CN Unit-5

18CSC302J- Computer Networks
Unit-5
School of Computing - SRMIST Kattankulathur Campus

Syllabus
• DSL-DSL Technology-DSL Benefits
• Cable Technology
• Compare DSL Vs. Cable
• Frame Relay, VPN
• ATM Introduction-ATM Cell Format- ATM Layer-ATM Application
• PPP
• Communication Using HDLC
• PPP Services-components
• PPP Frame and Byte Stuffing
• HDLC-HDLC Transfer modes, Frame, Types of HDLC frame
• MPLS
2
WHAT IS DSL?
• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a technology that provides digital data transmission over
the existing wires of local telephone network.
• DSL service is delivered simultaneously with regular telephone on the same telephone line.
• This is possible because DSL uses a higher frequency.
• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a broadband high-speed Internet technology that brings
high-bandwidth information to home and offices over ordinary copper telephone lines.
• Digital data is transmitted directly to the computer, as is, exploiting the maximum bandwidth
and the wide range of unused frequencies available in the existing copper wire of telephone
networks for high-speed broadband communication.
3
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
● Uses a newer technology that used the existing telecommunications networks such as the local
loop telephone line.
● Is an asymmetric communication technology designed for residential users; it is not suitable for
business.
● xDSL: where x can be replaced by A, V, H, or S
● The existing local loops can handle bandwidths up to 1.1 MHz
○ by removing the filter at the end of line of telephone company
○ but, limitation because of distance between the residence and the switching office, size of
cable
● ADSL is an adaptive technology. The system uses a date rate based on the condition of the local
loop line
4
Key features of DSL:
• Distance- sensitive technology.
• Internet connection is always ON.
• Simultaneous use of the phone line for voice as well as data traffic.
• Internet Connection is highly reliable and secure.
• High Speed (Mbps) vis-à-vis a regular modem (56 Kbps max).
5
6
TYPES OF DSL or Other DSL Technologies
• ADSL(Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)
• VDSL(Very high-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line)
• SDSL(Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line )
• RADSL(Rate Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line)
• HDSL(High bit/data rate Digital Subscriber Line)
• ISDN DSL(Integrated Service Digital Network)

7
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL):
Most home and small business users typically use ADSL.
The transfer of data from the internet to PC is much faster than the transfer from PC
to internet.
Downstream speeds for ADSL range from 1.59 Mbps, while upstream speeds are up
to 1.5 Mbps, for a distance of 18,000 feet from the service providers premises.
8
Telephone Company Site : DSLAM
A DSLAM, or Digital-Subscriber-Line-Access-Multiplexer, is a network distribution device that aggregates
individual subscriber lines into a high-capacity uplink. They allow for the high-speed transmission of DSL
technology using legacy copper lines
9
High bit/data rate Digital Subscriber Line(HDSL):
HDSL
HDSL was the first DSL technology that used a higher frequency spectrum of copper,
twisted pair cables. It is used as an alternative to T-1 line. Encoding used by T-1 line is
alternate mark inversion which is susceptible to attenuation at high frequencies. Length
limit is 1km and it requires a repeater for a longer distance which results in an increase in
cost
10
SDSL Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL):
Does not allows to use the phone at the same time. But internet speed of sending and
receiving data is same. As two twisted cables are used in HDSL, it is the one twisted
cable version of HDSL. It supports 768 kbps in each direction and it provides
full-duplex symmetric communication. As it provides symmetric communication,
so it can also be used as an alternative to ADSL
11
VDSL Very high-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line(VDSL):
Provides high speed internet connection but works only over a short distance.
It is also used as an alternative approach, i.e. similar to ADSL. It uses a
coaxial, fiber-optic, and twisted-pair cable for short distances. It is
capable of providing bit rate of 25-55 Mbps for upstream and 3.2 Mbps
for downstream
12
Summary: The following is summary table for technologies of DSL. The values in the
following table are approximate and can vary from one implementation to another.
13
Benefits of DSL:
• It helps to meet the need for networks in different scenarios like DSL,
Fiber/Cable, and 3G/4G Dongle.
• It supports ISP service providers, so we can that it is compatible with most of
the service providers.
• It also supports high-quality telephone calls.
• There is an available app to manage the modem.
14
Cable Technology
15
Communication in the traditional cable TV network is unidirectional.
● Traditional cable Networks
○ community antenna TV (CATV)

HFC Network
Hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) is a telecommunications industry term for a broadband network that
combines optical fiber and coaxial cable. It has been commonly employed globally by cable
television operators since the early 1990s
○ RCH : Regional cable head; serving 400,000 subscribers;
○ Distribution hub: serving 40,000 subscribers
○ Coaxial cable : serving 1,000 subscribers
○ Communication in HFC cable TV network can be bidireactional.

Bandwidth
○ video band
■ 54 to 550 MHz
■ TV channels : 6 Mhz x 80 channels
○ Data downstream band : dividing into 6Mhz channels

○ Modulation
■ Downstream data are modulated using 64-QAM
○ Data rate
■ 6 bits for each baud in 64-QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) (1bit : control bit)
■ Theoretically, 5bits/Hz x 6 Mhz = 30 Mbps

● Upstream data band
○ Modulation
■ upstream data band uses lower frequencies that are more susceptible to noise and
interference
■ for this reason, using QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)instead of QAM (Quadrature
amplitude modulation)
○ Data rate : 2 bits/hz x 6 Mhz = 12 Mbps

● CM (Cable Modem)is installed inside the distribution hub by the cable company.
Cable modem transmission system(CMTS)
● Shared lines to the nearest splitter
● Generally higher speeds
● Reaches more households since distance limitation is removed
● Typical offering 4Mbits/s
● Last Mile advantage
Future Technology
● WiMax
○ Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
○ 3-5 miles range, no direct line of sight required
○ 2Mbits/s practical limit
○ Can use existing cell towers

● Broadband over Power Lines (BPL)
○ More pervasive infrastructure, but requires extra equipment
○ Up to 2.7Mbits/s
○ Superimposing analog signal over AC
○ Small deployments in operation (e.g. Manassas, Virginia 10MBits/s for $30.00 a month)
23
Comparison of DSL vs. Cable
24
DSL Connection
● Inside carrier’s POP, a device called a DSL access multiplexer(DSLAM)
aggregates multiple DSL subscriber lines and connects them to larger carrier or to
the Internet backbone
●
Cable Modem
● Cable Modems offer a dedicated service over a shared media.
● Use coaxial cable to connect residences in neighbourhoods to the cable company’s
central office for relay to a distribution hub.
● Provide up to 30Mbps downstream for sharing between 500-2000 users.
● Utilizes Ethernet LAN technology
●
Comparison
Performance Metrics DSL Cable
• DSL modem requires corresponding

• Slightly cheaper than DSL
modem with service provider
Cost • Reach thousands of subscribers with a
• Involve extra accessories such as
single fiber cable
filters and dedicated modems
• Faster than DSL

Speed • Most forms of DSL cannot reach
10mbps • Achieve networking speed of
approximately 30mbps
Comparison
Performance Metrics
DSL Cable
• More secure than Cable Modem

Security • Shared medium subject to eavesdropping
• Not subject eavesdropping
• More reliable than Cable Modem

Speed • Reliability Malfunctioning CATV line will
• Only a single user is affected when bring down all users on the line
the DSL modem malfunctions
• Almost everyone already has a phone
service required for DSL • Requires cable television service as well
Installation • Requires additional accessories such
as filters and dedicated modems at
• Requires only cable modem
both ends
Frame Relay
29
Introducing Frame Relay
● Frame Relay is a packet-switched, connection-oriented, WAN service.

