ATOC 184

THE SCIENCE OF STORMS

WINTER 2024

TR 1:05-2:25pm
Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences (AOS)
Faculty of Science

Course Instructor : Evangelia Ioannidou

[email protected]
 RECAP

THE CORIOLIS FORCE

A force due to the rotation of the Earth.

It is called an apparent force because it is only evident to someone on the Earth.

For an observer in India each consecutive pass of the polar orbiting
satellite seems displaced to the west of the previous pass RECAP

THE CORIOLIS FORCE

1st 1st

1st 3rd
3rd 2nd
4th 2nd

whereas in reality it is India and the observer that have moved

towards the East as the Earth is rotating beneath the, fixed in
space, polar orbit of the satellite.
1. The deflecting effect of the CORIOLIS force is to the right of the motion of the object if you RECAP
are in the NORTHERN hemisphere.
It is to the left of the motion of the object if you are in the SOUTHERN hemisphere.

2. the CORIOLIS force acts at right angles to the trajectory of the moving
object.

As shown below for a wind vector (blue arrow) in the Northern hemisphere.
CF

Always an angle of 90𝑜

Until, at some position D downstream, under the effect of continuous deflection, the path of the parcel
will be directed at right angles to the PGF.

And, since the CF is at right angles and to the right of the path, the CF will be aligned with the PGF.

RECAP

LOW pressure

D
PGF
CF
HIGH pressure
 RECAP

• Parallel to isobars.
• Stronger when isobar spacing is small.
GEOSTROPHIC FLOW. • With high(low) pressures to the right (left).
• Velocity constant.

LOW pressure

D
PGF
CF
HIGH pressure
 RECAP

So, the pressure contours may be used to deduce the geostrophic wind
 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE RECAP
GEOSTROPHIC WIND

1004hPa

996hPa
L

→ The geostrophic wind will blow counter-clockwise

around the low pressure center in the Northern hemisphere.
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
RECAP

EVENTUALLY

GEOSTROPHIC WIND
D A3
A2 CF
A1 PGF

L 1004hPa
996hPa
 RECAP
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

1008 hPa

1020 hPa
H

→ The geostrophic wind will blow clockwise

around the high-pressure center in the Northern hemisphere.
 LECTURE 17

• THE GEOSTROPHIC WIND

Flow around low-pressure and high-pressure

systems on surface weather charts.

Estimates of the geostrophic wind

The jet stream

• PRECIPITATION IN STORM SYSTEMS

Formation
HIGH and LOW-PRESSURE CENTERS TOGETHER
Low pressure system, with fronts, followed by High
pressure system.
 A SURFACE WEATHER CHART OVER EASTERN CANADA

Montreal

Scales:2.000 -3.000km

More than one

Low pressure
centers.
Where is the wind blowing from over Montreal ?
H
H

Strong geostrophic flow from

the southeast, toward the
northwest.
A Low-pressure center surrounded by High pressure systems

PACIFIC OCEAN
A Low-pressure center surrounded by High pressure systems
A Low-pressure center surrounded by High pressure systems

Note the
movement of the
fronts embedded
in the storm
system.
A Low-pressure center surrounded by High pressure systems
GEOSTROPHIC WIND -- ESTIMATES
 The deflecting effect of CORIOLIS force

Depends on
a. Speed of rotation of the Earth
b. Speed of movement of the object
c. Latitude at which the object is moving
 GEOSTROPHIC WIND -- ESTIMATES

symbol for geostrophic wind: 𝑉𝑔

1
𝑉𝑔 = × (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑓 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

The formula demonstrates how the

GEOSTROPHIC WIND depends on the PGF and the CORIOLIS force.
 𝑝𝑁 value of pressure to the North
𝑝𝑆 value of pressure to the South

𝑝𝑁

𝑉𝑔 𝑑

𝑝𝑆

𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑆 − 𝑝𝑁
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = =
ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑
We can use the formula to estimate the strength of the GEOSTROPHIC WIND

1
𝑉𝑔 = × (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑓 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑆 − 𝑝𝑁
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = =
ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑

𝑓
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟
a parameter called Coriolis parameter
 The Coriolis parameter 𝑓 represents the effect
of the Coriolis force on the geostrophic wind.

𝑓 = 2Ω 𝑠𝑖𝑛φ

The formula shows that 𝑓 depends on

a. the speed of rotation of the earth Ω
b. the latitude at which the of the air-mass is located 𝝋.
a. the speed of rotation of the earth b. the latitude of the air-mass.

𝑓 = 2Ω 𝑠𝑖𝑛φ

Ω ???
???
 𝑓 = 2Ω 𝑠𝑖𝑛φ

𝜑 = 0 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 0
360𝑜
Ω= 𝜑 = 30𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 0.5
24ℎ
𝜑 = 90𝑁 𝑁. 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 1
Ω is a constant
 1
𝑉𝑔 = × (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑓 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Formula tells us that GEOSTROPHIC WIND also depends

on the value of the air density.
 The number of air molecules within a certain volume is the air density. REMEMBER
The symbol of density is 𝜌.

The black curve with the dots on the diagram below shows how air density changes as we move
up, away from the Earth’s surface.

