Open Journal of Geology, 2023, 13, 1007-1023

https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Cu-Bearing Mokama Granite Prospect of the

Kibara Belt in the Maniema Province, DRC:
A Preliminary Petrography, Geochemistry, and
Fluid Inclusion Study

Douxdoux Kumakele Makutu1,2* , Ivan Bongwe2, Chris Musomo Mfumu2,

Frederick Makoka Mwanza2, Jean-Pierre Bulambo3, Pierre Kambuli Kaseti3
1
Energy Resource Department, College of Engineering, Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Geosciences, Kinshasa University, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
3
Department of Geology, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo

How to cite this paper: Makutu, D.K., Abstract

Bongwe, I., Mfumu, C.M., Mwanza, F.M.,
Bulambo, J.-P. and Kaseti, P.K. (2023) The Mokama granites are located in the Kibara belt (KIB) and hosts tin oxide
Cu-Bearing Mokama Granite Prospect of group minerals (TOGM: Sn-W), and sulfide group minerals (SGM: Cu-Zn-
the Kibara Belt in the Maniema Province,
Fe-As). The essential of Cu mineralization (non-economic deposit) is dis-
DRC: A Preliminary Petrography, Geo-
chemistry, and Fluid Inclusion Study. Open
seminated inside the rock and consists of minerals (Raman, EPMA and
Journal of Geology, 13, 1007-1023. metallographic microscopy) including chalcopyrite and bornite that are
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2023.1310043 replaced by chalcocite and covellite, and the last also replaced later by
malachite. The chemistry (XRF, LA-ICP-MS) of these peraluminous S-type
Received: September 7, 2023
Accepted: October 8, 2023
leucogranites show SiO2 (71 wt% - 79 wt%), ASI (1.4 - 3.1 molar), and are
Published: October 11, 2023 enriched in Rb (681 - 1000 ppm), Ta (12–151 ppm), Sn (43 - 142 ppm), Cu
(10 - 4300 ppm), Zn (60 - 740 ppm), U (2.2 - 20.7 ppm) while depleted in Zr
Copyright © 2023 by author(s) and
(20 - 31 ppm), Sr (20 - 69 ppm), Hf (1.3 - 2.0 ppm), Th (2.2 - 18.9 ppm), W (9
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
- 113 ppm), Pb (5 - 50 ppm), Ge (5 - 10 ppm), Cs (21 - 53 ppm) and Bi (0.6 -
Commons Attribution International 17.4 ppm) and low ratios of (La/Yb) N, (Gd/Yb) N, (La/Sm) N). Fluid
License (CC BY 4.0). inclusion assemblages (FIAs) hosted in quartz in the Mokama granites show
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
ranges of salinities of 4 - 23 wt% (NaCl equivalent) and homogenization
Open Access
temperatures (Th) of 190˚C - 550˚C. A boiling assemblage in the granite
suggests a fluid phase separation occurred at about 380 - 610 bars, and this
corresponds to apparent paleodepths of approximately 1 - 2 km (lithostatic
model) or 3 - 5 km (hydrostatic model). FIAs hosted in TOGM such as
cassiterite (salinities of 2 wt% - 10 wt% and Th of 220˚C - 340˚C) helped set
up the possible temperature limit of SGM (Cu sulfide) precipitations that are

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2023.1310043 Oct. 11, 2023 1007 Open Journal of Geology

D. K. Makutu et al.

estimated below 200˚C.