● It operates at the data link layer of the OSI reference model.
● Frame Relay uses a subset of the high-level data link control (HDLC) protocol called
Link Access Procedure for Frame Relay (LAPF).
● Frames carry data between user devices called data terminal equipment (DTE), and the
data communications equipment (DCE) at the edge of the WAN.
● DTE devices are terminals, personal computers, routers, and bridges
● DCE are modems and switches
30
Introducing Frame Relay
Access circuits
● A Frame Relay network may be privately owned, but it is more commonly provided as a service by a
public carrier.
● It typically consists of many geographically scattered Frame Relay switches interconnected by trunk
lines.
● Frame Relay is often used to interconnect LANs. When this is the case, a router on each LAN will be
the DTE.
● Access Circuit - A serial connection, such as a T1/E1 leased line, will connect the router to a Frame
Relay switch of the carrier at the nearest point-of-presence for the carrier. 31
DTE – Data Terminal Equipment
● DTEs generally are considered to be terminating equipment for a specific network and typically
are located on the premises of the customer.
● The customer may also own this equipment.
● Examples of DTE devices are routers and Frame Relay Access Devices (FRADs).
● A FRAD is a specialized device designed to provide a connection between a LAN and a Frame
Relay WAN.
32
DCE – Data Communications Equipment
UNI NNI
● DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices.

● The purpose of DCE equipment is to provide clocking and switching services in a network.
● In most cases, these are packet switches, which are the devices that actually transmit data through
the WAN.
● The connection between the customer and the service provider is known as the User-to-Network
Interface (UNI).
● The Network-to-Network Interface (NNI) is used to describe how Frame Relay networks from
different providers connect to each other.
33
Frame Relay terminology
An SVC between the same two A PVC between the same two
DTEs may change. DTEs will always be the same.
Path may
change. Always same Path.
● The connection through the Frame Relay network between two DTEs is called a virtual circuit (VC).
● Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs) are Virtual circuits may be established dynamically by sending signaling
messages to the network.
○ However, SVCs are not very common.
● Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs) are more common.

○ PVC are VCs that have been preconfigured by the carrier are used.
○ The switching information for a VC is stored in the memory of the switch.
34
Frame Relay operation - SVC
An SVC between the same two A PVC between the same two
DTEs may change. DTEs will always be the same.
Path may Always same Path.

change.
● SVCs are temporary connections that are only used when there is sporadic data transfer between DTE
devices across the Frame Relay network.
● Because they are temporary, SVC connections require call setup and termination for each connection
supported by Cisco IOS Release 11.2 or later.
● Before implementing these temporary connections, determine whether the service carrier supports
SVCs since many Frame Relay providers only support PVCs. 35
Access Circuits and Cost Savings
● The FRAD or router connected to the Frame Relay network may have
multiple virtual circuits connecting it to various end points.
● This makes it a very cost-effective replacement for a full mesh of access lines.
● Each end point needs only a single access circuit and interface.
36
DLCI
● A data-link connection identifier (DLCI) identifies the logical VC between the Customer
Premises Equipment(CPE) and the Frame Relay switch.
● The Frame Relay switch maps the DLCIs between each pair of routers to create a PVC.
● DLCIs have local significance, although there some implementations that use global DLCIs.
● DLCIs 0 to 15 and 1008 to 1023 are reserved for special purposes.
● Service providers assign DLCIs in the range of 16 to 1007.
○ DLCI 1019, 1020: Multicasts
○ DLCI 1023: Cisco LMI

37
○ DLCI 0: ANSI LMI
DLCI
• Inside the cloud, your Frame Relay provider sets up the DLCI numbers to be used
by the routers for establishing PVCs. 38
Frame Relay Packet Format
•Starting Delimiter Flag - 0x7E

•High order 6 bits of DLCI address
•Command/Response used by higher order applications for end-to-end control
•Extended Address bit which indicates whether this octet is the last one in the header. 0 means more to follow
and 1 means that this is the end.
•Low order 4 bits of DLCI address
•Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) bit
•Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) bit
•Discard Eligibility (DE) bit
•Extended Address bit. In this case, this is a 1, but there can be more address bits to follow to give 17 bits (3-byte
address field) or 24 bits (4-byte address field).
•Data - can be up to 16,000 octets, but the 16-bit FCS generally limits the whole frame size to 4096 octets.
•Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
•Ending Delimiter Flag - 0x7E 39
Frame Relay bandwidth
and flow control
● Local access rate – This is the clock speed or port speed of the connection or local loop to the Frame Relay
cloud.
○ It is the rate at which data travels into or out of the network, regardless of other settings.
● Committed Information Rate (CIR) – This is the rate, in bits per second, at which the Frame Relay switch
agrees to transfer data.
○ The rate is usually averaged over a period of time, referred to as the committed rate measurement
interval (Tc).
○ In general, the duration of Tc is proportional to the "burstiness" of the traffic.
40
Frame Relay bandwidth and flow control
Tc = 2 seconds
Bc = 64 kbps
CIR = 32 kbps
● Committed burst (Bc) – The maximum number of bits that the switch agrees to transfer during any Tc.
○ The higher the Bc-to-CIR ratio, the longer the switch can handle a sustained burst.
○ The DE (Discard Eligibility) bit is set on the traffic that was received after the CIR was met. (coming)
○ (FYI) For example, if the Tc is 2 seconds and the CIR is 32 kbps, the Bc is 64 kbps.
○ (FYI) The Tc calculation is Tc = Bc/CIR.