REMEMBER that air density falls with

height
Air density at height of 0𝑘𝑚 ( i.e. the surface) is 1.225𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
0.69𝑘𝑔
And air density at the height of 𝟓. 𝟓𝒌𝒎 is
𝑚3
0.36𝑘𝑔
And air density at the height of 𝟏𝟏𝒌𝒎 is 𝑚3
 Density falls with height

Air density at height of 0𝑘𝑚 ( i.e. the surface) is 1.225𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

0.69𝑘𝑔
And air density at the height of 𝟓. 𝟓𝒌𝒎 is 𝑚3
0.36𝑘𝑔
And air density at the height of 𝟏𝟏𝒌𝒎 is 𝑚3

1 1
𝑉𝑔 = × (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑓 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Since density decreases with height, from 1 GEOSTROPHIC WIND increases with height
 GEOSTROPHIC WIND -- ESTIMATES

1
𝑉𝑔 = × (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑓 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝𝑁

𝑝𝑆 = 1000ℎ𝑃𝑎, 𝑝𝑁 = 992ℎ𝑃𝑎, 𝑑 = 400𝑘𝑚

𝑉𝑔 𝑑
8ℎ𝑃𝑎 8 × 100
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = = 0.002 𝑃𝑎ൗ𝑚 𝑝𝑆
400𝑘𝑚 400 × 1000

𝜑 = 40𝑁, Ω = 7.29 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑ൗ𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑉𝑔 = 16 𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 = 2Ω 𝑠𝑖𝑛φ = 2 × 7.29 × 10−5 × 0.64 =9.37x 10−5 ~10−4 𝑠 −1

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

value of air density typical at 1000ℎ𝑃𝑎

 GEOSTROPHIC WIND -- ESTIMATES

11
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 =
= ×
× (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑓𝑓 ×
× 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝𝑁
1 2 3

𝑉𝑔 𝑑
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.002 𝑃𝑎Τ𝑚
𝑝𝑆

𝑉𝑔 = 30 𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 = 2Ω 𝑠𝑖𝑛φ = 9.36 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑ൗ 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
 WINDS on 𝑝 = 500𝑚𝑏
A realistic 𝑝 = 500𝑚𝑏 pressure surface

1
𝑽𝑔 = × ∇𝑝
𝑓𝜌

Wind blowing from the west to the east

Wind intensity increases with height. at speeds locally as high as 80-100kts
THE JET STREAM
A big height of the surface of 500ℎ𝑃𝑎 corresponds to a high pressure at level 𝑨 below it, and a
low height of the surface of 500ℎ𝑃𝑎 corresponds to a low pressure at level 𝐴 below.

𝑝 = 500ℎ𝑃𝑎 surface

level 𝑨

Earth
COL_2 COL_1

Let us assume now that column_2, the warm column is to the

South and COL_2, the cold column to the North, as expected in the
atmosphere of the Earth, in the Northern hemisphere.
 5.6𝑘𝑚

𝑝 = 500ℎ𝑃𝑎 surface

5.0𝑘𝑚

HIGH P LOW P
SOUTH NORTH

WARM COLD
In the upper atmospheric levels p = 300ℎ𝑃𝑎

We observe the wind speeds to be even stronger.

Furthermore, we observe at that level (10-15km altitude) the high winds to be

concentrated in narrow bands about 1000km long, a few hundred km wide and a
few hundred meters thick. These bands are called jet streams.

Their existence was suspected from fast eastward movement of 𝐶𝑖 clouds.

Furthermore, we observe at that level (10-15km altitude) the high winds to be
concentrated in narrow bands about 1000km long, a few hundred km wide and a
few hundred meters thick. These bands are called jet streams.
130𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠
 Wind
speed in
Wind at 300mb
knots
JET STREAM : a fast current of air at the tropopause levels. This current
moves in a wavy way in a west-to-east direction

The jet stream is a “global” feature :

This means that a pollutant injected in the atmospheric air could eventually be
transported by the jet stream many thousands of km downstream.
Note that the JET STREAM is a discontinuous feature.
This means that the position of the peak in wind intensity moves from day to day.
 The JET STREAM can vary in orientation.

It may flow zonally from West to East or develop broad loops that sweep from north to south
TRANSFER OF HEAT IN THE ATMOSPHERE

In the equatorial latitudes

the outgoing terrestrial
radiation is less than the
incoming solar. So we
have a radiation surplus.
This should lead to
warming locally in the
equatorial regions.
In the Northern latitudes
the outgoing terrestrial
radiation exceeds the
incoming solar. So we
have radiation deficit.
This should lead to
cooling locally in the polar
regions.
Jet stream with looping pattern on the 𝑝 = 300𝑚𝑏 surface.

The jet is first sweeping southward directing cold air as far

south as Texas, while to the east warm subtropical air from
the Gulf is swept northeastwards towards Eastern Canada.
By directing cold air south and warm air north the jet loops play a key
role in the global transfer of heat. Heat is redistributed between
low and high latitudes so that the earth’s surface can attain a state of
thermal equilibrium.
 There are two jet streams
The Polar jet stream is
the one that often flows
in broad loops that
sweep from north to
south

The Subtropical jet stream

is characterised by a zonal
West to East orientation.
PRECIPITATION in STORM SYSTEMS
REMINDER
 REMINDER
WARM- FRONT PRECIPITATION
 REMINDER
COLD - FRONT PRECIPITATION
Formation of Precipitation
to be continued …..