OLUSEGUN AGAGU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY,
P.M.B 353, OKITIPUPA, ONDO STATE.

A TECHNICAL REPORT ON
STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE
SCHEME (SIWES)

UNDERTAKEN AT:
LEADCITY RADIO HOUSE (89.1FM), LEADCITY
UNIVERSITY IBADAN.

PERIOD OF ATTACHMENT:
MAY, 2023 TO OCTOBER, 2023

WRITTEN BY:
AKINJIYAN
BREAKTHROUGH
OLUSEGUN
MATRIC NO:
PHY/18/1119

SUBMITTED TO:
THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE.

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) DEGREE IN APPLIED
PHYSICS.

1
 DECLARATION

I, AKINJIYAN BREAKTHROUGH OLUWASEGUN, hereby declare that this SIWES Report has
been carried out by me under the supervision. All sources of information are specifically
acknowledged by means of reference.

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 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that AKINJIYAN BREAKTHROUGH OLUSEGUN, with matriculation number

PHY/18/1119 has undergone his industrial training SIWES at LEAD CITY 89.1FM, toll gate area

Ibadan. In partial fulfillment of the requirement in physical science department of OLUSEGUN

AGAGU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, ONDO STATE, and undersigned by

the following people.

Akinjiyan Breakthrough .o. ________________________

Student name Date& signature

Dr. A.O. Ilori _________________________

Siwes supervisor name Date& signature

Dr. N.O. Bakare _________________________

HOD physical science Date& signature

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 DEDICATION
Thus work is dedicated to GOD Almighty and my mom MRS Akinjiyan for her support and also my fellow
SIWES Colleagues for making learning easy for me during my SIWES program.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I hereby appreciate GOD Almighty for the grace, opportunity and strength to complete my
industrial training successfully.

I acknowledge my mom MRS Akinjiyan and family for being there for me and providing the
necessary support, thank you and GOD bless you.
I am also grateful to my industrial based supervisor Mr. Afolabi John and my tutors for their
thorough supervision and useful advice which helped me and also contributed to the success
of the SIWES program. May the almighty GOD make their days on Earth longer to reap the
fruit of their labor to the fullest in JESUS name.

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 ABSTRACT
Industrial experience is an essential aspect of a student’s academic journey. It helps students
gain hands-on practical experience with the concepts taught in a classroom and broadens their
critical thinking and problem-solving skills. This industrial training report represents my
SIWES training during my 400-level internship Lead City Radio House (89.1 FM), Lead City
University. This report captures frequently used terminologies in radio broadcasting and
equipment (cables, connectors, electronic gadgets etc.)that can be found and used in radio
broadcasting and also its importance ,challenges faced during this assignment ,the different
methods/equipment used in relaying audio back to the broadcasting station .It also covers the
knowledge ,discussion, the theories, operations carried out during the six months program at
lead City (89.1FM).In this report ,discussions was done on Networking which is the practice
of transporting and exchanging data between nodes over a shared medium in an information
system and how it is been employed by the organization for the daily operation a detailed
report also on satellite communication.

6
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Table of Contents
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) DEGREE IN APPLIED PHYSICS...............................i
DECLARATION..............................................................................................................................................ii
CERTIFICATION...........................................................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION.................................................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................................vi
TABLE OF CONTENT....................................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................3
1.1 BACKGROUND OF SIWES.................................................................................................................3
1.2 HISTORY OF SIWES............................................................................................................................3
Highlight the Number of Participating Institutions:.....................................................................................4
TOTAL = 206...............................................................................................................................................4
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES.................................................................................................4
1.4 FUNCTIONS OF SIWES.......................................................................................................................4
1.5 ROLES PERFORMED BY FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN SIWES..................................................5
1.6 ROLES PERFORMED BY ITF (INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND) IN SIWES...............................5
1.7 ROLES OF EMPLOYERS.....................................................................................................................5
1.8 ROLE OF UNIVERSITIES IN SIWES..................................................................................................5
1.9 ROLES OF THE STUDENTS UNDERGOING SIWES TRAINING...................................................6
1.10 IMPORTANCE OF SIWES............................................................................................................6
LOGBOOK.......................................................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 2.....................................................................................................................................................9
2.0 COMPANY PROFILE...........................................................................................................................9
BRIEF HISTORY OF ORGANIZATION (lead City 89.1Fm)....................................................................9
2.1 ORGANISATION CHART OF LEADCITY 89.1 FM..............................................................................9
2.2 MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF MAJOR DEPARTMENTS AT LEADCITY 89.1FM..............................10
2.3 MISSION STATEMENT.....................................................................................................................10
2.4 CORE VALUES...................................................................................................................................11

1
CHAPTER 3 INDUSTRIAL EXPERIENCE.................................................................................................12
JOBS DONE/EXPERIENCE GAINED.....................................................................................................12
SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS.....................................................................................................12
INTRODUCTION TO BROADCASTING...................................................................................................12
RADIO........................................................................................................................................................13
TRANSMITTER AND MODULATOR....................................................................................................14
ANTENNA.................................................................................................................................................15
PROPAGATION........................................................................................................................................15
RESONANCE.............................................................................................................................................15
RECEIVER AND DEMODULATION......................................................................................................16
RADIO BAND............................................................................................................................................16
TRANSMITTERS......................................................................................................................................17
BROADCAST HOUSE..............................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................................29
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION.......................................................................29
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS.............................................................29
RECOMMENDATION..............................................................................................................................30
CONCLUSION...........................................................................................................................................30
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................................31

2
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF SIWES

Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme is a program designed by the university to
expose students to the practical aspects of their course of study. It involves a student's
attachment to an organisation in line with their respective course of study that can provide
the training and experience required in the industry, as these experience and training cannot
be obtained in the lecture rooms. Still, the student shall apply the theoretical knowledge
taught in lecture rooms in real industrial situations. This training work experience is essential
in developing the practical and professional skills required of each student by their respective
course of study. Also, it stands as an aid to prospective employment.