Keywords
Mokama Granites, Petrography, Geochemistry, Cu-Mineralization, XRF,
EPMA, LA-ICP-MS, Fluid Inclusion Microthermometry

1. Introduction
The KIB leucogranites originated from the partial melting “anatexis” of the
crustal subducting slab during the Mesoproterozoic collision event between the
Congo craton and the Tanzanian block [1]. These leucogranites are sources of
numeral metals such as Sn, W, Nb, Ta, Li, REE, Fe, Zn, and Cu (Figure 1). The
occurrences of tin oxide group minerals (TOGM), columbite group minerals
(CGM) and sulfide group minerals (SGM, Cu mineralization) are typically asso-
ciated with the post-collision differentiated leucogranites [2] [3]. The enrich-
ment and increase in mobility of metals are ensured by incipient post-magmatic
fluid processes such as fluid exsolution, fluid-rock interactions [2] [4], metaso-
matic reactions and fluid-fluid mixings (magmatic-meteoric) [5].
The KIB G4 granites are known for Sn-W mineralization (in the Maniema,
Kivu, and great Katanga provinces) and even G4 (G5) pegmatitic granites host
Nb-Ta (coltan) mineralization. Few pegmatites such as in the Manono host a
huge amount of Li mineralization.
The Mesoproterozoic KIB is overridden by the Neoproterozoic Lufilian
(Zambian belt) known for the occurrences of Cu-Cu mineralization [7] [8] [9].

Figure 1. A geological map unit of the northern part of the KIB displaying the study area and sampling site (yellow rectangle) [6].

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 D. K. Makutu et al.

The sedimentary materials that filled up the aborted rift to form later on the Lu-
filian belt might come from pre-existing and eroded belt formation such as the
Mesoproterozoic (Kibara belt, Karagwe-Ankole belt), Paleoproterozoic (Uben-
dian belt), Archean (Congo-Kasai craton, Bomu complex) [7].
The present study was conducted in the northern part of the KIB in Maniema
province (DRC), and concerns the Mokama mineralized G4 granite that has in-
truded metasedimentary rocks (Figure 1) and hosting Cu mineralization. This
study also tries to set in an unlikely possibility of the KIB Cu mineralization
hosted in the granites or any other unknown (undiscovered) mafic or ultramafic
rocks enriched in Cu-Co primary ores, to be the source (feeder) of the Lufilian
sedimentary and stratiform Cu (Co) mineralization. This hypothesis incentivizes
further studies to be done in order to demonstrate the link between the two
above belts when it comes to Cu mineralization.

2. Geological Settings
The Mokama granite is located in the Maniema province in the Democratic Re-
public of Congo and makes part of the Kibara belt (KIB) and intrudes Mesopro-
terozoic metasediments made of essentially schists. The chemical-minera- logi-
cal-structural (CMS) classification of KIB granites showed three (3) main phases.
The first phase is pre- to syn-tectonic and hosts less fractionated and “barren”
granites (G1 - G3, Barrage site, Figure 1) and yield ages of 1100 - 1500 Ma. The
second phase (this study) and the third phase are post-orogenic and host frac-
tionated and “mineralized” granites (G4, Mokama site, Figure 1, Figure 2) and
pegmatitic-granites (G4 - G5) of 950 - 1094 Ma [10] [11] [12]. Granites G1 - G3
are associated with the deformation D1 while granites G4 - G5 are associated
with the deformation D2 (Figure 2) [6] [12].

3. Methodology
About 10 thin sections, 5 polished sections, and more than 50 doubly-sides po-
lished sections (chips) have been prepared and observed under the polarizing
microscope (Nikon, Japan) at Inha University (Incheon, Republic of Korea).
The electron probe microscope analysis (EPMA) was performed at Busan Na-
tional University (Busan, Republic of Korea). This EPMA consisted of a JEOL-
JXA-8530F PLUS model and used an acceleration voltage of 15 kV, an accelera-
tion current of 40 nA, and an electron beam of 3 mm. The analysis was con-
ducted with a peak duration of 10 s and a background time of 5 s. EPMA results
are not provided here but are used for ore mineral identifications.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF, Zetium, Malvern Panalytical, United Kingdom) for
major elements and Fusion ICP-MS for trace elements of the Mokama granite
were performed at Activation Laboratories (Actlabs, Ontario, Canada). We have
analyzed isotopes including 7Li, 9Be, 23Na, 25Mg, 27Al, 29Si, 39K, 42Ca, 45Sc, 49Ti, 51V,
53
Cr, 55Mn, 57Fe, 59Co, 61Ni, 65Cu, 66Zn, 71Ga, 73Ge, 75As, 85Rb, 88Sr, 89Y, 90Zr, 93Nb,
95
Mo, 107
Ag, 111
Cd, 113
In, 118
Sn, Sb,
121 133
Cs, 137
Ba, La,
139 140
Ce, 141
Pr, Nd,
146
Sm,
147

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D. K. Makutu et al.

