
muscles, improve endurance and may speed recovery,
reduce inflammation and joint stiffness.
• There is neither bad nor good cholesterol, despite the
common use of these descriptions in reference to LDL
and HDL, respectively.
• Cholesterol is cholesterol. HDL and LDL contain
cholesterol but are actually lipoproteins
 IV. Fiber
• The simplest definition of fiber is indigestible matter.
Indigestible means that it survives digestion in the
small intestine and reaches the large intestine. There
are the three major fiber classifications:
•Dietary fiber: This type of fiber contains both non-
digestible carbohydrates and lignin and is always
intrinsic and intact in plants.
•Functional fiber: This type of fiber contains non-
digestible carbohydrates only and can be isolated,
extracted, or synthesized. Functional fiber can be from
plants or animals and produces beneficial physiological
effects in humans.
•Total Fiber: Fiber that contains both dietary fiber and
functional fiber.
 V. Vitamins
▪ Vitamins are organic compounds found in foods and
are a necessary part of the biochemical reactions in
the body.
▪ They are involved in a number of processes, including
mineral and bone metabolism, and cell and tissue
growth, and they act as cofactors for energy
metabolism. The B vitamins play the largest role of
any vitamins in metabolism.
▪ Vitamins are either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-
soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, are absorbed through
the intestinal tract with lipids in chylomicrons.
▪ Vitamin D is also synthesized in the skin through
exposure to sunlight.
• Water-soluble vitamins, including the eight B
vitamins and vitamin C, are absorbed with water
in the gastrointestinal tract.
• These vitamins move easily through bodily fluids,
which are water based, so they are not stored in
the body. Excess water-soluble vitamins are
excreted in the urine.
 VI. Minerals
• Minerals in food are inorganic compounds that
work with other nutrients to ensure the body
functions properly.
• Minerals cannot be made in the body; they come
from the diet
• most of that consists of the minerals that the
body requires in moderate quantities: potassium,
sodium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and
chloride.
• The most common minerals in the body are
calcium and phosphorous, both of which are
stored in the skeleton and necessary for the
hardening of bones.
• Most minerals are ionized, and their ionic forms
are used in physiological processes throughout the
body.
 VII. Water
• You should ensure you are hydrated before
starting training competition and aim to minimize
dehydration during exercise.
• Dehydration can result in reduced endurance and
strength, and heat related illness.
• The IOC advises matching your fluid intake to your
fluid losses as closely as possible and limiting
dehydration to no more than 2% loss of body
weight (e.g. a body weight loss of no more than
1.5 kg for a 75 kg person).
• Additionally, the IAAF cautions against
overhydrating yourself before and during exercise,
particularly in events lasting longer than 4 hours.
Constantly drinking water may dilute your blood so
that your sodium levels fall.
• Sports drinks are better than water during intense
exercise lasting more than 60 minutes because
their sodium content will promote water retention
and prevent hyponatraemia.
 Nutrition and Physical Performance
• There is universal scientific consensus that diet
affects performance. A well-planned eating
strategy will help support any training programme.
• everyone has different nutritional needs and there
is no single diet that fits all.
• Some athletes require more calories, protein or
vitamins than others; and each sport has its unique
nutritional demands.
• Nutrition and physical performance will have three
parts, these are: before(pre) exercise, during
exercise and after(post) exercise
 Nutrition before Training Exercise
• What you eat and drink the day before and during
the several hours before your workout dictates
how much energy you’ll have for training and how
well you will perform. It also affects how much
body fat, glycogen or even muscle tissue you burn.
• Eating the right amount and type of carbohydrate
as well as timing your pre-exercise meal correctly
will help avoid common problems such as fatigue,
dizziness, fainting and stitch.
 Why eat before training?
• The main purpose of your pre-workout meal is to
stabilise your blood sugar levels during exercise.
• It also staves off hunger and minimises the risk of
problems such as stitch and hypoglycaemia (low
blood sugar levels).
• Pre-workout meal goal: maximize muscle & liver
glycogen stores providing glucose.
• For most regular exercisers, a daily diet providing
carbohydrates of around 280–350 g for a 70 kg
person
• Should you train on empty?
• It is definitely not advisable to train on an empty
stomach.
• when your brain isn’t getting enough fuel you’ll feel
faint, lose concentration and risk injury.
• you are more likely to fatigue early as muscle
glycogen and blood sugar levels dip.
• you can’t expect to exercise very hard or very long
when you haven’t fuelled your body for several
hours.
 How much to eat before training
The exact amount you should eat depends on your
body weight (heavier people need more) and how
hard and long you plan to exercise (eat more for
longer, harder workouts).
if you plan to work out for less than 2 hours, aim to
eat around 1 g carbohydrate per kg of body weight
(or 70 g for a 70 kg person) or 400–600 calories.
For longer workouts or endurance events eat around
2 g carbohydrate per kg of body weight (or 600–800
calories).
• When to eat before training
• Ideally, you should aim to have a meal 2–4 hours
before a workout. This should leave enough time to
