GATE in Data Science and AI study material

GATE in Data Science and AI Study Materials

Calculus
By Piyush Wairale

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notes must not be more than 5-6 pages)

• Attempt the question available on portal.

• Revise this material at least 5 times and once you have prepared your short notes, then
revise your short notes twice a week

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please mention it in our discussion forum on webiste

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1 Function:
Function of single variable:
A real valued function y = f(x) of a real variable x is a mapping whose domain S and co-
domain R are sets of real numbers. The range of the function is the set {y = f (x) : x ∈ R}
which is a subset of R.

A relation f from a set A to a set B is said to be a function if every element of set A has
one and only one image in set B. In other words, a function f is a relation such that no two
pairs in the relation have the same first element.

The notation f : X → Y means that f is a function from X to Y . X is called the domain

of f , and Y is called the co-domain of f .

Given an element x ∈ X, there is a unique element y in Y that is related to x. The

unique element y to which f relates x is denoted by f (x) and is called f of x, or the value
of f at x, or the image of x under f .

The set of all values of f (x) taken together is called the range of f or the image of X
under f . Symbolically:

range of f = {y ∈ Y | y = f (x), for some x ∈ X}

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Types of functions:

• Explicit Functions
Explicit functions are functions where the dependent variable (usually denoted as y) is
expressed explicitly in terms of the independent variable (usually denoted as x), such
as y = f (x).
Example :y = f (x) = 2x + 3

• Implicit Functions
Implicit functions are functions where the relationship between the dependent and in-
dependent variables is defined implicitly, often by an equation involving both variables,
like x2 + y 2 = 1.

• Composite Functions
Composite functions are formed by combining two or more functions, creating a new
function. For example, if f (x) and g(x) are functions, the composite function h(x) =
f (g(x)) or h(x) = g(f (x))
Let f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x2 . Then the composite function is h(x) = f (g(x)) = 2x2 .

• Polynomial Functions
Polynomial functions are algebraic functions of the form f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 +
. . . + a1 x + a0 , where ai are constants, and n is a non-negative integer.
Example: f (x) = 3x3 − 2x2 + 5x − 1
Ex: f (x) = 2 + 3x + 42 is a polynomial function of ’x’ with degree 2.
Note:
A polynomial function of degree ’0’ is called a constant polynomial function (or) simply
constant function.

• Rational Functions
p(x)
Rational functions are functions of the form f (x) = q(x)
, where p(x) and q(x) are both
2x2 −3x+1
polynomial functions. Example: f (x) = x2 +4x+4

• Algebraic Functions
Algebraic functions are functions that can be defined by algebraic equations involving
polynomial, rational,
√ and root functions
Example: f (x) = 3x3 − 2x2 + 5x − 1
If a relation arises due to performing a finite number of fundamental operations ad-
ditions, subtraction, multiplication, division, root extraction etc. on polynomial func-
tions then such a relation is also called an Algebraic function.
1. All polynomial functions are algebraic but not the converse.

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2. A function that is not algebraic is called transcendental function.

• Logarithmic Functions
Logarithmic functions are functions of the form f (x) = logb (x), where b is the base of
the logarithm.
Example: f (x) = log10 (x)

• Even and Odd Functions

Even functions are symmetric about the y-axis, and odd functions are symmetric about
the origin.
For even functions, f (−x) = f (x), and for odd functions, f (−x) = −f (x). Example:
Even Function:
f (x) = x2 (Symmetric about the y-axis)
Odd Function:
f (x) = x3 (Symmetric about the origin)

• Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are functions of the form f (x) = ax , where a is a positive
constant.
Example: f (x) = 2x

• Modulus Functions
Modulus functions, often denoted as f (x) = |x|, return the absolute value of x, making
it always non-negative.
Example: f (x) = |x|

• Signum (Sign) Functions

The signum (sign) function is defined as f (x) = sgn(x), where:

−1 if x < 0

sgn(x) = 0 if x = 0

1 if x > 0


(
−1 if x < 0 0
Example: f (x) = sgn(x) =
if x = 0 1 if x > 0

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Types of Functions (Important for GATE DA)

1. One-One (Injective) Function

A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one (or injective) if the images of distinct
elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for any x1 , x2 ∈ X, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then it
implies that x1 = x2 .

2. Onto (Surjective) Function

A function f : X → Y is said to be onto (or surjective) if every element of Y is the
image of some element of X under f , i.e., for every y ∈ Y , there exists an element
x ∈ X such that f (x) = y.

3. One-One and Onto (Bijective) Function

A function f : X → Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective) if it is both one-one
and onto.

Composition of Functions

• Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. Then, the composition of f and g,

denoted by g ◦ f , is defined as the function g ◦ f : A → C given by

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)), for all x ∈ A.

• If f : A → B and g : B → C are one-one, then g ◦ f : A → C is also one-one.

• If f : A → B and g : B → C are onto, then g ◦ f : A → C is also onto.

• Let f : A → B and g : B → C be the given functions such that g ◦ f is one-one. Then

f is one-one.

• Let f : A → B and g : B → C be the given functions such that g ◦ f is onto. Then g

is onto.