1.2 HISTORY OF SIWES

SIWES was established by INDUSTRIAL TRUST FUND (ITF) in 1973 to solve the
problem of lack of adequate practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by
Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions. The Scheme exposes students to industry-based
skills necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work. It allows
students of tertiary institutions to be familiarised and exposed to the needed experience in
handling machinery and equipment, which are usually not available in educational
institutions.
Participation in SIWES has become a necessary pre-condition for awarding Diploma and
Degree certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of higher learning in the
country, following the government's education policy. Operators - The ITF, the coordinating
agencies (NUC, NCCE, NBTE), employers of labour, and labour institutions.
Funding - The Federal Government of Nigeria
Beneficiaries - Undergraduate students of the following: Agriculture, Engineering,
Technology, Environmental, Science, Education, Medical Science, and Pure and Applied
Sciences.
Duration - Four months for Polytechnics and Colleges of Education and Six months for the
Universities.

3
Highlight the Number of Participating Institutions:
Universities = 597
Polytechnics = 85
Colleges of Education = 62
TOTAL = 206

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

SIWES allows students to acquire industrial skills and experiences in their approved
course of study. It also prepares students for their industrial work situation after
graduation. The objectives of the student’s industrial training work experience scheme are:
a. Provision of avenues for students in Nigerian universities to gain industrial skills
and experience in their course of study.
b. To prepare students for the work situation they will likely meet after graduation.
c. To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery
that may not be available in the universities.
d. To make the transition from the university to the world of work more accessible,
thus enhancing students’ contacts for later job placement.
e. To allow students to apply their theoretical knowledge in real work and
situations, bridging the gap between university work and actual practice.

1.4 FUNCTIONS OF SIWES

By the directive of the National Universities Commission (NUC) and Industrial
Training Fund (ITF), the Unit is mandated to carry out the following functions:
a. We are seeking industrial placement for undergraduate students enrolled in disciplines
scheduled for participation in SIWES.
b. Supervise the students in the industries within our ITF zone.
c. Processing students’ logbooks, ITF forms, and industrial attachment reports based on
the Federal Government funding of supervision and students’ allowances.
d. Fostering close links between the university and industries participating in the SIWES
e. program.
f. Provision of advisory guidance to participating students on career
employment opportunities.

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1.5 ROLES PERFORMED BY FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN SIWES
The Federal Government, being the major party in the establishment of SIWES, has ever
since been involved in the management of SIWES. Some of the roles played are:
a. To make it mandatory for all ministries, companies, and parastatals to offer places of
attachment for students by the provision decree of No 47 of 1971 as amended in
1990.
b. To provide necessary and adequate funds to ITF through the Federal ministries
of industries.
c. Make it a policy to include a clause in every significant contract lasting over six to nine
months being awarded for contractors to take students on attachment.

1.6 ROLES PERFORMED BY ITF (INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND) IN SIWES

a. Provide logistics and materials needed to administer the scheme
b. Supervise students through its area offices.
c. Organize biennial conferences and seminars on SIWES
d. Compile lists of employers and available training places for industrial attachment
and forward such lists to the coordinating agencies (i.e. NUC, NBTE, and NCCE).

1.7 ROLES OF EMPLOYERS

a. Control and discipline students like the permanent staff.
b. Accept students and assign them to the relevant on-the-job training. Provide medical
care for students within the limits of the employer’s conditions of service during
attachment.
c. Attach experienced staff to students for practical training and supervision.
d. Supervisors should handle at most ten students at a time.
e. Pay student's monthly allowance as and when due.

1.8 ROLE OF UNIVERSITIES IN SIWES

a. Prepare and submit master and placement lists to the coordinating agency and ITF.

5
b. Place students on attachment with employers.

6
c. Establish SIWES coordinating units and appoint department/faculty SIWES
coordinators within the institutions.
d. Organize orientation programs for students to prepare them for industrial training.
ITF representatives may be invited to give a talk to the students during the orientation
program.
e. Appoint full-time industrial coordinators to operate the scheme at the industrial level

1.9 ROLES OF THE STUDENTS UNDERGOING SIWES TRAINING

a. Comply with the employers’ rules and regulations
b. Arrange their living accommodation during attachment.
c. The regular and punctual at the respective place during the period of attachment

1.10 IMPORTANCE OF SIWES

a. It allows students to apply their theoretical knowledge in real-life situations.
b. It exposes students to more practical work, methods, and techniques.
c. It strengthens links between employers, universities, and the Industrial Training
Fund (ITF)
d. It also prepares students for the labour market after graduation.