● Committed Time Interval (Tc) – Tc is not a recurrent time interval. It is used strictly to measure inbound data,
during which time it acts like a sliding window. Inbound data triggers the Tc interval.
41
Bc = 128 kbps
Be = 772 kbps Tc = Bc/CIR
EIR = 1544 Mbps
CIR = 772 kbps
● Excess burst (Be) – This is the maximum number of uncommitted bits that the Frame Relay
switch attempts to transfer beyond the CIR.
○ Excessive Burst (Be) is dependent on the service offerings available from your vendor, but it
is typically limited to the port speed of the local access loop.
● Excess Information Rate (EIR) – This defines the maximum bandwidth available to the
customer, which is the CIR plus the Be.
○ Typically, the EIR is set to the local access rate.
○ In the event the provider sets the EIR to be lower than the local access rate, all frames
beyond that maximum can be discarded automatically, even if there is no congestion. 42
• Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) – When a Frame Relay switch recognizes
congestion in the network, it sends an FECN packet to the destination device.
• This indicates that congestion has occurred.
• Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN) – When a Frame Relay switch recognizes
congestion in the network, it sends a BECN packet to the source router.
• This instructs the router to reduce the rate at which it is sending packets.
• With Cisco IOS Release 11.2 or later, Cisco routers can respond to BECN notifications.
43
● Discard eligibility (DE) bit – When the router or switch detects network congestion, it
can mark the packet "Discard Eligible".
○ The DE bit is set on the traffic that was received after the CIR was met.
○ These packets are normally delivered.
○ However, in periods of congestion, the Frame Relay switch will drop packets with
the DE bit set first. 44
● Several factors determine the rate at which a customer can send data on a Frame Relay network.
○ Foremost in limiting the maximum transmission rate is the capacity of the local loop to the provider.
■ If the local loop is a T1, no more than 1.544 Mbps can be sent.
■ In Frame Relay terminology, the speed of the local loop is called the local access rate.
○ Providers use the CIR parameter to provision network resources and regulate usage.
■ For example, a company with a T1 connection to the packet-switched network (PSN) may agree to a
CIR of 768 Kbps.
■ This means that the provider guarantees 768 Kbps of bandwidth to the customer’s link at all times. 45
● Typically, the higher the CIR, the higher the cost of service.
● Customers can choose the CIR that is most appropriate to their bandwidth needs, as long as the CIR is
less than or equal to the local access rate.
● If the CIR of the customer is less than the local access rate, the customer and provider agree on
whether bursting above the CIR is allowed.
● If the local access rate is T1 or 1.544 Mbps, and the CIR is 768 Kbps, half of the potential bandwidth
(as determined by the local access rate) remains available.
46
● Many providers allow their customers to purchase a CIR of 0 (zero).

● This means that the provider does not guarantee any throughput.
● In practice, customers usually find that their provider allows them to burst over the 0 (zero) CIR virtually
all of the time.
● If a CIR of 0 (zero) is purchased, carefully monitor performance in order to determine whether or not it is
acceptable.
● Frame Relay allows a customer and provider to agree that under certain circumstances, the customer can
“burst” over the CIR.
● Since burst traffic is in excess of the CIR, the provider does not guarantee that it will deliver the frames.
47
● Either a router or a Frame Relay switch tags each frame that is transmitted beyond the
CIR as eligible to be discarded.
● When a frame is tagged DE, a single bit in the Frame Relay frame is set to 1.
● This bit is known as the discard eligible (DE) bit.
● The Frame Relay specification also includes a protocol for congestion notification.
● This mechanism relies on the FECN/ BECN bits in the Q.922 header of the frame.
● The provider’s switches or the customer’s routers can selectively set the DE bit in
frames.
● These frames will be the first to be dropped when congestion occurs.
48
LMI – Local Management Interface
● LMI is a signaling standard between the DTE and the Frame Relay switch.
● LMI is responsible for managing the connection and maintaining the status between devices.
● LMI includes:
○ A keepalive mechanism, which verifies that data is flowing
○ A multicast mechanism, which provides the network server (router) with its local DLCI.
○ The multicast addressing, which can give DLCIs global rather than local significance in
Frame Relay networks (not common).
○ A status mechanism, which provides an ongoing status on the DLCIs known to the switch 49
LMI
LMI
● In order to deliver the first LMI services to customers as soon as possible, vendors and standards
committees worked separately to develop and deploy LMI in early Frame Relay implementations.
● The result is that there are three types of LMI, none of which is compatible with the others.
● Cisco, StrataCom, Northern Telecom, and Digital Equipment Corporation (Gang of Four)
released one type of LMI, while the ANSI and the ITU-T each released their own versions.
● The LMI type must match between the provider Frame Relay switch and the customer DTE device.
50
LMI
LMI
● In Cisco IOS releases prior to 11.2, the Frame Relay interface must be manually configured to use the
correct LMI type, which is furnished by the service provider.
● If using Cisco IOS Release 11.2 or later, the router attempts to automatically detect the type of LMI
used by the provider switch.
● This automatic detection process is called LMI autosensing.
● No matter which LMI type is used, when LMI autosense is active, it sends out a full status request to
the provider switch.
51
LMI
● The Frame Relay switch uses LMI to report the status of configured PVCs.
● The three possible PVC states are as follows:
○ Active state – Indicates that the connection is active and that routers can exchange data.
○ Inactive state – Indicates that the local connection to the Frame Relay switch is
working, but the remote router connection to the Frame Relay switch is not working.
○ Deleted state – Indicates that no LMI is being received from the Frame Relay switch,
or that there is no service between the CPE router and Frame Relay switch.
52
DLCI Mapping to Network Address
● Manual
○ Manual: Administrators use a frame relay map statement.