partially digest your food although, in practice, the
exact timing of your pre-workout meal may depend
on your daily schedule.
• Some literature recommended eating a
moderately-high Carbohydrate, low fat meal 3
hours before exercise allows you to exercise longer
and perform better.
• What are the best foods to eat just before a
workout?
• Slow-burning or low glycaemic index (GI) foods –
that is foods that produce a gradual rise in blood
sugar levels are the best foods before a workout.
• low-GI foods help spare muscle glycogen and avoid
problems of low blood sugar levels during long
training sessions.
• Low-GI meals may also help you burn more fat
during exercise
 Why drink before training?
• It is important to ensure that you are properly
hydrated before training to minimise the risk of
dehydration during exercise.
• Exercise feels tougher when you are dehydrated
and you cannot train as hard.
When to drink before training?
• The best strategy is to keep hydrated throughout
the day rather than load up with fluid just before
your workout. Try to make a habit of drinking water
regularly. Have a glass of water first thing in the
morning and then schedule drinks during your day
 Nutrition During Exercise
• Everyone exercising for longer than 30 minutes will
certainly benefit from drinking something during
exercise. But with the growing array of sports
drinks, sports ‘waters’ and energy drinks it’s a
confusing choice for most regular exercisers.
• If you plan to exercise longer than 60 minutes, you
may also benefit from additional carbohydrate.
• The amount of carbohydrate ingested is important
for its contribution to energy expenditure and
sparing of liver glycogen
The ideal nutritional strategy during exercise should:
•provide sufficient carbohydrate to maintain blood
glucose levels and carbohydrate oxidation
• To provides a fuel source for the brain to maintain
skills and decision making, and reduce the
perception of fatigue.
•provide water and electrolytes to prevent fluid
imbalance
•not cause any gastro-intestinal discomfort
•taste good.
 Nutrition after Exercise
• The quicker you can begin refuelling after exercise,
the quicker your body will recover.
• Any workout depletes your stores of glycogen – the
readily available fuel stored in your muscles – and
breaks down muscle tissue.
• Your aim is to rebuild these fuel stores and repair
damaged muscle fibers as soon as possible.
• It is during this post-exercise period that your body
gets stronger and fitter.
How much to drink?
Start drinking before you even get showered and
changed.
The sooner you begin replacing the fluid you have
lost through sweat, the sooner you will recover and
cut the risk of post-workout dehydration. Fail to drink
enough and you will feel listless with a risk of
headache and nausea.
you need to drink 750 ml of water for every 0.5 kg of
body weight lost during your workout. (1 kilogram of
lost weight is equal to 1 litre of sweat, which needs
to be replaced with 1.5 litres of fluid).
• What to drink?
• If you have exercised for less than an hour, plain
water is a good choice followed by a carbohydrate-
rich snack within 2 hours.
• For longer or particularly intense workouts, a drink
containing carbohydrate (sugar or maltodextrin)
and sodium may further speed your recovery.
• carbohydrate at levels of approximately 6 g
carbohydrate per 100 ml increases the speed of
water absorption into the bloodstream.
• dry fruit juice diluted with an equal volume of
water, diluted squash (1 part squash: 6 parts water)
When to eat or drink?
• Whether you are hungry or not, the quicker you
consume food or drink after a workout, the
quicker your body will recover.
• The enzymes that are responsible for making
glycogen are most active immediately after your
workout, leaving you a 2-hour window to reload
your muscle glycogen.
How to Plan your Training Diet
• Use the Fitness Food Pyramid to devise your daily
menu or to check your current eating plan. The
foods in the lower layers of the pyramid should
form the main part of your diet while those at the
top should be eaten in smaller quantities.
• Include foods from each group in the pyramid
each day.
• Make sure you include a variety of foods within
each group.
• Aim to include the suggested number of portions
from each food group each day.
Fitness Food Pyramid
 UNIT FOUR
HEALTH RELATED COMPONENTS OF
FITNESS AND PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE
PRESCRIPTION
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
•Identify the five components of health related
physical fitness components
•Analyse health risks associated with excessively low
body fatness
•Understand health risks associated with over fatness
•Appreciate and value the benefits of regular physical
exercise to healthy living.
•Recognize the means and methods of developing the
health related components of physical fitness
4.1. Health Related Components of Fitness
The overall goal of a total health related physical
fitness program is to optimize the quality of life.
The specific goals of this type of fitness program are:
➢To reduce the risk of disease,
➢to improve total physical fitness so that, daily tasks
can be completed with less effort and fatigue
➢aimed at improving sport performance
A health related fitness program improves sport
performance by increasing muscular strength and
endurance, improving flexibility and reducing the
risk of injury.
• Exercise scientists do not always agree on the
basic components of physical fitness.
• However, most do agree that the five major
components of total health-related physical
fitness are: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular
strength, muscular endurance, flexibility and body
composition
 4.1.1. Cardiorespiratory Fitness