Figure 2. Sub-Saharan tectonic-chronostratigraphic and tectonic-magmatic units showing magmatic events associated with Me-
soproterozoic syn-to post-orogenic belts. This study is part of the Kibara belt (KIB) granites associated with the deformation D2
[6].

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 D. K. Makutu et al.

151
Eu, 157Gd, 159Tb, 163Dy, 165Ho, 167Er, 169Tm, 173Yb, 175Lu, 178Hf, 181Ta, 182W, 185Re,
197
Au, 205Tl, 208Pb, 209Bi, 232Th, 238U. A 193 nm Argon-Excimer laser (LA-NWR
193) was coupled with a quadrupole mass spectrometer Agilent 7700X. We have
used a repetition rate of 5 Hz and a laser energy density of 3.5 - 6.0 J/cm2. The
laser beam diameter of the ablated zone was 50μm for the Mokam granitic slab.
The fusion methods were utilized to ensure the total dissolution of the rock by
acids. For the ICP-MS, the detection limits were Li (5ppm), Be (1 ppm), Na (100
ppm), Mg (100 ppm), Al (100 ppm), Si (100 ppm), K (100 ppm), Ca (100 ppm),
Sc (1 ppm), Ti (10 ppm), V (5 ppm), Cr (20 ppm), Mn (10 ppm), Fe (100 ppm),
Co (1 ppm), Ni (20 ppm), Cu (10 ppm), Zn (30 ppm), Ga (1 ppm), Ge (1 ppm),
As (5 ppm), Rb (2 ppm), Sr (2 ppm), Y (1 ppm), 90Zr, Nb (1 ppm), Mo (2 ppm),
Ag (0.5 ppm), Cd (excluded), In (0.2 ppm), Sn (1 ppm), Sb (0.5 ppm), Cs (0.5
ppm), Ba (2 ppm), La (0.1 ppm), Ce (0.1 ppm), Pr (0.05 ppm), Nd (0.1 ppm), Sm
(0.1 ppm), Eu (0.05 ppm), Gd (0.1 ppm), Tb (0.1 ppm), Dy (0.1 ppm), Ho (0.1
ppm), Er (0.1 ppm), Tm (0.05 ppm), Yb (0.1 ppm), Lu (0.01 ppm), Hf (0.2 ppm),
Ta (0.1 ppm), W (1 ppm), Re (1 ppm), Au (10 ppb), Tl (0.1 ppm), Pb (5 ppm),
Bi (0.4 ppm), Th (0.1 ppm), U (0.1 ppm).
The fluid inclusion microthermometry was performed under the heat-
ing-cooling stage of Linkam-FTIR 600 which helped to determine ice melting
temperature (Tm, ˚C) from which we have deduced the apparent salinity, and
the total homogenization temperature (Th, ˚C) of fluid inclusions in the basis of
H2O-NaCl system. The stage calibration was performed using synthetic fluid in-
clusions (aqueous CO2-CH4 bearing inclusion and pure water inclusion) to ob-
tain the triple point (−57.1˚C) of the CO2-CH4 mixed aqueous inclusion and ice
melting (0.0˚C) and the critical homogenization temperature (374˚C) of the
pure water inclusion. About 3 - 4 single inclusions per assemblage were meas-
ured and results were expressed as values of average ± standard deviation.