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 LOGBOOK
The SIWES Logbook also also known as Industrial Training or Intership Logbook is an official
record booklet ,that is being issued by various Universities ,Polytechnics ,Colleges of
Educations ,Colleges of Technology, Colleges of Agriculture to their intership students to carefully
and neatly record down their daily or weekly activities ,projects ,jobs etc. carried out in their
workplaces.
Most importantly ,the logbook contains basic information of I.T students and the firm the student
must have been attached for the training and it is being checked and endorsed by the Industry based
supervisor ,Institution Supervisor and ITF during supervision.
The student logbook typically includes the following information:

Personal details: The student's name, contact information, and student

identification number.

Company details: The name and address of the organization where the student is
undertaking their industrial training, as well as the name and contact information of their
supervisor.

Training schedule: The dates and duration of the student's industrial training,
including any breaks or holidays.

Daily activities: A detailed record of the tasks, projects, and responsibilities that the
student is involved in during their industrial training. This may include descriptions of
specific projects, meetings attended, training sessions, and any other relevant activities.

Learning outcomes: Reflections on the knowledge and skills gained during the
industrial training, as well as any challenges faced and how they were overcome.

Supervisor feedback: Comments and evaluations from the student's supervisor or

mentor, providing insight into the student's performance and progress.

Signatures: The logbook may require signatures from the student, their supervisor,
and any other relevant parties to validate the information recorded.

Roles of logbook in the SIWES report:

Student: The student is responsible for maintaining the logbook and accurately
recording their activities, experiences, and learning during their industrial training. They
8
are also expected to reflect on their experiences and demonstrate their understanding of the
knowledge and skills gained.

Supervisor: The supervisor, who is typically an experienced professional within the

organization, plays a crucial role in guiding and mentoring the student during their
industrial training. They are responsible for providing feedback, evaluating the student's
performance, and ensuring that the student gains valuable learning experiences.

School coordinator: The school coordinator oversees the SIWES program and may
provide guidance to the student and supervisor. They also play a role in assessing the
student's logbook and ensuring that the industrial training aligns with the academic
objectives of the program.

Industry mentor: In some cases, the student may also have an industry mentor who
provides additional support and guidance during their industrial training. The industry
mentor may offer insights into the organization's operations, industry best practices, and
career development advice.

Overall, the student logbook is a valuable tool for documenting and evaluating the
student's industrial training experience. It provides a comprehensive record of the student's
activities and learning outcomes, and it is essential for completing the SIWES report and
fulfilling the requirements of the program

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 CHAPTER 2

LEAD CITY ( 89.1 FM ),LEAD CITY UNIVERSITY ,IBADAN.

This company is a broadcasting company that deals with realtime information , educative shows
entertainment and advertisement and engineering.

2.0 COMPANY PROFILE

BRIEF HISTORY OF ORGANIZATION (lead City 89.1Fm)

Lead City 89.1fm station is a campus radio situated in lead City university campus Along Oba
Otudeko Avenue Lagos Ibadan Express way Ibadan. This station kicked off in January 2016 .Unlike
other FM radio stations, Lead City FM was issued with a community license and guided by some
rules and regulations for its operations. Lead City Campus radio offers strategic advantages when
appealing to new incoming students .It is a key medium for universities to reach out to and to
interact with their communities .It is an excellent tool to improve multimedia class projects .Lead
City FM 89.1 situated on the campus of Lead CITY University has a great influence on the students
and staffs of the university and also on the youths around the community. It is currently headed by
Mr. Akin George.
2.1 ORGANISATION CHART OF LEADCITY 89.1 FM
In other to accomplish the objectives stated above, Lead City FM has a chain of officers who foresee
different sectors of the organization.
These major officers ensure the proper running of the radio station

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 2.2 MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF MAJOR DEPARTMENTS AT LEADCITY 89.1FM
The general manager oversees the entire station .His duties include managing the budget and
approving and executing strategic plans .Management is supported by administrative
workers ,including human resources professionals who handle payroll and benefits ,an accountant or
who overseas finances, an office manager who oversees the day –to-day runnin of the office and
Administrative assistants who help with clerical work.
 Programming Department
The program director makes decisions about what the listeners hear on the air .He influences the
stations format, and he oversees all departments responsible for producing radio content. If the
station offers news, the department would be run by the news director, who supervises and edits the
works of the reporters ,anchors and producers. The radio station also has an online presence that
requires Web and social media producers.

 SALES AND MARKETING DEPARTMENTS

Those catchy jingles that help pay for stations personnel and programming are on the air because the
salesperson went into the business community and convince media buyers to advertise. A manager
oversees the sales staffs and can decide which prospect to approach .The marketing department
makes sure the radio is well publicized and also initiating community events and partnerships.

 TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT
The chief engineer oversees the technical elements of broadcast. This involves transmitter
maintenance and trouble shooting , as well as managing all equipment, such as sound
board ,microphone and recording gear .The technical staffs include board operators, who manages
the sound levels of live broadcast ,monitors the length of on- air breaks so the announcer leaves
time for commercials.