Invertible Function

• A function f : X → Y is defined to be invertible if there exists a function g : Y → X

such that g ◦ f = IX and f ◦ g = IY . The function g is called the inverse of f and is
denoted by f −1 .

• A function f : X → Y is invertible if and only if f is a bijective function.

• If f : X → Y , g : Y → Z, and h : Z → S are functions, then

h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g) ◦ f.

• Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two invertible functions. Then g ◦ f is also invertible

with (g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .

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2 Limit
In calculus, the concept of a limit is fundamental to understanding the behavior of functions
as they approach specific points. A limit represents the value that a function approaches as
its input (independent variable) gets arbitrarily close to a certain value. We denote the limit
of a function f (x) as x approaches a limit point c as follows:

lim f (x) = L
x→c
This means that as x gets very close to c, the values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to L.

Basic Limit Rules

There are several basic rules that help us evaluate limits:

1. The Limit of a Constant:

lim k = k
x→c
where k is a constant.
2. The Limit of a Sum or Difference:
lim[f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)
x→c x→c x→c

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3. The Limit of a Product:

lim[f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x)

x→c x→c x→c

4. The Limit of a Quotient:

f (x) limx→c f (x)

lim = , if lim g(x) ̸= 0
x→c g(x) limx→c g(x) x→c

Limits of Trigonometry Functions:

1. limx→0 sin x = 0

2. limx→0 cos x = 1

tan x
3. limx→0 x
=1

sin x
4. limx→0 x
=1

sin−1 x
5. limx→0 x
=1

tan−1 x
6. limx→0 x
=1
sin x
7. limx→∞ x
=0
1
8. limx→0 (cosx + asinbx) x = eab
1
8. limx→0 (cosx + asinbx) x = eab

a2
9. limx→0 ( 1−cos(ax)
x
= 2

Limits of form 1∞ :
1
1. limx→0 (1 + x) x = e
1
2. limx→0 (1 + ax) x = ea

3. limx→∞ (1 + x1 )x = e

3. limx→∞ (1 + xa )x = ea

Limits of Log and Exponential Functions

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1. limx→0 ex = 1

ex −1
2. limx→0 x
=1

emx −1
3. limx→0 mx
=m

ax −1
4. limx→0 x
= loge a

log(1+x)
5. limx→0 x
=1
xn −an
6. limx→a x−a
= nan−1
x +bx 1 √
7. limx→a ( a 2
)x = ab

L’Hospital’s Rule: (Very very important for GATE Exam)

We apply L’Hospital’s Rule to the limit, if we get the limit in the following form (Indeterminate
forms):
0 ∞
, , 0.∞, ∞ − ∞, 0∞ , 1∞ , ∞0
0 ∞

0 ∞
Try to convert all in indeterminate form into 0
or ∞
, then only you can apply L’Hospital’s
Rule.
′
If limx→a fg(x)
(x) ∞
is form 00 or ∞ , then limx→a fg(x)
(x)
= fg′ (x)
(x)
.
Note:
1. If limx→a f (x)exists then it is unique.
2. If f(x) is a polynomial function then limx→a f (x) = f (a)

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3 Continuity
• Continuity of a function at a point:
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at = a if it satisfies the following conditions
(i) f (a) is defined
(ii) limx→a f (x) exists i.e limx→a− f (x) = limx→a+ f (x)
(iii) limx→a+ f (x) = f (a)

• Left continuous (or) continuity from the left at a point:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the left (or) left continuous at x = a if
(i) f (a) is defined
(ii) limx→a− f (x) = f (a)

• Right continuous (or) continuity from the right at a point:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the right (or) right continuous at x = aif
(i) f (a) is defined
(ii) limx→a+ f (x) = f (a)

• Continuity of a function in an open interval:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous in an open interval (a, b) if f (x) is continuous
∀x ∈ (a, b) (or) limx→c f (x) = f (c) ∀c ∈ (a, b).

• Continuity of a function on closed interval:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous on closed interval [a, b] if
(i) f (x) is continuous ∀x ∈ (a, b)
(ii) limx→a+ f (x) = f (a)
(iii)limx→b− f (x) = f (b)

Important Points:

1. If f(x) and g(x) are two continuous functions then f (x) + g(x), f (x) − g(x), f (x).g(x)
and fg(x)
(x)
̸ 0) are also continuous.
(:: g(x) =

2. Polynomial function, exponential function, sine and cosine functions, and modulus
function are continuous everywhere.

3. Logarithmic functions are continuous in (0, ∞)

4. Let the functions f and g be continuous at a point x = x0 then,

(i) cf, f ± g and f.g are continuous at x = x0 , where c is any constant.
(ii) fg is continuous at x = x0 , if g(x0 ) ̸= 0

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5. If f is continuous at x = x0 and g is continuous at f (x0 ) then the composite function

g(f (g)) is continuous at x = x0 .

6. If f is continuous at an interior point c of a closed interval [a, b] and f (c) ̸= 0, then

there exists a neighbourhood of c, throughout which f (x) has the same sign as f (c).

7. If f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] then it is bounded there and attains its
bounds at least once in [a, b].