4. Results
4.1. Rock Petrography and Microscopic Observations
The Mokama Cu bearing granite (DMMOKA-2-7 and DMMOKA-2-9) descrip-
tions of gangue and ore minerals were performed under petrographic and me-
tallographic microscopes, and Raman spectroscopy at Inha and Seoul National
Universities, and results showed the occurrences of Cu mineralization as sulfides
and oxide ore minerals (Figure 3, Figure 4). The mineralogical compositions of
the Mokama granites consist of mainly silicates. This Mokama granite showed a
phaneritic texture and consists of quartz, biotite, muscovite, k-feldspar (orthoc-
lase), plagioclases, pyroxene and amphibole (hornblende), and accessory miner-
als such as zircon, ilmenite, fluorite, topaz, magnetite, and ore minerals includ-
ing tin oxide group (TOG: Sn-W), columbite group minerals (CGM: Nb-Ta),
and sulfide group minerals (SGM: Cu-Zn-Fe-As). Some granites showed rela-
tively big-sized grains (>1 cm) of euhedral quartz and flakes of micas (abundant
muscovite, rare biotite), and these grain sizes could display a lateral variation

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D. K. Makutu et al.

within the granitic body. Such rocks could be considered pegmatitic granites,
they were rare and mineralized as well.
The Cu ore minerals (Table 1) consisted of essential chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
that shows rims of chalcocite (Cu2S), also lately replaced by covellite (CuS) and
finally malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2) in the supergene zones (Figure 3(a), Figure
3(b), Figure 4(f)). The alteration that affected the KIB mineralized granites (es-
pecially in the mineralized Mokama granite, Figure 3(c)) consisted of quartz ±
muscovite ± albite ( ± sericite) whereas the KIB barren granites showed quartz ±
pyrite ± fluorite ( ± chlorite) (Figure 3(d)) or quartz ± albite ± chlorite. The
presence and abundance of muscovite can be interpreted as an acidic environ-
ment where feldspars were transformed into muscovite (Figure 3(c)) [6].
The barren granites (from the Barrage site, Figure 1) show abundant euhedral
quartz grains and pinkish K-feldspar (orthoclase), while biotite, Fe-oxides, py-
roxenes, and amphiboles are accessory minerals.
The Cu mineralization of the Mokama G4 granite in the Mesoproterozoic KIB
is considered a late-stage magmatic-hydrothermal sulfide and disseminated

Table 1. Ore mineral associations and paragenetic sequences in the Mokama granite and peri-granitic quartz veins.

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 D. K. Makutu et al.

Figure 3. ((a), (b)) Photo macrographs of the Mokama (DMMOKA-2-9) mineralized

granite showing Cu mineralization; (c) Photomicrograph (XPL) of the Mokama granite
displaying the hydrothermal alteration of feldspar to muscovite; (d) Photo macrograph of
the Mokama (DMMOKA-2-7) granite displaying quartz-pyrite-fluorite in a quartz vein.

within the granitic rock compared to the sedimentary stratiform (and vein-type)
Cu-Co of the Neoproterozoic Lufilian belt (LUB) in the great Katanga province
In DRC [9] [13] [14]. In the KIB Mokama granites, the hypogene ore minerali-
zation consisted of bornite, sphalerite, pyrite and chalcopyrite (Figures
4(a)-(e)). Bornite and chalcopyrite showed rims that are due to the later re-
placement by supergene sulfides such as chalcocite and covellite (Figures
4(a)-(c)), and these last ones were later on replaced by oxides such as the green
mass of malachite (Figure 4(f)). Some sphalerite grains showed chalcopyrite
diseases (Figure 4(d) & Figure 4(e)) and inclusions of silicate minerals (Figure
4(e)) that can be interpreted as associated with relatively high temperature-de-
rived fluids. The occurrence of arsenopyrite is more likely associated with hy-
drothermal environment.