2.3 MISSION STATEMENT

Lead City 89.1FM brand purpose is to entertain, engage ,educate and promote the interest of the
community through all platforms(FM radio ,online and digital).
Our five key objectives
 To be a popular, mainstream radio station, engaging with the community at large through its
diverse and unique range of programming
 To support local businesses through affordable and effective advertisement via all platforms.
 To provide a full service of local news and information including the most accurate travel
news for the Country Town, sports, weather, and information.
11
  To provide a platform for charitable organizations, community and volunteer groups.
 To provide the community the opportunity to be involved in every area of the radio station,
and resident of all backgrounds
2.4 CORE VALUES

Our Brand Values:

 Proudly local Informative. To be a popular, mainstream radio station, engaging with the
community at large through its diverse and unique range of programming.
 To provide a platform for local charitable organization, community and volunteer groups.
 To provide full access to local news and information including the most accurate news along
all aspects of life.
 To support local businesses through affordable and effective advertisement via all platforms.
 Fresh and innovative.
 Positive and inspiration.
 Our Brand Personality
 Fun
 Exciting
 Reliable
 Friendly
 Genuine

12
 CHAPTER 3

INDUSTRIAL EXPERIENCE

JOBS DONE/EXPERIENCE GAINED

On the first day at the radio station, I was first given a rundown of the studio safety rules and
regulations. I was also introduced to the management and various departments in the company, after
which I was shown some transmission and broadcasting machines.

SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS

General safety rules when using the studio for broadcast or production.
Health &Safety
 Learn the location of the nearest fire extinguisher.
 Report any injuries to the supervisor immediately.
 Never move anything heavy by yourself .Some equipment in the station are very
large and heavy. Avoid back strain or other bodily harm by working with a patner.
 Keep all food and drinks out of all studios and the radio office area.
 Keep all exit free of obstruction and keep belongings in designated areas.
 Turn off (or airplane mode), all cell phones and other communication devices before
entering any radio broadcast or production studio.
 Never enter a studio above “on air” light is illuminated.
 The studio is meant to accommodate 3 talent on mic.
 The studio doors must be closed when broadcasting.

INTRODUCTION TO BROADCASTING.
Broadcasting, Radio and Television, primary means by which information and
entertainment are delivered to the public in virtually every nation around the world. The
term broadcasting refers to the airborne transmission of electromagnetic audio signals
(radio) or audiovisual signals (television) that are readily accessible to a wide population
via standard receivers.
Broadcasting is a crucial instrument of modern social and political organization. At its peak of
influence in the mid-20th century, national leaders often used radio and television broadcasting to
address entire countries. Because of its capacity to reach large numbers of people, broadcasting has
been regulated since it was recognized as a significant means of communication. (For more
information, see the section "The Regulation of Broadcasting.")
Beginning in the early 1980s, new technologies–such as cable television and videocassette players–
13
began eroding the dominance of broadcasting in mass communications, splitting its audiences into
smaller, culturally distinct segments. Previously a synonym for radio and television, broadcasting
has become one of several delivery systems that feed content to newer media.
II. The Emergence of Broadcast Communication
Throughout history, long-distance communication had depended entirely upon conventional means
of transportation. A message could be moved aboard a ship, on horseback, by pigeon, or in the
memory of a human courier, but in all cases it had to be conveyed as a mass through space like any
other material commodity.

RADIO
Radio is the radiation (wireless transmission) of electromagnetic energy through space. The
biggest use of radio waves is to carry information, such as sound, by systematically changing
(modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such as their amplitude, frequency, phase, or
pulse width. When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an
alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and
transformed back into its original form. Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate (change)
some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude
modulation or angle modulation (which can be frequency modulation or phase modulation).
Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, and vice
versa. An antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of
tuned circuits in radios allows individual stations to be selected. The electromagnetic wave is
intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. A radio receiver receives its input from an antenna
and converts it into a form usable for the consumer, such as sound, pictures, digital data,
measurement values, navigational positions, etc. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3
kHz to 300 GHz, although commercially important uses of radio use only a small part
of this spectrum.

A radio communication system sends signals by radio. The radio equipment involved in
communication systems includes a transmitter and a receiver, each having an antenna and
appropriate terminal equipment such as a microphone at the transmitter and a loudspeaker at the
receiver in the case of a voice-communication system.

14
 TRANSMITTER AND MODULATOR
Each system contains a transmitter; this consists of a source of electrical energy, producing
alternating current of a desired frequency of oscillation. The transmitter contains a system to
modulate (change) some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This
modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle
properties such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or combinations of these properties. The
transmitter sends the modulated electrical energy to a tuned resonant antenna; this structure
converts the rapidly changing alternating current into an electromagnetic wave that can move
through free space (sometimes with a particular polarization).

Processes

Radio communication. Information such as sound is converted by a transducer such as a

microphone to an electrical signal, which modulates a radio wave sent from a transmitter. A
receiver intercepts the radio wave and extracts the information-bearing electronic signal, which
is converted back using another transducer such as a speaker. Radio systems used for
communication have the following elements. With more than 100 years of development, each
process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialized for different
communications purposes.

An audio signal (top) may be carried by an AM or FM radio wave. Amplitude modulation of a

carrier wave works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in proportion to the
information being sent. For example, changes in the signal strength can be used to reflect the
sounds to be reproduced by a speaker, or to specify the light intensity of television pixels. It
was the method used for the first audio radio transmissions, and remains in use today. "AM" is
often used to refer to the medium wave broadcast band (see AM radio), but it is used in various
radiotelephone services such as the Citizen Band, amateur radio and especially in aviation, due
to its ability to be received under very weak signal conditions and its immunity to capture
effect, allowing more than one signal to be heard simultaneously.

Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier. The instantaneous frequency of the
carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the
"capture effect" whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, even when others are
present. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a set of discrete

15
values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high
frequency (VHF) radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (see FM
broadcasting). Analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM.

Angle modulation alters the instantaneous phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal. It may
be either FM or phase modulation (PM).

ANTENNA.
An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric currents into radio waves,
and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a
radio transmitter supplies an electric current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e. high frequency
AC) to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as
electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of
an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a
receiver to be amplified. Some antennas can be used for both transmitting and receiving, even
simultaneously, depending on the connected equipment.

PROPAGATION
Once generated, electromagnetic waves travel through space either directly, or have their path
altered by reflection, refraction or diffraction. The intensity of the waves diminishes due to
geometric dispersion (the inverse-square law); some energy may also be absorbed by the
intervening medium in some cases. Noise will generally alter the desired signal; this
electromagnetic interference comes from natural sources, as well as from artificial sources such
as other transmitters and accidental radiators. Noise is also produced at every step due to the
inherent properties of the devices used. If the magnitude of the noise is large enough, the
desired signal will no longer be discernible; the signal-to-noise ratio is the fundamental limit to
the range of radio communications.

RESONANCE
Electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected. A
resonant circuit will respond strongly to a particular frequency, and much less so to differing
frequencies. This allows the radio receiver to discriminate between multiple signals differing in
frequency.

16
 RECEIVER AND DEMODULATION
A crystal receiver, consisting of an antenna, adjustable electromagnetic coil, crystal rectifier,
capacitor, headphones and ground connection.

The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna; this structure captures
some of the energy of the wave and returns it to the form of oscillating electrical currents. At
the receiver, these currents are demodulated, which is conversion to a usable signal form by a
detector sub-system. The receiver is "tuned" to respond preferentially to the desired signals, and
reject undesired signals.

Early radio systems relied entirely on the energy collected by an antenna to produce signals for
the operator. Radio became more useful after the invention of electronic devices such as the
vacuum tube and later the transistor, which made it possible to amplify weak signals. Today
radio systems are used for applications from walkie-talkie children's toys to the control of space
vehicles, as well as for broadcasting, and many other applications.

A radio receiver receives its input from an antenna, uses electronic filters to separate a wanted
radio signal from all other signals picked up by this antenna, amplifies it to a level suitable for
further processing, and finally converts through demodulation and decoding the signal into a
form usable for the consumer, such as sound, pictures, digital data, measurement values,
navigational positions, etc.

RADIO BAND
NAME FREQUENCY
Gamma ray >30 EHz (0.01nm) 124KeV-
300+ GeV
x-ray 30EHz -30PHz (0.01nm- 124eV to 120Kev
10nm)
Ultraviolet 30PHz -750THz (10nm - 3.1eV to 124ev
400nm)
Visible 750THz-428.5THz (400nm- 1.7eV -3.1eV
700nm)
Infrared 428.5THz-300GHz (700nm- 1.24meV-1.7eV
1mm)
Microwave 300GHz -300MHz(1mm- 1.24µ -1.24meV
1m)
Radio 300MHz-3kHz(1m-100Km) 12.4feV -1.24meV

Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, although commercially
important uses of radio use only a small part of this spectrum .Other types of electromagnetic

17
radiation, with frequencies above the RF range, are infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays
and gamma rays. Since the energy of an individual photon of radio frequency is too low to
remove an electron from an atom, radio waves are classified as non-ionizing radiation.

Communication systems

A radio communication system sends signals by radio. Types of radio communication systems
deployed depend on technology, standards, regulations, radio spectrum allocation, user
requirements, service positioning, and investment.

The radio equipment involved in communication systems includes a transmitter and a receiver,
each having an antenna and appropriate terminal equipment such as a microphone at the
transmitter and a loudspeaker at the receiver in the case of a voice-communication system.

The power consumed in a transmitting station varies depending on the distance of

communication and the transmission conditions. The power received at the receiving station is
usually only a tiny fraction of the transmitter's output, since communication depends on
receiving the information, not the energy that was transmitted.

Classical radio communications systems use frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) as a

strategy to split up and share the available radio-frequency bandwidth for use by different party
communications concurrently.

Coverage

There are several factors influencing the coverage area:

· Location of the transmitter in relation to the desired coverage area

· Type and ‘pattern’ of the transmitting aerial

· Height of the transmitting aerial

· Power of the transmitter (and this is regulated in most countries)

· Terrain (how hilly is the area to be covered).

TRANSMITTERS
Transmitters are available with powers of a few Watts to several thousand Watts. A 50W
transmitter may cover a small village or town

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(if the aerial is high enough), whereas to cover a large city may require 5kW.

When selecting a transmitter the following parameters should be considered:

· Efficiency (there is no point paying for power which does not go into the aerial)

· Robustness (a modular design makes sense – a single failure will not render the whole unit
inoperative)

· Remote control and diagnostics (often transmitters are sited in remote locations, difficult to
get to)

What else is required?

In addition to the transmitter itself, several other components are required. An FM Processor is
used to make your station sound ‘louder’ than its competitors, RDS allows data to be
transmitted and displayed on suitably equipped receivers, a cavity filter reduces spurious
emissions (and may be a regulatory requirement). Aerials need to be chosen carefully to ensure
optimum coverage, connected with suitable ‘feeder’ cable to avoid losses.