Meaning and Concepts of Cardiorespiratory Fitness
• Cardiorespiratory fitness: (sometimes called
aerobic fitness or cardiorespiratory endurance) is
considered to be a key component of health-
related physical fitness.
• It is a measure of a heart’s ability to pump oxygen-
rich blood to the working muscles during exercise.
It is also a measure of the muscle’s ability to take
up and use the delivered oxygen to produce the
energy needed to continue exercising.
• In practical terms, cardiorespiratory endurance is
the ability to perform endurance-type exercise
such as (distance running, cycling, swimming,
etc.).
• The individuals that have achieved a high measure
of cardiorespiratory endurance are generally
capable of performing 30 to 60 minutes of
vigorous exercise without undo fatigue.
 4.1.2. Muscle Fitness
Meaning and Concepts of Muscle Fitness
• There are two components of muscle fitness:
strength and muscular endurance.
• Muscular strength: Is the maximal ability of a
muscle to generate force. It is evaluated by how
much force a muscle can generate during a single
maximal contraction. Practically, this means how
much weight that an individual can lift during one
maximal effort.
• Muscular strength is important in almost all
sports. Sports such as football, basketball, and
events in track and field require a high level of
muscular strength.
• Even non-athletes require some degree of
muscular strength to function everyday life. For
example, routine tasks around the home, such as
lifting bags of groceries and moving furniture,
require muscular strength.
• Weight training results in an increase in the size
and strength of muscles.
• Muscular Endurance: Muscular endurance is
defined as the ability of a muscle to generate
force over and over again. Although muscular
strength and muscular endurance are related they
are not the same.
• These two terms can be best distinguished by
examples. An excellent example of muscular
strength is a person lifting a heavy barbell during
one maximal muscular effort.
• In contrast, muscular endurance is illustrated by a
weightlifter performing multiple lifts or repetition
of a lightweight.
 Muscle Structure and Contraction
• Muscle Structure: Skeletal muscle is a collection of
long thin cells called fibers. These fibers has
surrounded by a dense layer of connective tissue
called fascia that holds the individual fibers
together and separates muscle from surrounding
tissues.
• Muscles are attached to bone by connective
tissues known as tendons. Muscular contraction
causes the tendons to pull on the bones, thereby
causing movement.
• Muscle Contraction: Muscle contraction is
regulated by signals coming from motor nerves.
Motor nerves originate in the spinal cord and
send nerve fibers to individual muscles
throughout the body.
• The motor nerve and individual muscle fiber make
contact at the neuromuscular junction (where the
nerve and muscle fiber meet). Note that each
motor nerve branches and then connects with
numerous individual muscle fibers. The motor
nerve and all of the muscle fibers it controls is
called a motor unit.
 Types of Muscle Contractions
• Muscle contractions are classified into two major
categories: isotonic and isometric.
• Isotonic (also called dynamic) contractions: are
those that result in movement of a body part.
• Most exercise or sports skills utilize isotonic
contractions. For example, lifting a dumbbell
involves movement of a body part and is
therefore classified as an isotonic contraction.
• An isometric (also called static) contraction:
requires the development of muscular tension but
results in no movement of body parts. A classic
example of an isometric contraction is, the
individual exerting force against a wall of a
building; the muscle is developing tension but the
wall is not moving and therefore neither is the
body part.
• Isometric contractions occur commonly in the
postural muscles of the body during sitting or
standing; for instance, they are responsible for
holding the head upright.
• Note that isotonic contractions can be further
subdivided into concentric, eccentric, and
isokinetic contractions.
• Concentric contractions are isotonic muscle
contractions that result in muscle shortening. The
upward movement of the arm is an example of a
concentric contraction.
• In contrast, eccentric contractions (Also called
negative contractions) are defined as contractions
in which the muscle exerts force while it
lengthens.
• Isokinetic Muscle Contractions are concentric or
eccentric contractions performed at a constant
speed. That is, the speed of muscle shortening or
lengthening is regulated at a fixed, controlled rate.
A weight-lifting machine that controls the rate of
muscle shortening generally accomplishes this.
 Muscle Fiber Types
• There are three types of skeletal muscle fibers:
➢Slow twitch,
➢fast twitch, and
➢ intermediate.
• These fiber types differ in their speeds of
contraction and in fatigue resistance. Most human
muscles contain a mixture of all three fibers types.
Before beginning a strength-training program, it is
helpful to have an understanding of each.
• Slow-Twitch Fibers: As the name implies slow-
twitch fibers contract slowly and produce small
amounts of force; however, these fibers are highly
resistant to fatigue.
• Slow-twitch fibers, which are red in appearance,
have the capacity to produce large quantities of
ATP aerobically, making them ideally suited for a
low-intensity prolonged exercise like walking or
slow jogging.
• Fast-Twitch Fibers: Fast-twitch fibers contract
rapidly and generate great amounts of force but
fatigue quickly.
• These fibers are white and have a low aerobic
capacity, but they are well equipped to produce
ATP anaerobically.
• With their ability to shorten rapidly and produce