4.2. Rock Geochemistry

The Mokama G4 granites chemistry (XRF, LA-ICP-MS, Table 2) showed SiO2
(71 wt% - 79 wt%), ASI (1.38 - 3.12 molar), and enriched in Rb (681 - 1000
ppm), Ta (12 - 151 ppm), Sn (43 - 142 ppm), Cu (10 - 4300 ppm), Zn (60 - 740
ppm), U (2.2 - 20.7 ppm) while depleted in Zr (20 –31 ppm), Sr (20 - 69 ppm),
Hf (1.3 - 2.0 ppm), Th (2.2 - 18.9 ppm), W (9 - 113 ppm), Pb (5 - 50 ppm), Ge (5
- 10 ppm), Cs (21 - 53 ppm), and Bi (0.6 - 17.4 ppm). The Aluminum saturation
index (ASI = 1.7 - 3.1) showed that this Mokama G4 granite can be considered a

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D. K. Makutu et al.

Figure 4. (a)-(d) Photomicrographs (PPL) of the Mokama (DMMOKA-2-9) mineralized gra-

nite displaying the presence of sphalerite (SP), chalcopyrite [15], pyrite (Py), chalcocite (Cc),
and covellite (Cov); (e) A photomicrograph (PPL) of sphalerite (Sp) showing inclusions of
chalcopyrite and silicates from the Mokama site (DRC; (f) A photomicrograph (PPL) of the
Mokama G4 granite showing green mass of malachite (Mal). The sphalerite displays in (a), (d),
and (e) chalcopyrite disease features.

peraluminous S-type leucogranites (Figures 5(a)-(c)), ferroan, highly potassic

and calc-alkalitic. This Mokama granite is a late (post)-collisional granitoid, and
is characterized by high Rb/Sr, Cu/As, Zn/As and (Ta/Zr)N; and low (La/Yb) and
Ba/Sr. This rock is also relatively enriched in Rb, Ta, Sn, Cu and REE (mostly
HREE which are fractionated by pyroxenes and amphiboles). The ratios
(La/Sm)N, (La/Yb)N, (Gd/Yb)N, (Ta/Zr)N and (Eu/Eu*)N are 2.9 - 10.1, 0.1 - 11.5,
0.1 - 0.8, 113.3 - 2120.7, and 0.1 - 1.5 respectively.

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 D. K. Makutu et al.

Figure 5. Multicationic plots of KIB granitoid (Mokama) the Maniema province (D.R.C); ((a), (c)) B (=Fe + Mg + Ti) vs A
(=Al-(K + Na + 2Ca) (b) R1 = (4Si + 11 (Na + K) − 2 (Fe + Ti)) vs R2 = (6Ca + 2Mg + Al) (I = Muscovite > Biotite, II = Biotite >
Muscovite, III = Biotite, IV = Hornblende, V = Orthopyroxene, VI = Clinopyroxene), (1-Mantle fractionates, 2-Pre-plate colli-
sion, 3-Post-collision Uplift, 4-Late orogenic, 5-Anorogenic, 6-Syn-collision, 7-post-ororgenic).

4.3. Ore Mineral Associations and Paragenetic Sequences

The Kibara belt mineralized granites (granite s.s., pegmatite, peri-granitic
quartz veins) in general and the Mokama granite in particular started by the
precipitation of TOG, followed by CGM and ended with SGM of non-eco-
nomic deposits.

4.4. Fluid Inclusions and Microthermometric Measurements

(ID-inclusions), and CO2-rich fluid inclusions (Figure 6(a) & Figure 6(b)).
The microthermometric measurements (Linkam-FTIR 600, Inha University)
were carried out essentially on fluid inclusions assemblages (FIAs) hosted in
quartz, and consisted of liquid-rich and ID as of primary and pseudo-secondary
fluid inclusions (Figure 6(a) & Figure 6(b)).
The results of fluid microthermometry can be used to determine the paleo-
depths and thermodynamic conditions (apparent salinity, homogenization tem-
perature and pressure) of rocks and ore minerals as well [6] [16]. Microthermo-
metric results (Table 3) of fluid inclusion assemblages (FIAs) hosted in quartz in
the Mokama granite show ranges of salinities of 4 wt% - 23 wt% (NaCl equivalent)

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D. K. Makutu et al.