More sophisticated systems will have back up transmitters with varying levels of change-over
system. Dummy loads allow the transmitter to be tested independently of the aerial and feeder
cable.

In situations where the transmitter is not located at the studio site, a Studio to Transmitter Link
(STL) is required to get the signal from the studio to the transmitter.

BROADCAST HOUSE
A broadcast house is where broadcast or information is been conveyed to the public via
transmission using the necessary transmission equipment. Every broadcast house consists of the
following:

 Transmission room and control room.

 On Air studio
 Mast
 Power House (plant)

TRANSMISSION/CONTROL ROOM

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The transmission room is where all the necessary transmission equipment is been setup. Lead
City 89.1FM runs cable transmission, hence the transmission room and the control room are in
the same hall.
At Lead City Radio House, the under listed transmission or broadcast equipment are used for
broadcast.

 Uninterrupted power supply

 Antenna
 Audio processor
 Virtualizer.
 Combiner
 Automatic Voltage Regulator(AVR)
 Elenos ET20000 Indium 20kw Transmitter .High power DD.
 Transmitter
 Air condition System etc.

AUDIOPROCESSOR
An audio processor is an electrical device used in filtering audio signal from broadcast. This
brings about the intentional alteration of auditory signal often through an audio effect or effect
unit ,as audio signal may be electronically represented in either digital or analogue
format ;signal processing may occur in either domain .Analogues process operates directly on
the electrical signal while the digital process operates directly on the representation of the
signal.

AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

This Automatic Voltage Regulator power equipment whose output range from 0-500V. It is a three
phase power stabilizer that supplies 400V to the transmitter and other equipment that uses three
phase power supply such as the 3-Horse power AC .In the AVR, if any phase of the power line goes
faulty, the transmitter and other three phase equipment will trip off.

ON-AIR STUDIO

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Every broadcast house owns a studio, the studio is one of the most important units in a broadcasting
house .Also the studio is where all broadcast is carried out. Lead City FM studio has the following
studio equipment:

 Console
 Computer system
 Tape and CD player
 Telephone
 Cable
 Microphone
 Headphones etc.

A picture of an on air studio session

CONSOLE
In audio ,a console (also called mixer) is an electronic device used for combining ,routing and
changing the volume level or dynamics of many different audio signal coming into the console such
as microphone used by the presenter ,recorded music and other source of audio signals connected to
the console.
A console consist of three main sections:
 Channel inputs
 Master control
 Audio levelling meter

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 A picture of a mixer console.

CHANNEL INPUT
The channel inputs are banks of stereo input channel. The channel inputs are where the audio signals
from the other systems are plugged into the console, each channel input has a rotary gain knobs and
faders used for controls of a particular channel. The gain knob is used to set the kind of sound
quality of sound output needed or desired, it is also used to normalize the sound output. The fader is
used to control the volume level of the respective channels; it is the most common component in any
channel strip.

MASTER CONTROL
The master control controls the gain knobs, fader, and all other control keys on the console.

AUDIO LEVEL METERING

The audio level metering is used to indicate the audio level of each channel for the master output and
to indicate whether the console or audio level are clipping (I .e distorting or unwanted signal).

COMPUTER SYSYTEM
A computer is one of the electronic devices fond in the studio, it is used for storing of information,
playing of jingles, commercials, advert, music, etc. The computer is also used to edit recordings,
especially in the production studio. In Lead City 89.1FM the two major Software used in editing
audio sounds are sound forge and Adope Audition. The computer output is also connected to the
console.

TAPE/ CD PLAYER

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This is a sound electronic device that can play CDs and tapes. It is used to play Information recorded
on CDs and tapes like Advert,
Commercials or sponsored programs.

TELEPHONE
The telephone is also important in the broadcast studio. It is used for programs that require Listeners
contribution via the telephone, listeners can key into the studio line and also make contributions,
request, and suggestion in a program.

SIGNAL CABLES
Cables are the links between one system and another. It is used to inter-link the system for
connections

THE MICROPHONE
The microphone is a transducer that converts sound into electrical signals (audio signal).It is used in
many applications such as telephone, public address system for concert and events, and for radio and
television broadcast. It must be connected to the pre-amplifiers before the signal can be heard or
recorded, in the microphone the audio sound is first converted to mechanical motion by means of
diaphragm, and the mechanical motion is converted to electrical signal.

MAST
The mast is the carrier of the antenna, at the top of the mast is placed the antenna. Also, the red light
placed on the top of the mast is for aviation reasons, it is 540ft long and its color coating is red and
white.

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PLANT HOUSE
The plant house supplies power to the entire station, it contains two electric generating sets. Things
found in the power plant house are;
 One 100KVA generating set
 Three phase Busbar.
 Cables of different sizes
 Three phase MCCB/switch

BROADCASTING /TRANSMISSION CHAIN

This is the process by which information migrates from the station to the listeners at their various
homes.