large amounts of force, fast-twitch fibers are used
during activities requiring rapid or forceful
movement, such as jumping, sprinting, and weight
lifting.
• Intermediate Fibers: Are although more red in
color, possess a combination of the characteristics
of fast- and slow-twitch fibers.
• They contract rapidly, produce great force, and are
fatigue resistant due to a well-developed aerobic
capacity.
• Intermediate fibers contract more quickly and
produce more force than slow-twitch fibers but
contract more slowly and produce less force than
fast-twitch fibers
 4.1.3. Flexibility
Meaning of Flexibility
• The body is flexible. It is supposed to be flexible.
You must be able to bend and reach that
something you dropped on the floor.
• Flexibility is the ability to move joints freely
through their full range of motion. Without
routine stretching muscles and tendons shorten
and become tight, this can retard the range of
motion around joints and impairer flexibility.
• Research suggests that flexibility is useful in
preventing some types of muscle-tendon injuries
and may be useful in reducing low back pain
 Stretching Techniques
• Though there are a number of stretching
techniques, three kinds of stretching techniques
are commonly used to increase flexibility:
➢ballistic,
➢static, and
➢proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.
Ballistic stretching promotes the stretch reflex and
increases the risk of injury to muscles and tendons,
only the static and proprioceptive neuromuscular
facilitation methods are recommended.
Static Stretching
• Static stretching is extremely effective for
improving flexibility and has gained popularity
over the last decade. Static stretching slowly
lengthens a muscle to a point at which further
movement is limited (slight discomfort is felt) and
requires holding this position for a fixed period of
time.
• Compared with ballistic stretching, the risk of
injury associated with static stretching is minimal.
• Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
• It is a relatively new technique for improving
flexibility. Proprioceptive neuromuscular
facilitation (PNF) combines stretching with
alternating contracting and relaxing of muscles.
There are two common types of PNF stretching:
contract-relax (C-R) stretching and contract-
relax/antagonist contract (CRAC) stretching.
• The purpose of contracting the antagonist muscle
is to promote a reflex relaxation of the muscle to
be stretched.
 4.1.4. Body composition
Meaning of Body Composition
• The term body composition refers to the relative
amounts of fat and lean body tissue (muscle,
organs, bone) found in your body.
• The rationale for including body composition as a
component of health related physical fitness is
that having a high percentage of body fat (a
condition known as obesity) is associated with an
increased risk of development of type 2 diabetes
and contributes to joint stress during movement.
Health Risks Associated With Over Fatness
• Obesity has been elevated from a secondary to a
primary risk factor for heart disease
• Physical fitness provides protection from the
health risk of obesity
• Over fatness and obesity can contribute to
degenerative disease, health problems, and even
shortened life
• Heart disease is not the only disease that is
associated with obesity
• Excessive abdominal fat and excessive fatness of
the upper body can increase the risk of various
diseases
• Apple shape/android fat / northern hemisphere
for men and pear shape/southern hemisphere”/
gyniod for women
Health Risks Associated With Excessively Low Body
Fatness
• Excessive desire to be thin or low in body weight
can result in health problems
• Anorexia nervosa is the most sever eating
disorder. If untreated, it is life threatening
• Bulimia is a common eating disorder characterized
by bingeing and purging
 How do people manage their body fat?
• The three most important factors to maintain a
healthy body fat percentage are:
1. Maintaining your lean muscle mass through routine
strength training (minimum 2x/week for each muscle
group)
2. Maintaining a healthy well-balanced diet that is low
in fat (<30% of calories from fat)
3. Maintaining consistent sleep patterns (minimum 7
hours/night). Always seek the assistance of a medical or
health and fitness professional for personal program
guidance in reducing or managing your body fat.
 4.2. Principles of Exercise Prescription for
Health and Fitness
• Doctors often prescribe medications to treat
certain diseases, and for every individual there is
an appropriate dosage of medicine to cure an
illness. Similarly, for each individual, there is a
correct dosage of exercise to effectively promote
physical fitness, called an exercise prescription.
• Exercise prescriptions should be tailored to meet
the needs of the individual.
• It should include fitness goals, mode of exercise,
a warm-up, a primary conditioning period, and a
cool-down
 4.2.1. Fitness Goals
• Establishing short-term and long-term fitness
goals is an important part of an exercise
prescription.
• Goals serve as motivation to start an exercise
program. Further, attaining your fitness goals
improves self-esteem and provides the incentive
needed to make a lifetime commitment to regular
exercise.
• A logical and common type of fitness goal is a
performance goal. You can establish performance
goals in each component of health-related
physical fitness.
Establish Short-Term Goals First
Reaching short-term fitness goals is a great motivation to continue exercising.
Therefore, establishment of realistic short-term goals is critical. After reaching
a short-term goal, establish a new one.
Table 4.1 Fitness improvement goals
Fitness category Current status Short term goal Long term goal
Cardiorespiratory Poor Average Excellent
fitness

