Chapter 2 Differential Calculus

Calculus by definition is a study of small thing. What small thing ? We will look at this
in a short while.

2.1 Origin of Differentiation

Now suppose we want to find the gradient of a tangent line to a curve given by
y = f(x) ( Fig 1 )

Fig 1

Suppose P(x,f(x)) is the point on the curve where we are supposed to find the
gradient of the tangent line. We pick another point P1 on the curve and draw a line
joining P and P1 . This line is known as secant line . Suppose P1 has coordinate
( x+h, f(x+h)) . The gradient of this secant line is
f (x + h) _ f (x)
msec = . Now as h → 0 the point P1 will move closer and
h
closer to P. At the same time the secant line will approach the tangent line at P .
Thus the gradient of the secant line ( msec ) will approach the gradient of the tangent
line ( mtan ).

f (x + h) _ f (x)
Mathematically we write lim msec = lim = mtan .
h→0 h→0 h

This mtan is also known as the derivative of f(x) and oftenly denoted as f ‘(x).
dy
If y = f(x) then f ‘(x) is also written as . The d means difference in y and x .
dx

So as you can see the study of small thing is actually refers to h → 0 i.e becomes
smaller and smaller.

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 2.2 First Principle Formula

Definition

Suppose a continuous curve is given as y = f(x). Then the derivative of f is

f (x + h) _ f (x)
f ' (x) = lim .
h→0 h

The above formula is also known as First Principle Formula. This process of
finding derivative is commonly known as “differentiation”.

Example 1

Find f ‘(x) if f(x) = x2 + 3

Solution

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 Example 2

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Find f ‘(x) if f(x) =
x2
Solution

As you can see finding f ‘(x) every time using the First Principle Formula is
rather laborious. Instead mathematicians have worked out most of the f ‘(x) using
the formula and put it into a table for the benefit of most scientists and engineers.

f(x) f ‘(x) f(x) f ‘(x)

a 0 ax axlna
x 1 ex ex
x2 2x sinh x cosh x
axn naxn-1 cosh x sinh x
sin x cos x tanh x sech2 x
cos x - sin x loga x 1/xlna
tan x sec2 x ln x 1/x

Table of f ‘(x) for some functions

Example 3

4
Find the value of the gradient of the tangent line for f (x) = at x = 2.
x3

Solution

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 2.3 Rules of Derivatives

In many applications one works with a mixture of functions, not just single
function. For this mathematicians have provide certain proven rules for the purpose.

Rules for Differentiation

1. Additive Rule : ( f ± g )’ = f ’ ± g ‘ .

2. Product Rule: (f g ) ‘ = f g ‘ + g f ‘.

f gf ' _ fg '
3. Quotient Rule : ( )' = .
g g2

4. Chain Rule : (f (g)) ‘ = f ‘(g) g ‘ .

Example 4

Find f ‘(x) if f (x) = 5x4 + ln x - 4ex

Solution

Example 5

Find f ‘(x) for each of the f(x) below

6 sin x
(a) f(x) = x5cos x (b) f(x) = exlog2x (c ) f(x) =
x2 + 1

Solution

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 Sometimes we need to use more than a rule to find the derivative. See the
following example

Example 6

x 3e x
Find f ‘(x) if f(x) =
x ln x + 3

The following example will demonstrate the chain rule .

Example 7

Find f ‘(x) for each of the following f(x)

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(a) f(x) = cos(7x) (b) f(x) = (8x2 + x)4 (c ) f(x) = ln(ln (x)) (d) f(x) = e x sin x

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Often the case we need to use all the four rules as in the following example

Example 8

x 2e 3 x + 1
Find f ‘(x) if f(x) =
cos 3 x .

2.4 Implicit Differentiation

Often in the case an equation or expression is given in a mixed mode i.e the
variables x and y are mixed together.
For example x + y = 7 or x2 + y2 = 9 or y2 = xy + cos(xy) are example of the mixed
mode. Equations of this type is known as implicit form on contrary with the other
type which is explicit form. In explicit form y is given in terms of x only . In this way
the derivative is straight forward.

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Now if given implicitly, how do we find the derivative ? We must aware that y is a
function of x. So to differentiate xy for example we need to use product rule since
y is a function of x.

d dy
So dx ( xy ) = x + y(1)
dx

d 3 d 3 dy
Also dx (y ) for example should be dx (y ) = 3y2 dx .