● Dynamic
○ Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (I-ARP) provides a given DLCI and requests next-hop
protocol addresses for a specific connection.
○ The router then updates its mapping table and uses the information in the table to forward
packets on the correct route. 53
Inverse ARP – Knows DLCI, needs remote IP
2
1
3
My DLCI 16 Your IP?
My IP is 1.1.1.1
4
My IP is 1.1.1.2
● Once the router learns from the switch about available PVCs and their corresponding
DLCIs, the router can send an Inverse ARP request to the other end of the PVC. (unless
statically mapped – later)
● For each supported and configured protocol on the interface, the router sends an Inverse
ARP request for each DLCI. (unless statically mapped)
● In effect, the Inverse ARP request asks the remote station for its Layer 3 address.
● At the same time, it provides the remote system with the Layer 3 address of the local system.
● The return information from the Inverse ARP is then used to build the Frame Relay map.
54
Inverse ARP – Knows DLCI, needs remote IP
● Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (Inverse ARP) was developed to provide a mechanism for dynamic DLCI
to Layer 3 address maps.
● Inverse ARP works much the same way Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) works on a LAN.
● However, with ARP, the device knows the Layer 3 IP address and needs to know the remote data link MAC
address.
● With Inverse ARP, the router knows the Layer 2 address which is the DLCI, but needs to know the remote 55
Configuring Frame Relay maps
Router(config-if)#frame-relay map protocol
protocol-address dlci [broadcast] [ietf | cisco]
● If the environment does not support LMI autosensing and Inverse ARP, a Frame Relay map must be
manually configured.
● Use the frame-relay map command to configure static address mapping.
● Once a static map for a given DLCI is configured, Inverse ARP is disabled on that DLCI.
● The broadcast keyword is commonly used with the frame-relay map command.
● The broadcast keyword:
○ Forwards broadcasts when multicasting is not enabled.
56
debug frame-relay lmi (continued)
FYI ONLY
● The possible values of the status field are as follows:
● 0x0 – Added/inactive means that the switch has this DLCI programmed but for
some reason it is not usable. The reason could possibly be the other end of the
PVC is down.
● 0x2 – Added/active means the Frame Relay switch has the DLCI and everything
is operational.
● 0x4 – Deleted means that the Frame Relay switch does not have this DLCI
programmed for the router, but that it was programmed at some point in the past.
This could also be caused by the DLCIs being reversed on the router, or by the
PVC being deleted by the service provider in the Frame Relay cloud.
57
Frame Relay Topologies
58
Frame Relay vs. X.25
● Frame Relay does not have the sequencing, windowing, and retransmission mechanisms that are
used by X.25.
● Without the overhead, the streamlined operation of Frame Relay outperforms X.25.
● Typical speeds range from 1.5 Mbps to 12 Mbps, although higher speeds are possible. (Up to 45
Mbps)
● The network providing the Frame Relay service can be either a carrier-provided public network or
a privately owned network.
● Because it was designed to operate on high-quality digital lines, Frame Relay provides no error
recovery mechanism.
● If there is an error in a frame it is discarded without notification. 59
NBMA – Non Broadcast Multiple
Access Frames between two routers are only seen
by those two devices (non broadcast).
Similar to a LAN, multiple computers have
access to the same network and potentially
to each other (multiple access).
● An NBMA network is the opposite of a broadcast network.

● On a broadcast network, multiple computers and devices are attached to a shared
network cable or other medium. When one computer transmits frames, all nodes on the
network "listen" to the frames, but only the node to which the frames are addressed
actually receives the frames. Thus, the frames are broadcast.
● A nonbroadcast multiple access network is a network to which multiple computers
and devices are attached, but data is transmitted directly from one computer to another
over a virtual circuit or across a switching fabric. The most common examples of
nonbroadcast network media include ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), frame relay,
and X.25.
● http://www.linktionary.com/
60
Star Topology
● A star topology, also known as a hub and spoke configuration, is the most
popular Frame Relay network topology because it is the most
cost-effective.
● In this topology, remote sites are connected to a central site that generally
provides a service or application.
● This is the least expensive topology because it requires the fewest PVCs.
● In this example, the central router provides a multipoint connection,
because it is typically using a single interface to interconnect multiple
PVCs.
61
Full Mesh
Full Mesh Topology
Number of Number of
Connections PVCs
----------------- --------------
2 1
4 6
6 15
8 28
10 45
● In a full mesh topology, all routers have PVCs to all other destinations.
● This method, although more costly than hub and spoke, provides direct
connections from each site to all other sites and allows for redundancy.
● For example, when one link goes down, a router at site A can reroute traffic
through site C.
● As the number of nodes in the full mesh topology increases, the topology
becomes increasingly more expensive.
● The formula to calculate the total number of PVCs with a fully meshed WAN is
[n(n - 1)]/2, where n is the number of nodes.
62
VPN
63
VPN (Virtual Private Network)
● VPN is a network that is private but virtual.
● It is private because it guarantees privacy inside the organization.
● It is virtual because it does not use real private WANs; the network is physically
public but virtually private.
● Routers R1 and R2 use VPN
technology to guarantee privacy for the organization.
Virtual private network
65
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATM
ATM Features
● Cell relay protocol.
● Works along with SONET to provide high speed interconnection .
● Designed by ATM Forum and adopted by ITU-T.
67
18CSC302J- School of Computing (Odd sem 2020)
ATM
● Destined to replace most existing WAN technologies
● Improves on performance of Frame Relay
● 53-byte cells of fixed size=48 byte data+5 header
● The standard-sized cells allow switching mechanisms to achieve faster switching rates
● Rates of 155 – 622 Mbps are achieved with theoretical rates up to 1.2 Gbps
● Compatible with twisted-pair, coax, and fiber
● ATM uses Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing

Issues Driving LAN Changes
● Traffic Integration
○ Voice, video and data traffic
○ Multimedia became the ‘buzz word’
■ One-way batch Web traffic
■ Two-way batch voice messages
■ One-way interactive Mbone broadcasts
■ Two-way interactive video conferencing
● Quality of Service guarantees (e.g. limited jitter, non-blocking streams)

69
ATM LAN
Source: William stallings, Data and computer communications, Eigth edition

70
ATM LAN Hub
configuration
Source: William stallings, Data and computer communications, Eigth edition

71
Voice ATM Adaptation Layers
A/D AAL
s1 , s 2 … cells
Digital voice samples
Video
A/D … Compression AAL
cells
picture compressed
frames frames
Data AAL
Bursty variable-length cells
packets
Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
72
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Voice
Data
MUX
packet
s Wasted bandwidth
Image
s
TDM
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
ATM `
4 3 1 3 2 2 1
73
ATM
● ATM standard (defined by CCITT) is widely accepted by common carriers as mode of operation for
communication – particularly BISDN.
● ATM is a form of cell switching using small fixed-sized packets.
Basic ATM Cell Format
5 Bytes 48 Bytes
Header Payload
74
ATM Conceptual Model
Assumptions
1. ATM network will be organized as a hierarchy.
User’s equipment connects to networks via a UNI (User-Network Interface).
Connections between provided networks are made through NNI (Network-Network Interface).
2. ATM will be connection-oriented .
A connection (an ATM channel) must be established before any cells are sent.
75
Private ATM
Private network
UNI
X X
Private
UNI
NNI c Public ATM
X bli
Pu network A
X X
NNI
Public X
UNI B-ICI Public ATM
network B
X
Public
X X UNI
76
ATM Connections
● two levels of ATM connections:
virtual path connections

virtual channel connections
● indicated by two fields in the cell header:
virtual path identifier (VPI)