Muscular strength Poor Average Excellent

Muscular endurance Very poor Average Good

Flexibility Poor Average Good

Body composition High fat Moderately high Optimal

Establish Lifetime Maintenance Goals
• In addition to short-term and long-term goals,
consider establishing a fitness maintenance goal.
A maintenance goal is established when your
fitness goals have been met and your focus
becomes remaining physically active and fit.
 4.2.2. Mode of Exercise
• Every exercise prescription includes at least one
mode of exercise that is, a specific type of exercise
to be performed. For example, to improve cardio
respiratory fitness, you could select from a wide
variety of exercise modes, such as running,
swimming, or cycling.
• Key factors to consider when selecting an exercise
mode are enjoyment, availability of the activity,
and risk of injury.
• Physical activities can be classified as being either
high impact or low impact based on the amount
of stress placed on joints during the activity
 4.2.3. Warm-Up
• A warm-up is a brief (5- to 15-minute) period of
exercise that precedes the workout. It generally
involves light calisthenics or a low-intensity form
of the actual mode of exercise and often includes
stretching exercises as well.
• The purpose of a warm-up is to elevate muscle
temperature and increase blood flow to those
muscles that will be engaged in the workout. A
warm-up can also reduce the strain on the heart
imposed by rapidly engaging in heavy exercise and
may reduce the risk of muscle and tendon
injuries.
 4.2.4. Primary Conditioning Period: The
Workout Plan
• The major components of the exercise prescription
that make up the primary conditioning period are
the mode of exercise (described earlier), frequency,
intensity, and duration
❖The frequency of exercise is the number of times
per week that you intend to exercise.
❖The intensity of exercise is the amount of
physiological stress or overload placed on the body
during the exercise.
❖the duration of exercise, the amount of time
invested in performing the primary workout.
 4.2.5. Cool-Down
The cool-down (sometimes called a warm-down) is
a 5- to 15-minute period of low-intensity exercise
that immediately follows the primary conditioning
period.
➢one primary purpose of a cool-down is to allow
blood to be returned from the muscles back
toward the heart.
➢post-exercise muscle soreness may be reduced as
a result of a cool-down.
 4.4.1. Exercise Prescription for Cardio
Respiratory Fitness
• Warm-Up
• Workout: Primary Conditioning Period
@Modes of exercise
@Frequency
@ Intensity
@ Duration
@ Intensity-Improvements in cardio respiratory
fitness occur when the training intensity is
approximately 50% of VO2 max (this work rate is
often called the training threshold).
Recall that training intensity can be monitored indirectly
by measurement of heart rate.
The heart rate, which corresponds to exercise intensity
sufficient to improve health-, related physical fitness is
called the target heart rate (THR). The most popular
method of determining THR is the percentage of
maximal heart rate (HR max) method.
This method works on the principles that exercise
intensity (i.e., % VO2 max) can be estimated by
measurement of exercise heart rate.
To compute our THR using this method, simply multiply
your HR max by both 90% and 70% to arrive at the high
and low ends of your THR range.
For example, the maximal HR of a 20-year-old college
student can be estimated by the following formula.
HR max = 220 - 20 = 200 beats/min
The THR is then computed as 200 beats/min x 0.70 =
140 beats/min and 200 beats/min x 0.90 =180
beats/min
THR = 140 to 180 beats/min
In this example, the THR to be maintained during a
workout to improve cardiorespiratory fitness is between
140 and 180 beats/min; this range of exercise
intensities is sometimes called the training sensitive
zone.
 4.4.3. Training Techniques
• Endurance training is a generic term that refers to
any mode of exercise aimed at improving cardio
respiratory fitness.
• 1. Cross Training
Cross training is a popular form of training that uses
several different training modes. It may mean
running on one day, swimming on another day, and
cycling on another day.
One advantage of this type of training is that cross
training reduces the boredom of performing the
same kind of exercise day after day.
2. Long, Slow Distance Training
Long, slow distance training, or continuous training,
requires a steady, sub maximal exercise intensity (i.e.,
the intensity is generally around 70% HR max). It is one
of the most popular cardio respiratory training
techniques and can be applied to any mode of exercise.
3. Interval Training
Interval training means undertaking repeated bouts or
intervals of relatively intense exercise. The duration of
the intervals can be varied, but a 1- to 5-minute
duration is common. Each interval is followed by a rest
period, which should be equal to, or slightly greater
than, the interval duration.
4. Fartlek Training
Fartlek is a Swedish word meaning, "speed play,"
and it refers to a popular form of training for long-
distance runners. Fartlek training is much like
interval training, but it is not as rigid in its work-to-
rest interval ratios.
An advantage of fartlek training is that these
workouts provide variety and reduce the possibility
of boredom.
The Concept of Progressive Resistance Exercise
(PRE) is an application of the overload principle
applied to strength and endurance exercise pro-
grams. Even though the two terms can be used
interchangeably.
 UNIT FIVE
ASSESSMENT OF FITNESS COMPONENTS
UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
• Understand the importance of fitness assessment
prior to physical exercise program
• Identify the different means to develop own physical
fitness
• Develop skill to assess one’s own physical fitness
• Interpret the results of fitness evaluation
 INTRODUCTION
• An objective evaluation of your current fitness
status is important prior to beginning an exercise-
training program.
• This evaluation provides valuable information
concerning your fitness strengths and weaknesses
and enables you to set reasonable fitness goals.
Further, testing your initial fitness level also
provides a benchmark against which you can
compare future evaluations.
5.1. Evaluating Health Status
Is a medical exam required before beginning a
fitness program?
The answer is probably "no", for healthy college-age
individuals. Although regular medical exams are
encouraged for everyone, most people under 29 years
of age generally do not require special medical
clearance
Should individuals over 30 years old have a
medical exam at the beginning of an exercise program?
The most conservative answer is "yes." This is
particularly true for obese and/or sedentary individuals.
The following general guidelines apply:
5.2. Assessment of Cardiorespiratory Fitness
• Cardio respiratory fitness is the ability to perform
endurance-type exercises (e.g., running, cycling,
swimming, etc.) and is considered to be a key
component of health-related physical fitness.
• The most accurate means of measuring cardio
respiratory fitness is the laboratory assessment of
maximal oxygen consumption called VO2 max. In
simple terms, VO2 max is a measure of the
endurance capacity of both the cardio respiratory
system and exercising skeletal muscles
• 5.2.1. The 1.5-Mile Run Test
• One of the simplest and most accurate means of
evaluating cardio respiratory fitness is the 1.5-
mile run test.
• This test was popularized by Dr. Kenneth Cooper
and works on the physiological principle that
people with a high level of cardio respiratory
fitness can run 1.5 miles in less time than less fit
individuals. The 1.5-mile run test is excellent for
physically active college-age individuals.
Table 5.1 Fitness Categories for Cooper's 1.5-Mile Run Test to Determine Cardio
respiratory Fitness