Example 9

dy
Find dx if xy3 + sin(y2) = x2 + y2

Example 10

Suppose x and y are functions of a variable t. If x2 - 3y = 2xy2 find the value of

dx dy
when = 2 at y = 1
dt dt

Solution

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2.5 Applications of Derivatives

Aside from finding gradient of tangent lines to curve, derivatives found itself in lots
of applications. We will look at some of them.

2.5.1 Determining increasing or decreasing parts of curve

Given a curve y = f(x), how do we know where the curve is increasing or

decreasing ?

Typical continuous curve increases in either of the three types as shown in

Fig 2a, b, c.

Fig 2a Fig 2b Fig 2c

In any of the shape above you will notice that the gradient of the tangent line to
each one is positive. Similarly for the ones that are decreasing ( Fig 3a, b c .)

Fig3a Fig3b Fig 3c

We will have gradient of the tangent line to each one of decreasing components
are negative. So we have the following observation :

If f ‘(x) > 0 for a < x < b then f is increasing there

and if f ‘(x) < 0 for c < x < d then f is decreasing there.

Example 11

Find all the x values for which the graph of f(x) = 2x2 - 7x +5 is increasing .

Solution

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Example 12

Find all values of x for which the graph of f(x) = 12xe3x is decreasing.

Solution

2.5.2 Determining maximum and minimum point of a curve.

Consider the minimum and maximum point of a graph ( Fig4 ) .

Fig4

The points A and C are the maximum points and B and D are minimum points. We
also call these points the extremum points. These extremum can be considered local
as they are the highest and lowest points compared to their left and right neighbours.

At these extremum points the tangent lines are horizontal, thus the gradient is zero.
The maximum point has tangent lines with positive gradient on the left and negative
gradient on the right ( Fig 5a) while the minimum point has tangent lines with
negative gradient on the left and positive gradient on the right. This observation will
lead to First Derivative Test. We will first define critical value and then state the test.

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 Definition

A value c is a critical value to a curve y = f(x) if either f ‘( c) = 0 or does not exist.

First Derivative Test

Suppose c is a critical value to a curve y = f(x).
If f ‘(c-) > 0 and f ‘(c+) < 0 then (c,f( c)) is a maximum point to the curve
and
If f ‘(c ) < 0 and f ‘(c ) > 0 then (c,f( c)) is a minimum point to the curve
- +

Note : We use the notation c- to denote a value a bit less than c and c+ to denote a
value a bit more than c .

Example 13

Given the function f(x) = 6x3 + 9x2 - 108x + 7. Find all extremum points.
Sketch the graph.

Example 14

Given the graph y = xln x . Find all extremum points to the graph.
Sketch the graph.

Solution

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There is another alternative to spot these extremum i.e via Second Derivative Test.

At the minimum point (c,f( c)), f ‘(x) is negative on the left of this point and gradually
becomes less negative as it moves towards the minimum point and assume zero
value at the minimum point. Then as it moves to the right it gradually becomes more
and more positive. This means f ‘(x) is an increasing function . Thus the derivative of
f ‘(c) should be positive i.e f ‘’(c) > 0 .

Likewise at the maximum point, f ‘(x) is a decreasing function and hence f ‘’( c) is
negative i.e f ‘’(c ) < 0 .

Second Derivative Test

Suppose c is a critical value of to a curve y = f(x).

Then if f ‘’( c) > 0 then ( c, f( c)) is a minimum point and
if f ‘’( c) < 0 then ( c, f( c)) is a maximum point .

Example 15

Do Example 14 using Second Derivative Test.

Solution

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Now what happen if f ‘’( c) = 0 ? . Well if this is the case then the test will be
inconclusive. First Derivative Test need to be carried out.

2.5.3 Finding rate of change

dy
If y = f(x) then f ‘(x) can also be written as dx . This is not just a symbol but
represent the change in y with respect to change in x . It comes from the First
Principle Formula where we can write

dy Δy
dx as Δlim
x → 0 Δx . This actually give the instantaneous rate of change at

x value.

Example 16

An inverted cone full of water leaks at the nozzle with 0.5 cm3/sec. The cone is 50
cm high and has radius 20 cm at the base. Find how fast the water level inside the
cone is dropping.

Solution

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 Example 17a

A ladder 3m long is slanted against a wall and is sliding down. The top of the
ladder is sliding down at the rate of 2cm/sec. Find the rate of the bottom part of the
ladder is moving on a smooth ground when the top part is 1m above the ground.