Table 2. Major and trace element compositions of the Kibara belt (KIB) mineralized granitic intrusions and the host rock (schist).
Major elements (expressed in wt%) were analyzed by XRF while trace elements (expressed in ppm) by Fusion ICP-MS methods.

Monzo Monzo Quartz rich Alkali feldspar Quartz rich Quartz rich Schist
Oxides Method granite granite granitoid granite granitoid granitoid (Host rock)
(wt%) Code DMMOKA DMMOKA DMMOKA DMMOKA DMMOKA DMMOKA DMYUB
-2-1 -2-5 -2-6 -2-7 -2-8 -2-9 -2

SiO2 XRF 71.56 71.66 73.99 71.84 76.35 76.6 49.96

TiO2 XRF 0.08 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.83

Al2O3 XRF 17.46 16.09 13.74 17.75 12.78 13.87 26.65

Fe2O3t XRF 2.97 1.51 4.2 1.95 2.34 2.81 5.96

MnO XRF 0.18 0.07 0.23 0.19 0.11 0.12 0.15

MgO XRF 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.06 2.78

CaO XRF 0.61 0.23 0.71 0.49 1.97 0.05 0.06

Na2O XRF 2.82 4.05 0.4 0.09 0.1 0.11 0.39

K2O XRF 3.22 4.22 3.82 5.51 3.55 3.86 7.66

P2 O 5 XRF 0.37 0.15 0.18 0.19 0.5 0.01 0.06

LOI XRF 1.44 1.03 1.75 2.4 1.85 1.76 3.87

TOTAL 100.8 99.1 99.1 100.5 99.7 99.3 98.4

Traces (ppm)

V FUS-ICP 5 5 5 5 5 5 112

Cr FUS-MS 20 20 20 20 20 20 100

Co FUS-MS 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

Ni FUS-MS 20 20 20 20 20 20 30

Ba FUS-ICP 26 159 55 49 38 79 1122

Rb FUS-MS 962 681 1000 1000 696 876 1000

Sr FUS-ICP 23 30 69 25 51 20 117

Zr FUS-ICP 31 22 21 20 20 20 180

Y FUS-ICP 10 49 1 4 3 1 24

Nb FUS-MS 37 40 36 43 88 34 13

Ta FUS-MS 12.5 19.4 39.9 17.3 151 48 1.5

Hf FUS-MS 1.3 1.3 1.8 1.2 2 1.7 4.5

Th FUS-MS 4.2 2.2 10.3 3.5 6.4 7.3 18.9

U FUS-MS 20.7 9.7 5.9 2.2 5.9 4.9 2.4

La FUS-MS 6.6 1.4 1.6 1.4 2.2 1.7 66.3

Ce FUS-MS 15.4 2.7 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.6 138

Pr FUS-MS 1.8 0.29 0.26 0.28 0.26 0.26 14.3

Nd FUS-MS 6.1 1 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.9 49.6

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 D. K. Makutu et al.

Continued

Sm FUS-MS 1.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 8.3

Eu FUS-MS 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.05 1.57

Gd FUS-MS 0.9 1.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 5.5

Tb FUS-MS 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.8

Dy FUS-MS 1.5 4.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.1 4.6

Ho FUS-MS 0.3 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.8

Er FUS-MS 1 4.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 2.5

Tm FUS-MS 0.18 0.88 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.4

Yb FUS-MS 1.3 6.7 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.1 2.5

Lu FUS-MS 0.2 1.08 0.01 0.1 0.09 0.01 0.37

As FUS-MS 5 5 5 5 5 5 48

Be FUS-ICP 7 5 7 4 5 6 16

Mo FUS-MS 8 2 3 2 2 2 2

Sn FUS-MS 121 43 142 53 88 87 134

W FUS-MS 14 19 113 9 36 36 60

Bi FUS-MS 7.7 3.7 17.4 0.6 16.9 10.7 0.4

Cd ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ

Cs FUS-MS 42.3 21.4 53.4 33.7 29.5 38.5 752

In FUS-MS 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.2

Sb FUS-MS 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Cu FUS-MS 10 20 330 30 330 4300 10