Fitness Age category

category

13-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+

Men
V. poor >15:30 >16:00 >16:30 >17:30 >19:00 >20:00

Poor 12:11-15:30 14:01-16:00 14:46-16:30 15:36-17:30 17:01-19:00 19:01-20:00

Average 10:49-12:10 12:01-14:00 12:31-14:45 13:01-13:35 14:31-17:00 16:16-19:00

Good 9:41-10:48 10:46-12:00 11:01-12:30 11:31-13:00 12:31-14:30 14:00-16:18

Excellent 8:37-9:40 9:45-10:45 10:01-11:00 10:30-11:30 11:00-12:30 11:15-13:59

Superior <8:37 <9:45 <10:00 <10:30 <11:00 <11:15

Women
V. Poor >18:30 >19:00 >19:30 >20:00 >20:30 >21:00

Poor 16:55-18:30 18:31-19:00 19:01-19:30 19:31-20:30 20:01-20:30 20:31-21:31

Average 14:31-16:54 15:55-18:30 16:31-19:00 17:31-19:30 19:01-20:00 19:31-20:30

Good 12:30-14:30 13:31-15:54 14:31-16:30 15:56-17:30 16:31-19:00 17:31-19:30

Excellent 11:50-12:29 12:30-13:30 13:00-14:00 13:45-15:55 14:30-16:30 16:30-17:30