8. If f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b], and if f (a)andf (b) are of opposite signs,
then there exists at least one point c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = 0.

9. If f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] and f (a) ̸= f (b) then it assumes every value
between f (a) and f (b).

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4 Differentiability
f(x) is said to be differentiable at the point x = a if the derivative f ‘(a) exists at every point
in its domain. It is given by
f (a+h)−f (a)
limh→0 h

Important Note:

1. If the derivative of f (x) exists at x = a then the function f (x) is said to be differentiable
function at x = a.

2. f l (a) exists at x = a ⇐⇒ Lf l (a) = Rf l (a).

3. If f (x) and g(x) are two differentiable functions then f (x)+g(x), f (x)−g(x), f (x).g(x),
f (x)
g(x)
..(g(x) ̸= 0) are also differentiable.

4. Polynomial functions, exponential functions, sine and cosine functions are differentiable
every where.

5. Every differentiable function is continuous but a continuous function need not be dif-
ferentiable.

Derivability of a function in an open interval:

A function f (x) is said to be derivable (or) differentiable in an open interval (a, b) if f l (c)
exists ∀c ∈ (a, b).

Derivability of a function on closed interval:

A function f (x) is said to be derivable (or) differentiable on closed interval [a, b] i. if f l (c)
exists ∀c ∈ (a, b)
ii. Rf l (a) exists
iii. Lf l (b) exists.

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5 Taylor Series
Letf (x) be a function which is analytic at x = a Then we can write f (x) as the following
power series, called the Taylor series of f (x) at x = a:
′ f ′′′ (a)
f (x) = f (a) f 1!(a) (x − a) + f ”(a)
2!
(x − a)2 + 3!
(x − a)3 + . . . .

Maclaurin Series:
If the Taylor Series is centred at 0, then the series is known as the Maclaurin series. It means
that,
If a = 0 in the Taylor series, then we get;

f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + f ”(0)

2!
x2 + f ”‘(0)
3!
x3 + . . . .
This is known as the Maclaurin series.

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6 Maxima and Minima

Maxima and minima for functions of one variable:-

Local or relative maximum:

A function f(x) is said to have a Maximum at x = c if there exists δ > 0
such that |x − c| < δ =⇒ f (x) ≤ f (c).

Local or relative minimum:

A function f(x) is said to have a minimum at x = c if there exists δ > 0
such that |x − c| < δ =⇒ f (x) ≥ f (c).

Stationary points:
The values of x for which f (x) = 0 are called stationary points or turning points.

Stationary values:
A function f (x) is said to be stationary at x = a if f ′ (a) = 0 and f (a) is a stationary value.

Extreme point:
The point at which the function has a maximum or a minimum is called an extreme point.

Extreme values:
The values of the function at extreme points are called extreme values (Extrema).

Point of inflection:
The point at which a curve crosses its tangents is called the point of inflection.
The function f (x) has neither maximum nor minimum at the point of inflection.
Note:
1. A necessary condition for a function to have an extreme value at x = a is f ′ (a) = 0.
2. f ′ (a) = 0 is only a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition for f (a) to be an
extreme value of f (x).
3. Every extreme point is a stationary point but every static lary point need not be an
extreme point.
Absolute or Global maximum/minimum :
The absolute maximum/minimum values of the function f (x) in ie closed interval [a, b] are
given by
1. Absolute maximum value
= max (f (a), f (b), all local maximum values of f )
= greatest value of f (x) in [a, b].
2. Absolute minimum value
= min (f (a), f (b), all local minimum values of f )
= least value of f (x) in [a, b].

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Working Rule to find maxima and minima:

Let f (x) be the given function
Step 1: Find f ′ (x)
Step 2: Equate f ′ (x) to zero to obtain the stationary points.
Step 3: Find f ′′ (x) at each stationary point.

• If f (x0 ) > 0 then f (x) has a minimum at x = x0

• If f ′′ (x0 ) < 0 then f (x) has a maximum at x = x0

• If f (x0 ) = 0 then f (x) may (or) may not have extremum.

In this case, check for maxima and minima using the changes in sign of f(x) as given
below.
1. For x < x0 if f ′ (x) < 0 and x > x0 if f ′ (x) > 0 then f (x0 ) is a minimum value of f (x).
2. For x < x0 if f ′ (x) > 0 and x > x0 if f (x) < 0 then f (x0 ) is a maximum value of f (x).
3. For x < x0 and x > x0 if f ′ (x) > 0 (or) f ′ (x) < 0 then f (x0 ) is not an extremum.

Maxima and minima for functions of two variables:

Let z = f (x, y) be the function of two variables for which maxima or minima is to be obtained.

Working Rule:
Step1: Find p, q, r, s and t
Step2: Equate p and q to zero for obtaining stationary points.
Step3: Find r, s and t at each stationary point.
i) If rt − s2 > 0 and r > 0 then f (x, y) has a minimum at that stationary point.
ii) If rt − s2 > 0 and r < 0 then f (x, y) has a maximum at that stationary point.
iii) If rt − s2 < 0 then f (x, y) has no extremum at that stationary point and such points are
called saddle points.
iv) If rt − s2 = 0 then the case is undecided.

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