virtual channel identifier(VCI)
77
ATM Virtual Connections
Virtual Paths
Physical Link
Virtual Channels
78
ATM Conceptual Model
Assumptions (cont.)
3. Vast majority of ATM networks will run on optical fiber networks with extremely low error rates .
4. ATM must support low cost attachments.
• This decision lead to a significant decision – to prohibit cell reordering in ATM networks.
 ATM switch design is more difficult.
79
UNI Cell Format
GFC (4 bits) VPI (4 bits)
VPI (4 bits) VCI (4 bits)
ATM cell VCI (8 bits)
header VCI (4 bits) PT (3 bits) CLP
(1 bit)
HEC (8 bits)
Payload
(48 bytes)
80
● GFC(Generic Flow Label):
○ primary function of this header is the physical access control, it is often used to reduce cell jitters in CBR
services, assign fair capacity for VBR services, and tocontrol traffic for VBR flows.
○ VPI/VCI-identification numbers, so that the cells belonging to the same connection can be distinguished
○ PT-Payload TYpe
○ CLP(Cell Loss Priority)-whether the corresponding byte is to be discarded duringnetwork congestion
○ HEC(Header Error Control) is a CRC byte for the cell header field and is used for sensing and correcting cell
errors and in delineating the cell header.

ATM Cell Switching
1 1
Switch voice 67
…
N video 67 2
5 video 25 voice 32 25 75
32 1 67 data 39 3
32 3 39
6 data 32 video 61
…
61 2 67
…
N video 75 N
82
VP3 a
VP
a 5
b
c ATM ATM ATM ATM b
Sw DCC Sw Sw
c
d 1 2
e 3
VP
2 VP
1 ATM d
Sw = switch Sw
e
4
Digital Cross Connect
Only switches virtual paths
83
ATM Protocol Architecture
● ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) – the protocol for packaging data into cells is collectively referred to as
AAL.
● Must efficiently package higher level data such as voice samples, video frames and datagram packets
into a series of cells.
Design Issue: How many adaptation layers should there be?
84
ATM Network Architecture
Source: Behrouz Forouzan, Data communication and networking, 5th Edition,2006

85
Management plane
Plane management
Control plane User plane
Layer management
Higher layers Higher layers
ATM adaptation layer
ATM layer
Physical layer
86
User User
information information
AAL AAL
ATM ATM ATM ATM
PHY PHY PHY PHY

…
End system Network End system
87
● AAL-How to break application messages to cells.
● The ATM Layer –
○ Transmission/Swiching/Reception
○ Congestion Control/Buffer management
○ Cell header generation/removal at source/destination
○ Reset connection identifiers for the next hop (at switch)
○ Cell address translation
○ Sequential delivery

Original ATM Architecture
● CCITT envisioned four classes of applications (A-D) requiring four distinct adaptation layers (1-4)
which would be optimized for an application class:
A. Constant bit-rate applications CBR
B. Variable bit-rate applications VBR
C. Connection-oriented data applications
D. Connectionless data application
89
ATM Architecture
An AAL is further divided into:
The Convergence Sublayer (CS) manages the flow of data to and from SAR sublayer.
The Segmentation and Reassembly Sublayer (SAR) breaks data into cells at the sender and
reassembles
cells into larger data units at the receiver.
90
ATM layer
Transmission
convergence
sublayer
Physical layer
Physical medium
dependent
sublayer
Physical
medium
91
Original ATM Architecture
● The AAL interface was initially defined as classes A-D with SAP (service access points) for AAL1-4.
● AAL3 and AAL4 were so similar that they were merged into AAL3/4.
● The data communications community concluded that AAL3/4 was not suitable for data communications
applications. They pushed for standardization of AAL5 (also referred to as SEAL – the Simple and
Efficient Adaptation Layer).
● AAL2 was not initially deployed.
92
Revised ATM Service Categories
Class Description Example
CBR Constant Bit Rate T1 circuit
RT-VBR Real Time Variable Bit Rate Real-time videoconferencing
NRT-VBR Non-real-time Variable Bit Rate Multimedia email
ABR Available Bit Rate Browsing the Web
UBR Unspecified Bit Rate Background file transfer
93
QoS, PVC, and SVC
● Quality of Service ( QoS) requirements are handled at connection time and viewed as part of signaling.
● ATM provides permanent virtual connections and switched virtual connections.
○ Permanent Virtual Connections ( PVC)

permanent connections set up manually by network manager.
○ Switched Virtual Connections ( SVC)
set up and released on demand by the end user via signaling procedures.
94
AAL 1 Payload
(b) CS PDU with pointer in structured data transfer
47 Bytes
AAL 1
Pointer
1 Byte 46 Bytes
optional
(a) SAR PDU header
CSI Seq. Count SNP(seq no protection)

1 bit 3 bits 4 bits
Convergence Sublayer
Identification
95
AAL 1
Higher layer User data stream
b1 b2 b3 …
Convergence CS PDUs
sublayer 47 47 47
SAR PDUs
SAR sublayer H H H
1 47 1 47 1 47
ATM layer H H H ATM Cells

5 48 5 48 5 48
96
AAL 3/4

AAL 3/4
CS and SAR PDUs
(a) CPCS-PDU format
Header Trailer
CPI Btag BASize CPCS - PDU Payload Pad AL Etag Length
1 1 2 1 - 65,535 0-3 1 1 2
(bytes) (bytes) (bytes)
(b) SAR PDU format
Header Trailer
(2 bytes) (2 bytes)
ST SN MID SAR - PDU Payload LI CRC
2 4 10 44 6 10
(bits) (bytes) (bits)
98
AAL 3/4
Higher layer Information User message
Service specific
convergence Assume null
sublayer
Common part H Information PAD T Pad message to
convergence 4 4 multiple of 4 bytes.
sublayer Add header and trailer.
SAR sublayer … Each SAR-PDU

2 44 2 2 44 2 2 44 2 consists of 2-byte
header, 2-byte trailer,
and 44-byte payload.
ATM layer …
99
AAL 5
Convergent Sublayer
Format
Information Pad UU CPI Length
CRC
0 - 65,535 0-47 1 1 2 4
(bytes) (bytes)
SAR Format
ATM
Head 48 bytes of Data
er 1-bit end-of-datagram field
(PTI)
100
AAL 5
Information
Higher layer
Service specific
convergence Assume null
sublayer
Common part Information PAD T
convergence
sublayer
SAR sublayer …
48 48 48
(0) (0) (1)
ATM layer …
PTI = 1
PTI = 0 PTI = 0
Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies 101
PPP
102
PPP- Point to Point Protocol
PPP
The telephone line or cable companies provide a physical link, but to control and manage the transfer of
data, there is a need for a special protocol. The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) was designed to respond to
this need.
PPP is comprised of three main components:

● A method for encapsulating multi- protocol datagrams.
● A Link Control Protocol (LCP) for establishing, configuring, and testing the data-link connection.
● A family of Network Control Protocols (NCPs) for establishing and configuring
different network-layer protocols)
PPP – design principles
● Support multiple network
protocols
● PPP relies on another DLP(Data Loss Prevention) –
○ HDLC – to perform some basic operations
● Link configuration ● After the initial handshake, PPP executes its own handshake
● Error detection ● PPP itself consists of two protocols:
● Establishing network addresses ○ LCP – Link Control Protocol
○ NCP – Network Control Protocol
● Authentication
103
● Extensibility
PPP state machine
PPP STATES
fail
1.DEAD:It means that the link is not being used .
Dead Establish
up 2.ESTBLISHING:-When one of the end machine starts the
opened communication, the connection goes into the establishing
down state.
fail Authentica
terminate 3.AUTHENATICATING:-The user sends the authenticate
te
request packet & includes the user name & password.
closing Success / 4.NETWORKING:-The exchange of user control and data

Networ None packets can started.
k
5.TERMINATING:-The users sends the terminate the link.
With the reception of the terminate.
104
PPP – Frame Format
“01111110” 11111111 11000000
contro protoc paddin

flag addr data g check
l ol
PPP frame
1. Flag field. The flag field identifies the boundaries of a PPP frame. Its value is 01111110.
2. Address field. Because PPP is used for a point-to-point connection, it uses the broadcast
address used in most LANs, 11111111, to avoid a data link address in the protocol.
3. Control field. The control field is assigned the value 11000000 to show that, as inmost
LANs, the frame has no sequence number; each frame is independent.
4. Protocol field. The protocol field defines the type of data being carried in the data field:
user data or other information.
5. Data field. This field carries either user data or other information.
6. FCS. The frame check sequence field is simply a 2-byte or 4-byte CRC used for
error detection.
105
Link Control Protocol (LCP)
● Purposes ● There are 3 classes of LCP packets:
○ Link establishment ○ Link configuration

configure-request, configure-ack,
○ Link maintenance configure-nak & configure-reject
○ Link termination ○ Link termination

● Optional operations terminate-request & terminate-ack
○ Link monitoring
○ Link quality determination
code-reject, protocol-reject, echo-request,
echo-reply & discard-request
○ Authentication
106
Link Control Protocol (LCP)- Packets Format
PPP frame code ID length Data PPP frame
○ Code – type of LCP packet (configure-ack etc`)
○ ID – request-response matching ID
○ Length – of the LCP packet
○ Data – the LCP packet
107
Network Control Protocol(NCP)
● Purpose
Configuring the network layer protocol.
There exists a separate NCP for each network layer protocol
● Negotiation process
Same message formats, code numbers and state machines as LCP
IPCP – IP Control Protocol

● Purpose
○ TCP/IP matching NCP
○ Establishes, configures and terminates the TCP/IP network layer protocol

● Options
○ IP-Compression protocol – I.e Van-Jacobson (VJ) compressed TCP/IP
○ IP address – allows dynamic IP configuration
○ DNS & NBNS address(NetBIOS Name Server)

108
IPCP – IP Control Protocol
PPP frame
0x7E 0xFF 0x03 0x8021 data check
(protocol)
Code ID length IPCP data
109
Tunneling & PPP
● Tunneling - definition
The process of running one network protocol
on top of another.
Common use: VPN (Virtual Private Network)
● Tunneling method
Extending the link between the HDLC driver
and the rest of PPP over a separate network
● PPP tunneling protocols

L2TP, L2F(Layer 2 Forwarding),
PPTP(Point-to-Point_Tunneling_Protocol) &
ethernet (PPPoE)
110
HDLC
High-Level Data Link Control
111
18CSC302J- School of Computing
High-level Data link protocol
Defintion
manages node-to-node transfer of data between two directly connected machines.

Operations
○ Error detection and correction (depends on the protocol)
○ Addressing (in LANs)
○ Frame-level synchronization between sender and receiver
○ Flow control
○ Maintaining awareness of link conditions
112
HDLC `s ( High level Data link Control) family
HDLC
LAPX
LAPM LAPB LAPD LLC SDLC
(teletex
(v. 42) (x. 25) (ISDN) (LANs) (SNA)
)
LAPF
ESF MTP-2 LAPDm PPP
(frame-relay
(T1) (SS7) (GSM) (many)
)
18CSC302J- School of Computing (Odd sem 2020) 113

High-level Data link control
● Exchange of Digital data between two devices some form of data link control
● This Protocol is important for two reasons:
○ it is a widely used standardized data link control protocol.
○ HDLC serves as a baseline from which virtually all other important data link control
● Basic Characteristics
protocols are derived
○ HDLC defines three types of stations
○ Two link configurations
○ Three data-transfer modes of operation

HDLC Station Types
High-level Data link control
● Primary station
○ Controls operation of link
○ Issues commands (frames)
○ Maintains separate logical link to each secondary station
● Secondary station
○ Under control of primary station
○ Issues responses (frames)
● Combined station
○ May issue commands and responses
○ Combines the features of primary and secondary stations
The primary maintains a separate logical link with each secondary station on the line.
HDLC Link
Configurations
● Unbalanced
○ One primary and one or more secondary stations
○ Supports full duplex and half duplex
● Balanced
○ Two combined stations
○ Supports full duplex and half duplex
115
HDLC Transfer Mode
● Normal Response Mode (NRM)
○ Unbalanced configuration
○ Primary can only initiate transmission
○ Secondary may only transmit data in response to command (poll) from primary
○ Used on multi-drop lines
○ Host computer as primary
○ Terminals as secondary
116
HDLC Transfer Mode
● Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
○ Balanced configuration
○ Either station may initiate transmission without receiving permission
○ Most widely used
○ No polling overhead
● Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)

○ Unbalanced configuration
○ Secondary may initiate transmission without permission from primary
○ Primary is responsible for connect, disconnect, error recovery, and initialization
○ rarely used
117
Frame Structure
● Synchronous transmission
● Transmissions in frames
● Single frame format for all data and control exchanges
Defines 3 types of
frames (I,S,U frames)
01111110 01111110
118
Flag Fields
● Delimit frame at both ends 01111110
● Receiver hunts for flag sequence to synchronize
● Bit stuffing used to avoid confusion with data containing 01111110
○ The transmitter inserts 0 bit after every sequence of five 1s with the exception of
flag fields
○ If receiver detects five 1s it checks next bit
■ If 0, it is deleted
■ If 1 and seventh bit is 0 (i.e., 10), accept as flag
■ If sixth and seventh bits 1 (i.e., 11), sender is indicating abort
Defines 3 types of
01111110 frames (I,S,U frames) 01111110