Superior <11:50 <12:30 <13:00 <13:45 <14:30 <16:30

5.2.2. The 1-Mile Walk Test
• Another field test to determine Cardio respiratory
fitness is the 1-mile walk test, which is particularly
useful for sedentary individuals.
• It is a weight-bearing test, however, so individuals
with joint problems should not participate. The 1-
mile walk test works on the same principle as the
1.5-mile run test. That is, individuals with high
levels of Cardio respiratory fitness will complete a
1-mile walk in a shorter time than those who are
less conditioned
Table 5.2 Fitness Classifications for 1-Mile Walk Test
Fitness Age category
category
13-19 20-29 30-39 40+
Men
Very Poor >17:30 >18:00 >19:00 > 21:30
Poor 16:01-17:30 16:31-18:00 17:31-19:00 18:31-21:36"
Average 14:01-16:00 14:31-16:30 15:31-17:30 16:01-18:30
Good 12:30-14:00 14:31-16:30 16:31-17:30 14:00-16:00
Excellent <12:30 <13:00 <13:30 <14:00
Women
V. poor >18:01 >18:31 >19:31 >20:01
Poor 16:31-18:00 17:01-18:30 18:01-19:30 19:31-20:00
Average 14:31-16:30 15:01-17:00 16:01-18:00 18:00-19:00
Good 13:31-14:30 13:31-15:00 14:01-16:00 14:31-17:59
Excellent <13:00 <13:30 <14:00 <14:30
5.2.3. The Cycle Ergo meter Fitness Test
For those with access to a cycle ergo meter (a stationary
exercise bicycle that provides pedaling resistance via
friction applied to the wheel), a cycle ergo meter fitness
test is an excellent means of evaluating Cardio
respiratory fitness.
5.2.4 The Step Test
An alternative test to determine your cardio respiratory
fitness level is the step test. The step test works on the
principle that individuals with a high level of cardio
respiratory fitness will have a lower heart rate during
recovery from 3 minutes of standardized exercise
(bench stepping) than less conditioned individuals
After completing the test, sit quietly in a chair or on the
step bench. Find your pulse and count your heart rate for
30-second periods during the following recovery 'times:
1.5 minutes post exercise
2- 2.5 minutes post exercise
3- 3.5 minutes post exercise
Table 5.3 Norms for cardio respiratory fitness using the Sum of three recovery heart rates obtained following the Step
Test

Fitness Category 3-Minute step test recovery index

Women Men

Superior 95-120 95-117

Excellent 121-135 118-132

Good 136-153 133-147

Average 154-174 148-165

Poor 175-204 166-192

V. poor 205-233 193-217

5.3 Assessment of Muscle Fitness
5.3.1 Assessing Muscular Strength
As discussed in unit 4, muscular strength is defined
as the maximum amount of force you can produce
during one contraction. Muscular strength not only
is important for success in athletics, but also is
useful for the average person in performing routine
tasks at work or home.
Strength can be measured by the one-repetition
maximum (1 RM) test, which measures the
maximum amount of weight that can be lifted one
time.
 Muscle strength score = 1RM weight × 100
Body weight

Therefore, muscle strength score = 180 pounds × 100

150 pounds
= 120

Using the table below, a muscle strength score of 120 on the bench press places a college age
man in the “good” category.

Table 5.4 Fitness category of muscle strength score

Exercise V. Poor Poor Average Good Excellent Superior
Men
Bench press <50 50-99 100-110 111-130 131-149 >149
Biceps curl <30 30-40 41-54 55-60 61-79 >79
Shoulder <40 41-50 51-67 68-80 81-110 >110
press
Leg press <160 161-199 200-209 210-229 230-239 >239
Women
Bench press <40 41-69 70-74 75-80 81-99 >99
Biceps curl <15 15-34 35-39 40-45 56-59 >59
Shoulder <20 20-46 47-54 55-59 60-79 >79
press
Leg press <100 100-130 131-144 145-174 175-189 >189
5.3.2 Assessing Muscular Endurance
Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle or
muscle group to generate force over and over again.
A. The Push-Up Test
Table 5.5 Fitness category based on push-ups (1 min)
Men Age: 20-29 Age: 30-39 Age: 40-49 Age: 50-59 Age: 60+
Excellent 54 or more 44 or more 39 or more 34 or more 29 or more
Good 45-54 35-44 30-39 25-34 20-29
Average 35-44 24-34 20-29 15-24 10-19
Poor 20-34 15-24 12-19 8-14 5-9
Very poor 20 or fewer 15 or fewer 12 or fewer 8 or fewer 5 or fewer
Women Age 20-29 Age 30-39 Age 40-49 Age 50-59 Age:60+
Excellent 48 or more 39 or more 34 or more 29 or more 19 or more
Good 34-48 25-39 20-34 15-29 5-19
Average 17-33 12-24 8-19 6-14 3-4
Poor 6-16 4-11 3-7 2-5 1-2
Very poor 6 or fewer 4 or fewer 3 or fewer 2 or fewer 1. or fewer
B. The Sit-Up Test
The bent-knee sit-up test is probably the best field test
available to evaluate abdominal muscle endurance.
Table 5.6 Fitness category based on sit-ups (1 min)
Age group (years) Fitness category