Solution

Example 17b

A ship travels along a straight line following the path of y = 2x + 3 and continues
travelling that path. A buoy is at coordinate of (50,80). Find the coordinate of the
ship when it is nearest to the buoy. Calculate this nearest distance.

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 2.4.4 Approximation

dy Δy dy Δy
As stated above dx = Δlim
x → 0 Δx . This means ≈
dx Δx
when Δx very small

dy
Thus Δy ≈ dx Δx when Δx very small .

This is what we call Approximation Formula. Since Δy is a change in y we can

estimate the new y by letting ynew = yold + Δy . Remember that Δx has to be

very small for the estimate to be good. The smaller the Δx the better will be the
estimate.

Example 18

2
Given y = x + 8 . Estimate the value of y when x is (a) 1.5 (b) 1.1

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L’Hopital’s Rule ( Limits revisited )

Another application of finding limits.

f (x)
Suppose we are given and f(x) and g(x) have derivatives of all order.
g( x )
f (a) ∞ 0 f (x) f ' (x)
Suppose is in the form of or . Then lim = lim provided the
g(a) ∞ 0 x → a g( x ) x → a g' ( x )

limit on the right exists.

_
x → a can be replaced by x → ∞ or x → a + or a .

Example

Find the following limits

ln x sin x x_3 x 3 _ 2x 2  7
(a) lim (b) lim (c ) lim 2 _ _ (d ) lim
x → x x →0 x x →3 x x 6 x → 4 x 3 _ x _ 6

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Calculus of Functions of two variables.

In general functions of two variables is written as z = f(x,y) where x

and y are the independent variables and z the dependent variables.
Often the case the equation is written in the form of f (x,y, z) = c . In
general the graph of these functions are surfaces in three dimension.

Below are some functions and the surfaces they represent.

z= x2 + y2 x2 + y2 = 4

x2 + y2 + z2 = 9 2x + 3y + 4z = 12

z2 = x2 + y2 x2 + y2 + z2/4 = 1

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 To differentiate these functions we have to do it partially. We
introduce the following :

Suppose z = f (x, y)

z
Denote  derivative of z with respect to x while y fixed
x

z
and  derivative of z with respect to y while x fixed.
y

The above are known as first partial derivatives. .

Example

Given z = x3y4 + 2x + y - 7

z z
Then  3 x2y4 + 2 .  4x3y3 + 2x + 1 .
x y

Example

z z
Given z = x2 sin (x/y) . Find ,
x y

z
To find , we have to employ product rule.
x

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 Most of the rules in functions of single variable are applicable here. However the
chain rule needs modification.

Chain rule of functions of two variables

Suppose z = f (x,y) and x = g( r,s) and y = h(r,s)

z z x z y z z x z y
   
Then r x r y r and s x s y s .

Example

Given z = x2 + 2y x = r s2 y = 2r - s

z

Then r

z

s

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 Approximation and Normals of functions of two variables

It can be shown that if z is a change in z resulting from x and y change

by very small change of x and y

z z
then z  x  y .
x y
We call this The Small Increment Formula. The smaller the change in x and y
the better will be the approximation.

Example

Given z = 2x3 + y2 . If x changes from 5 to 5.1 and y changes from 3 to 2.9

find the change in z . approximate the new z.
Repeat if x changes from 5 to 5.01 and y from 3 to 2.97 .

Normals to surfaces.

Since z = f(x,y) will always give us surfaces then given a point on a surface there
will be a tangent plane to this surface.

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 It can be shown that the normal vector to the tangent plane of the surface
z = f(x,y) is given as the vector

z z z z
n=  , ,1  or  , ,1  . More generally if a surface is
x y x y
given as F (x, y, z ) = c where c is constant then the normal vector to the surface

F F F
is n =  , , 
x y z .

Sometimes we denoted this vector as grad F or  F.

Example

Find a vector normal to the surface z = x2 + 4y2 at (3, -2) .

Example

Find a vector normal to the paraboloid x2 + y2 + z2/4 = 19 at (1,3)

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 Lagrange Mutiplier

This is a method to find minimum or naximum of a function f when a constraint

g(x, y, z ) = 0 is given. It turns out that the minimum or maximum of f will satisfy the
equation grad f = kgrad g where k is known as Lagrange Multiplier. The
preceding equation is solved together with the constraint equation.

Example

Find the maximum and the minimum of f(x,y) = xy when the constraint is
4x2 + 8y2 = 16 .

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 Example
Find the point on the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 36 that are closest to and farthest from
the point (1, 2, 2).

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