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HOW IT WORKS

TRANSMITTING: This process starts with the presenter on the microphone. When the presenter
speaks ,the microphone picks up sounds wave through the diaphragm ,the sound waves causes
vibration in the diaphragm resulting into mechanical motion and the mechanical motion is been
converted to electrical signal (Audio signal ).This electrical signal is sent through the microphone
cable to the console via a channel. The console been a pre-amplifier amplifies the audio signal and
sends it to the audio processor in the Transmitting room .The audio processor now filters the signals
and remove all unwanted and distorting signals and makes it crystal clear and clean and sends it
exciter . The exciter takes the audio signal, modulates (Lock) it in the frequency generated by the
exciter and then sends it to the Transmitter. The transmitter which acts as the carrier frequency takes
the signal, and then carries it via the coaxial table to the antenna at the top of the mast. The antenna
receives the signal and sends it through airs as electromagnetic wave.

RECEIVING: Now, over there at our various houses, the reverse side of what happens in the
station is what happens in the radio. The radio when tuned into that particular frequency picks up the
signal, demodulates ( unlock ) it and sends the information that has been Demodulates as audio
signal via the speaker output ,and that’s why we can hear whatever the presenter says at the station
when tuned into frequency at our various houses.

FIELD WORK (OUTSIDE BROADCAST)

Outside broadcast are covering of live events, was one of the practical I was given and was involved
in. In outside broadcast, our duty was to set up Equipment and relay the happenings of the events via

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a hybrid phone through to the radio station for it to be broadcasted live on air. The equipment for
outside broadcasting includes; Console, two hybrid phones, audio cable, amplifier and headphones.

MONITORING OF MODULATION

In transmission, it is important that the transmission is monitored in other to avoid some deficiencies
in transmission process. This is done to avoid in some cases; over modulation, interfering with other
FM stations. This happens when the instantaneous level of the modulating signal exceeds the value
necessary to provide 100% modulation of the carrier. In a lay man terms, it means the signal is going
off scale. In a case where there is over modulation and distorting signal, the console is used to adjust
it.

TRANSMISSION LINE

In communication and electronic engineering, the transmission line is a specialized cable or other
structures designed to carry alternating currents of radio frequency. That is, current with frequency
high enough that the wave nature must be taken into account. Transmission line is used for purpose
such as connecting radio transmitters, receivers with the antennas, and distributing cable television
signal.

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINES

 Coaxial cable
 Optical fiber
 Wave guide
 Two parallel conductor pair

COAXIAL CABLE: Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signal, It‘s
application includes feed lines, connecting radio transmitter and Receive with the antenna .A coaxial
cable is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tabular insulating layer,
surrounded by a tabular conducting shield. A coaxial also has an insulating outer shield or jacket.
One advantage coaxial cable has over other types of radio transmission line is that in an ideal coaxial
cable, the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and
outer conductors. This allows coaxial cables to be installed next to the metal objects such as gutter
without the power loss that occurs in other types of transmission line. It also provides protection of
signal from external electromagnetic interference.

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OPTICAL FIBRE: Optical fiber is a flexible transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or
plastic top, it is a diameter lighter than the human hair. They are used most often as means to
transmit light between two ends of the fiber and are used widely in optic communication where they
permit transmission over long distance and at higher bandwidth than wire cables. Fibers are used
instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with a less amount of loss, fibers are also
immune to electromagnetic interference, a problem metals suffer from excessively.

WAVE GUIDE: A wave guide is a structure that guides waves such as electromagnetic waves or
sound waves. They enable the signal to propagate with a minimal loss of energy by restricting
expansion to one dimension or two.

TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTOR PAIR: two parallel conductor pair is a twin-lead cable flat
conductor used as a transmission line to carry radio frequency signals. Twin-lead and other type of
parallel conductor transmission lines are mainly used to connect radio transmitters and receivers to
the antennas. Parallel transmission line has the advantages that it losses are in order of magnitude,
smaller than that of the coaxial cable, the main alternative of transmission line. Its disadvantage is
that it is more vulnerable to interference and must be kept away from objects which can cause power
losses.

POWER PLANT AND STUDIO EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

For any broadcast station to be on air, its equipment must be functional. This is why maintenance is
of paramount importance in the broadcasting industry because without maintenance culture, its
equipment will break down. Every equipment need to be properly checked, cleaned and repaired
periodical; if defective. Carrying out this act is referred to as maintenance.

The different types of maintenance are:

 Preventive maintenance
 Corrective maintenance
 Trouble Shooting and repair
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Preventive maintenance is a systematic series of operation performed periodically on equipment.
This includes inspecting, cleaning, Tightening. etc.

Corrective maintenance is simply adjusting the equipment to correct any malfunction problem.

Trouble shooting and repairs is the step taken to detect a fault or means taken in diagnosing a faulty
circuit. When the fault is identified, the faulty component are removed and replace by new one.

In order to carry out proper maintenance, the following tools are required;

1. Multi-meter: used for testing or measuring current, voltage, resistance and for continuity
test.
2. Pliers: used for removing tightening bent connector pins.
3. Sucker: used for removing molten lead during soldering.
4. Soldering iron and Lead: used for soldering circuit component.
5. Screw Driver: used for removing and tightening screws.
6. Spanners: used for removing and tightening nuts.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN RADIO BROADCASTING

 BRANDING: The consistent way a radio represents itself on the air.