V. poor Poor Average Good Excellent Super

ior
Men
17-29 <17 17-35 36-41 42-47 48-50 >50
30-39 <13 13-26 27-32 33-38 39-48 >48
40-49 <12 12-22 23-27 28-33 34-43 >43
50-59 <8 8-16 17-21 22-28 29-38 >38
60+ <6 6-12 13-17 18-24 25-35 >35
Women
20-29 <14 14-18 29-32 33-35 36-47 >47
30-39 <11 11-22 23-28 29-34 35-45 >45
40-49 <9 9-18 19-23 24-30 31-40 >40
50-59 <6 6-12 13-17 18-24 25-35 >35
60+ <5 5-10 11-14 15-20 21-30 >30
5.4 Assessment of Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability to move joints freely through
their full range of motion. Flexibility can decrease
over time due to tightening of muscles and/or
tendons. The key to maintaining flexibility is a
program of regular stretching exercises.
5.4.1 Trunk Flexibility
The sit and reach test measures the ability to flex
the trunk, which means stretching the lower back
muscles and the muscles in the back of the thigh
(hamstrings).
Table 5.7 Physical fitness norms for trunk flexion
using the sit and reach test.
Sit and reach score Fitness classification

-6 to -15 Very poor

-1 to -5 Poor

0 to +1 Average

+2 to +3 Good

+3 to +5 Excellent

+6 or above Superior
5.4.2 Shoulder Flexibility
• As the name implies, the shoulder flexibility test
evaluates shoulder range of motion (flexibility). The test
is performed in the following manner.
• Table 5.8 Physical Fitness Norms for Shoulder Flexibility:
Right Hand Up Score Left Hand Up Score Fitness Classification

<0 <0 Very poor

0 0 Poor

1 +1 Average

+2 +2 Good

+3 +3 Excellent

+4 +4 Superior
5.5 Assessment of Body Composition
• Every person should possess at least a minimal
amount of fat (percent body fat) for a good
health.
• This fat is called essential fat and is necessary for
temperature regulation, shock absorption and
regulation of essential body nutrients, including
vitamins A, D, E and K.
• The exact amount of body fat considered essential
to normal body functioning has been debated.
5.5.1. The Skin Fold Test
Subcutaneous fat is measured using an instrument
called a skin fold caliper. The skin fold test relies on
the fact that over 50% of body fat lies just beneath
the skin.
Therefore, measurement of representative samples
of subcutaneous fat provides a means of estimating
overall body fatness. Skin fold measurement to
determine body fat is reliable but generally has a
±3% to 4% margin of error.
• One of the most accurate skin fold tests to
estimate body fatness requires three skin fold
measurements for both men and women.
• The anatomical sites to be measured in men
(chest, triceps, and sub scapular skin folds) and
the measurement sites for women (triceps,
suprailium, and abdominal skin folds).
• Note that for standardization, all measurements
should be made on the right side of the body.
Percent Body Fat Body Composition Fitness Category

Men

<10% Low body fat

10-20% Optimal range of body fat

21-25% Moderately high body fat

26-31% High body fat

>3l% Very high body fat

WOMEN

<15% Low body fat

15-25% Optimal range of body fat

26-30% Moderately high body Fat

31-35% High body fat

>35%' Very high body fat

5.5.2. Estimation of Body Composition: Field
Techniques
Several quick and inexpensive field techniques exist
to evaluate body composition and the risk of heart
disease associated with over-fatness. Here we
describe some of the more popular procedures
currently in use.
A. Waist-to-Hip Circumference Ratio: recent
evidence suggests that, the waist-to-hip
circumference ratio is an excellent index for
determining the risk of disease associated with high
body fat.
Table 5.12 Waist –to –hip circumference ratio rating
scale Classification.
Risk of disease Men Women

High risk >1.0 >0.85

Moderately high risk 0.90-1.0 0.80-0.85

Optimal low risk of disease <0.90 <0.80

B. Body Mass Index: Although many limitations
exist, research has shown that the body mass
index (BMI) is a useful technique for placing
people into categories of normal or too much
body fat.
C. The BMI is simply the ratio of the body weight
(kilograms; kg) divided by the height (in meters)
squared (m2): BMI = weight (kg)/height (m2)
(Note: 1 kg = 2.2 pounds and 1 m = 39.25 inches.)
For example, if an individual weighs 64.5 kg and is
1.72 m tall, the BMI would be computed as follows:
64.5 kg/(1.72 m)2 = 64.5/2.96 = 21.8
Table 5.13 Body Mass Index Classification of the
Degree of Body Fatness.
Degree of obesity BMI

Men Women

Optimal body fat <25 <27

Moderately high body fat 25 – 30 27 – 30

High body fat 31 – 40 31 – 40

Very high body fat >40 >40

ENDDDDDDD OF PHYSICAL FITNESS (SPSC 101)