Bit Stuffing
● Example with possible errors
18CSC302J- School of Computing 120

(Odd sem 2020)
Address Field Defines 3 types of
● Identifies secondary station that sent or will receive frame

● Usually 8 bits long
● May be extended to multiples of 7 bits
○ LSB of each octet indicates that it is the last octet (1) or not (0)
● All ones (11111111) is broadcast

Control Field
Defines 3 types of
● Different for different frame type

○ I-frame (information frame)
■ data to be transmitted to user (next layer up)
■ Flow and error control piggybacked on information frames
○ S-frame (Supervisory frame)
■ Used for flow and error control
○ U-frame (Unnumbered frame)
■ supplementary link control
● First one or two bits of control filed identify frame type
122
Control Field Diagram
Poll/Final Bit
● Use depends on context
● Command frame
○ P bit : used for poll from primary
○ 1 to solicit (poll) response from peer
● Response frame
○ F bit : used for response from secondary
○ 1 indicates response to soliciting

command
123
I-frame
● Contains the sequence number of transmitted frames and a piggybacked ACK
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 N(S) P/F N(R)
•I,0,0
•I,1,0
•I,2,0,P
124
S-frame
● Used for flow and error control
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 0 S P/F N(R)
•RR --- receive ready

•RNR --- receive not ready
•REJ --- reject on frame N(R)
•SREJ --- selective reject on N(R)

U-frame
● Set normal response mode (SNRM)
● Mode setting, recovery, connect/disconnect ● Set asynchronous response mode (SARM)
● Set asynchronous balanced mode (SABM)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
● Disconnect (DISC)
1 1 M P/F M
● Unnumberred acknowledgement (UA)
● Disconnect mode (DM)
● Request disconnect (RD)

Unnumbered
function bits ● Unnumberred poll (UP)
● Reset (RSET)
● Exchange identification (XID)
18CSC302J- School of Computing 126

● Test (TEST)
Information Field
Defines 3 types of
● Only in information and some unnumbered frames
● Must contain integral number of octets
● Variable length
Frame Check Sequence Field
● FCS
● Error detection
● 16 bit CRC
127
● Optional 32 bit CRC 18CSC302J- School of Computing (Odd sem 2020)
HDLC Operation
● Exchange of information, supervisory and unnumbered frames
● Three phases
○ Initialization (Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode Extended, Unnumbered Acknowledgment,
Disconnect)
○ Data transfer(receive ready, receive not ready, reject)
○ Disconnect
128
Examples of Operation 18CSC302J- School of Computing (Odd sem 2020)
MPLS
129
MPLS
• MPLS - Multi Protocol Label Switching
• A protocol to establish an end-to-end path from source to the destination.

• To setup this path basically using labels
- Require a protocol to set up the labels along the path.
It builds the connection oriented service on the IP network
• MPLS is an efficient encapsulation mechanism
• A hop-by-hop forwarding mechanism
• MPLS packets can run on other layer 2 technologies such as ATM, PPP, POS, FR, Ethernet
• Labels can be used as designators
○ - example: IP prefixes, ATM VC, or a bandwidth guaranteed path.

• This technique designed to speed up and shape traffic flows across enterprise wide area and service provider
networks.
MPLS Basics
Multi-Protocol Label Switching is arranged between

Layer 2 and Layer3. Infect MPLS refer to as a Layer 2.5
IP
Layer 3
MPLS
ATM, Ethernet, FR, PPP
Layer 2
SDH, ODH,WDN,CSMA
Layer 1
• MPLS uses Label Switching

• A label is assigned for each IP flow
• A LSP is created between ingress and egress
18CSC302J- School of Computing (Odd

• Packet forwarding at each router by table lookup (based on label)
sem 2021)
When an ingress receives a packet it encapsulates it inside a MPLS packet
at layer 2 and passed on to egress which then puts of the MPLS headers.
Ingress Egres
s
MPLS Characteristics
• It can support the traffic flows of various granularities
• It is independent of Layer 2 and Layer 3 Protocols
• It maps IP address to fixed length labels
• Interfaced to existing routing protocols
• It can support ATM, Frame-Relay and Ethernet

Technology Basics
Label
• A label is an integer identifying a FEC (a flow)
• Labels are not globally or network - unique label
• Labels are unique only between nodes
• Labels change at each node as a packet traverses a path
• Labels can set manually or we can use label distribution

Encapsulation
PPP Label Layer 2/Layer 3 Packet
PPP Header (Packet Header
over SONET/SDH )
One or More Labels Appended to the Packet
MAC Label Layer 2/Layer 3 Packet

LAN MAC Label Header Header
ATM MPLS Cell Header GFC VPI VCI PTI CLP HEC DATA
Label
Label Distribution:
• MPLS does not specify a single method for label distribution
● BGP has been enhanced to piggyback the label information within the contents of the protocol
• RSVP has also been extended to support piggybacked exchange of labels.
• IETF has also defined a new protocol known as the label Distribution protocol (LDP) for explicit signalling
and management.
• Extensions to the base LDP protocol have also been defined to support explicit routing based on QoS
requirements
Label Edge Router – LER
• Resides at the edge of an MPLS Network and assigns and removes the labels from the packets.
• Supports multiple ports connected to dissimilar networks (such as frame relay, ATM, and
Ethernet)

Position of LERs and LSRs
IP Addr Out IP Out IP Out IP Addr Out Label

Label Addr Label Addr Label
192.4/1 5 5 9 9 2 2 192.4/16
6
Label Label Remove Layer 2
Layer 2 Assign
Swapping Swapping Label Transport
Transpo init
rt label
“ROUTE AT EDGE, SWITCH IN CORE”

Forward Equivalence Class – FEC
• Is a representation of a group of packets that share the same requirements for their
transport.
• The assignment of a particular packet to a particular FEC is done just once(when
the packet enters the network).

MPLS Operation
MPLS Packet Format
Label EXP Stack bit(s) TTL

(20bits) (3bits) (8bits)


MPLS has two major components:
• Control plane—exchanges L3 routing information and labels.
○ Control plane takes care of the routing information exchange and the label exchange between
adjacent devices
• Data plane—forwards packets based on labels
○ Data plane takes care of forwarding either based on destination addresses or labels
● Control plane contains complex mechanisms to exchange routing information (OSPF, EIGRP, IS-IS,
BGP, etc.) and labels (Tag Distribution protocol [TDP], Label Distribution protocol [LDP], BGP, RSVP,
etc.)
● Data plane has a simple forwarding engine Control plane maintains the contents of the label switching
table (label forwarding information base or LFIB)
● There is a large number of different routing protocols such as OSPF, IGRP, EIGRP, IS-IS, RIP, BGP,
etc. that can be used in the control plane.
The control plane also requires protocols to exchange labels, such as:
● ■ Tag Distribution Protocol [TDP] (MPLS)
● ■ Label Distribution Protocol [LDP] (MPLS)
● ■ BGP (MPLS virtual private networks [VPNs])
● ■ Resource-Reservation Protocol [RSVP] (MPLS Traffic Engineering [MPLSTE])
● ■ CR-LDP (MPLS-TE)
The data plane however, is a simple label-based forwarding engine that is independent of
the type of routing protocol or label exchange protocol. A Label Forwarding Information
Base (LFIB) is used to forward packets based on labels. The LFIB table is populated by the
label exchange protocols used in the control plane.