 CLOCK: in radio terms, the device on which programming occurs in an hour of
broadcasting.
 BUMPER MUSIC: Music that is used to bring audiences in and out of stop sets during
talk show or in and out of air.
 COOL END: A song or piece that comes to an abstruct end.
 CROSSFADE: A smooth transition between elements.
 CUE: Prompting someone to speak, maybe verbal or non-verbal.
 DEAD AIR: Broadcasting a signal but nothing on the signal.
 DROP-IN: A short radio announcement between two songs or two broadcast element.
 FADE: To lose audio gradually.
 PLAYBACK: The act of causing recorded sounds to be heard again.
 SIGNAL: It is an electrical or electromagnetic action, normally a voltage that is a
function of time that conveys the information of the radio with another party.
 STEREO: A system of recording or reproducing sound that uses two channel.
 STREAMING: The act of audio into digital data and transmitting it over the internet.

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  TRANSMITTING: A process of sending and propagating an analog or digital
information signal over a physical point-to-point or point-to-multipoint transmission
medium, either wired, optical fiber or wireless.
 AIR WAVES: The medium through which radio signals are transmitted. They are also
known as spectrum or electromagnetic spectrum.
 AMPLYFYING: The ability to increase audio.
 AUDIO: Any piece of sound whether recorded or live.
 ATTENUATION: A gradual diminishing or reduction in the level of a signal strength.
 BANDWIDTH: A frequency range occupied by a modulated carrier.
 BROADCASTING: The distribution of audio or video content to a dispensed audience
via any electronic mass communication medium.
 COMPRESSON: A system to keep the levels constant by automatically reducing the
volume of a recording or broadcast if it goes beyond a certain level.
 CRIMPING: IT is a way of joining two or more pieces of metals or other ductile
materials by deforming one or both of them to hold the other.
 FADER: Sliding control on a mixing desk to control how loud an audio is.
 FEEDBACK: The air-piercing noise created when the sound from a microphone is
picked up by a loudspeaker, which in turns amplifies the sound.
 GAIN: Another word for volume.
 INSTALLATION: To connect ,set-up or prepare something for use.
 INTERFERENCE: Static caused from another audio due to being broadcast over the
same band.
 LATENCY: It is the delay or lateness in audio.
 LEVEL: The strength of the audio. Low level=quiet volume. High level=loud volume.
 MONO: Left and right channels are mixed together to form one channel of audio.
 OUTPUT: The audio heard by the listener.
 MODULATION: The process of mixing or imposing an input signal onto a carrier wave.
 DEMODULATION: It is the extraction of original information-bearing signal from a
carrier wave.

During my course of my six months industrial training, I was able to get practical knowledge of the
working operations in a radio station working on frequency modulation (FM). Modulation
monitoring is paramount in working in an FM station to avoid distortion to the transmission and
station. Basic electrical components like like; transmitters, Console, microphone, and processor, etc.

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which makes communication through FM waves possible. I also spent time in the production studio
where i learnt how to record and edit audio sound and also adding effects where necessary using
software applications like ; Adope Audition, Sound forge and Q base.

CHAPTER FOUR

SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Difficulty in finding a place for industrial training is a big problem for students on the SIWES
program. There are situations whereby you will write a company’s aptitude test, but because
you do not know anybody within the company or that no one can speak on your behalf then you
lose the placement.
Nigerian government in collaboration with SIWES should help students when it comes to
securing a place for the training; or provide a policy that gives a Nigerian student right to be

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taken in any company he/she applied for the training. By so doing, the time wasted at home
while searching for a place by the student will be minimized

1. Finance: There were some financial challenges since the organization does not pay
industrial training students and this had some effect on IT students in terms of
transportation and otherwise.
2. There was no much of a practical training/work since most of the machines and equipment
were in good working conditions.
3. Lack of precise training was another problem encountered because there was no precise
order of training program for industrial training student.

EXPERIENCE GAINED

 During my SIWES program in the radio station, I basically worked with the studio
engineers and technical team.
 One of my favorite activities was working in the production studio where I recorded
audio and also worked on various audio sound recordings.
 I also learnt how to install OS computer system.
 I was taught how to format hard disk, and also the set up for each brand of
computer/laptops vary in the formatting process.
 I also regularly took logs to the transmission process in a systematic format on an hourly
basis (every 1 hour).
 I also gained basic insights in the operation of the mixer console as well as how to adjust
it when necessary.
 I spent time in the live studio, where I gained insight in the transmission process and
how to deal with problems of break in transmission.
 I was taught how to change over and put on the MIKANO diesel generator when needed.
 I learnt the normal basic setup in the production studio.
 When in the live studio, I also learnt to control the sound been aired or the feedback by
moving the fade cursor on the mixer.

RECOMMENDATION

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I recommend that SIWES (Student Industrial Working Experience Scheme), Should provide a
place for industrial attachment for students, Industrial Training Fund (ITF) should pay some
allowances to students, and companies/industries should provide more safety equipment to
prevent further health hazards.

CONCLUSION

My almost 6months industrial attachment at Lead City 89.1FM was one of the most interesting,
and productive experience I have ever had. I gained new insights and understanding about the
working condition and practices in the Radio station. With all the valuable experience and
knowledge gained ,I’m sure that the Industrial Training Fund have achieved its primary
objectives, as a result of the program , I am now more confident of careers in the future.

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REFERENCES

1. LOGBOOK
2. https://gimstopher.blogspot.com/2016/12/siwes-report-on-radio-station.html?m=1
3. https://www.scribd.com/document/521122371/INDUSTRIAL-TRAINING

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