Label Switch Paths – LSPs
• A path is established before the data transmission starts.
• A path is a representation of an FEC
LSP Details
• MPLS provides two options to set up an LSP
1. Hop by hop routing
● Each LSR independently selects the next hop for a given FEC. LSRs supports any
available routing protocols (OSPF,ATM…).
2. Explicit routing
● Is similar to source routing. The ingress LSR specifies the list of nodes through which
the packet traverses.
• The LSP setup for an FEC is unidirectional. The return traffic must take another LSP.

Label Distribution Protocol – LDP
An application layer protocol for the distribution of label binding information to LSRs.
- It is used to map FECs to label, which, in turn, create LSPs
- LDP sessions are established between LDP peers in the MPLS network (not necessary
adjacent)
- Sometimes employs OSPF or BGP.
LDP message types:
● Discovery messages - announce and maintain the presence of an LSR in a network
● Session message – establish, maintain, and terminate sessions between LDP peers
● Advertisement messages – create, change, and delete label mappings for FECs
● Notification messages – provide advisory information and signal error information

Label Advertisement Mode
● Two label advertisement modes are available:
● 1. Downstream on demand(DoD)
● 2. Downstream unsolicited (DU)
Label Distribution control Mode
There are two label distribution control modes:
Independent: and LSR can notify label binding messages upstream anytime.
Ordered: an LSR can send label binding messages about a FEC upstream only when it
receives a specific label binding message from the next hop a FEC or the LSR itself is the
egress node of the FEC.

Label Retention Mode
Two label retention modes:

1. Liberal: an LSR keeps any received label to FEC binding regardless of whether the
binding is from its next hop for the FEC or not.
2. Conservative: an LSR keeps only label to FEC bindings that are from its next hops for the
FECs.
In liberal mode, an LSR can adapt to route changes quickly; while in conservative mode,
there are less label to FEC bindings for an LSR to advertise and keep.
The conservative label retention mode is usually used with the DoD mode on LSRs with
limited label space.
MPLS Applications
Some of the MPLS applications are follows

• Unicasting IP routing
• Multicast IP routing
• Traffic Engineering
• Virtual Private Network
• Quality of Service(QoS)

Traffic Engineering
- Traffic engineering allows a network administrator to make the path deterministic and
bypass the normal routed hop-by-hop paths.
- An administrator may elect to explicitly define the path between stations to ensure QoS
or have the traffic follow a specified path to reduce traffic loading across certain hops.
- The network administrator can reduce congestion by forcing the frame to travel around
the overloaded segments.
- Hops are configured in the LSRs ahead of time along with the appropriate label values.

MPLS – Traffic Engineering
● End –to-End forwarding decision determined by ingress node.
● Enables Traffic Engineering
MPLS based VPN

• One of most popular MPLS applications is the implementation of VPN.
• The basic concept is the same as ATM transparent LAN.
• Using label (instead of IP address) to interconnect multiple sites over a carrier’s network.
Each site has its own private IP address space.
• Different VPNs may use the same IP address space.

MPLS and QoS
• Pre configuration based on physical interface

• Classification of incoming packets into different classes
• Classification based on network characteristics (such as congestion, throughput,
delay, and loss)
• A label corresponding to the resultant class is applied to the packet

Thank you
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18CSC302J- Computer Networks

School of Computing - SRMIST Kattankulathur Campus

• This is possible because DSL uses a higher frequency.

○ by removing the filter at the end of line of telephone company

• Internet connection is always ON.

• Internet Connection is highly reliable and secure.

• High Speed (Mbps) vis-à-vis a regular modem (56 Kbps max).

• VDSL(Very high-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line)

• SDSL(Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line )

• RADSL(Rate Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line)

• HDSL(High bit/data rate Digital Subscriber Line)

• ISDN DSL(Integrated Service Digital Network)

● Traditional cable Networks

○ community antenna TV (CATV)

○ RCH : Regional cable head; serving 400,000 subscribers;

○ Distribution hub: serving 40,000 subscribers

○ Coaxial cable : serving 1,000 subscribers

○ Communication in HFC cable TV network can be bidireactional.

■ TV channels : 6 Mhz x 80 channels

○ Data downstream band : dividing into 6Mhz channels

■ Downstream data are modulated using 64-QAM

■ Theoretically, 5bits/Hz x 6 Mhz = 30 Mbps

○ Data rate : 2 bits/hz x 6 Mhz = 12 Mbps

○ Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

○ 3-5 miles range, no direct line of sight required

○ 2Mbits/s practical limit

○ Can use existing cell towers

○ More pervasive infrastructure, but requires extra equipment

○ Superimposing analog signal over AC

Performance Metrics DSL Cable

• DSL modem requires corresponding

• Faster than DSL

• More secure than Cable Modem

• More reliable than Cable Modem

● Frame Relay is a packet-switched, connection-oriented, WAN service.

● DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices.

● Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs) are more common.

Path may Always same Path.

○ DLCI 1019, 1020: Multicasts

○ DLCI 1023: Cisco LMI

•Starting Delimiter Flag - 0x7E

○ (FYI) The Tc calculation is Tc = Bc/CIR.

○ Typically, the EIR is set to the local access rate.

○ These packets are normally delivered.

● Many providers allow their customers to purchase a CIR of 0 (zero).

○ A keepalive mechanism, which verifies that data is flowing

○ Manual: Administrators use a frame relay map statement.

○ Forwards broadcasts when multicasting is not enabled.

● An NBMA network is the opposite of a broadcast network.

● Works along with SONET to provide high speed interconnection .

● Designed by ATM Forum and adopted by ITU-T.

● Improves on performance of Frame Relay

● 53-byte cells of fixed size=48 byte data+5 header

● Compatible with twisted-pair, coax, and fiber

● ATM uses Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing

○ Voice, video and data traffic

○ Multimedia became the ‘buzz word’

■ One-way batch Web traffic

■ Two-way batch voice messages