Pb FUS-MS 31 27 50 5 9 8 539

Ga FUS-MS 32 28 27 29 23 26 26

Ge FUS-MS 10 5 9 2 6 8 5

Li ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ ㅡ

Zn FUS-MS 240 130 740 60 160 570 100

Tl FUS-MS 4.4 4 4.8 6.8 3.5 4.3 5.8

Sc FUS-ICP 1 1 1 1 1 1 20

Ag FUS-MS 0.5 1 1.2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.7

(La/Sm)N 3.0 2.9 10.1 4.4 6.9 5.4

-

(La/Yb)N 3.4 0.14 10.8 1.6 3.7 11.5 -

(Gd/Yb)N 0.6 0.1 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.8 -

(Ta/Zr)N 113.3 247.7 533.7 243.0 2120.7 674.1 -

(Eu/Eu*)N 0.135 0.426 1.500 1.000 0.920 1.056 -

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D. K. Makutu et al.

Figure 6. (a) Photomicrographs (PPL) of liquid-rich and ID fluid inclusions hosted in quartz in minera-
lized granite from the Mokama (DMMOKA-2-9) site in DRC; (b) Photomicrographs (PPL) of CO2-rich and
ID fluid inclusions hosted in quartz in mineralized granite from the Mokama (DMMOKA-2-9) site in DRC.

Table 3. Fluid inclusion microthermometric results of the Mokama granites in the KIB (FIAs = fluid inclusion assemblages,
wherein 3 to 4 single inclusions per assemblage)Quartz_Barren granite (n = 25 FIAs).

Salinity (wt% NaCl equiv.) Th (˚C) P (bar) Depth (km) Density (g/cm3)

Max. 22.7 368.9 181.7 0.69 1.040

Min. 2.7 123.0 2.0 0.01 0.786

Avg. 14.3 275.7 88.3 0.33 0.888

Std. 6.3 91.9 64.2 0.24 0.068

Quartz_Mineralized G4 granite (n = 55 FIAs)

Max. 23.1 548.4 736.9 2.79 1.027

Min. 3.8 185.3 10.1 0.04 0.627

Avg. 14.3 308.7 135.0 0.51 0.851

Std. 5.9 87.7 173.9 0.66 0.097

Quartz_Mineralized G4 pegmatite (n = 9 FIAs)

Max. 12.2 326.5 115.6 0.44 0.982

Min. 6.6 179.3 9.0 0.03 0.788

Avg. 9.3 241.1 43.4 0.16 0.887

Std. 1.7 51.3 38.4 0.15 0.066

Quartz_Mineralized greisen (n = 6 FIAs)

Max. 18.8 500.8 578.1 2.18 0.889

Min. 11.3 259.6 43.5 0.16 0.654

Avg. 11.3 348.0 200.3 0.76 0.889

Std. 3.5 89.8 193.8 0.73 0.087

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 D. K. Makutu et al.

and homogenization temperatures (Th) of 190˚C - 550˚C. A boiling assemblage

in the granite suggests a fluid phase separation occurred at about 380 - 610 bars,
and this corresponds to apparent paleodepths of approximately 1 - 2 km (lithos-
tatic model) or 3 - 5 km (hydrostatic model). FIAs hosted in cassiterite (salinities
of 2 wt% - 10 wt% and Th of 220˚C - 340˚C) set up the upper limit of SGM in-
cluding Cu (-Fe-Zn-As) sulfides that probably precipitated at temperatures be-
low 200˚C (Figure 7(a) & Figure 7(b)).

5. Discussions
5.1. The Mokama Mineralized Granite Genesis, Metal Mobilities,
and Mineralization Processes
The Mokama G4 granites are peraluminous rocks associated with the Kibaran
collisional event, and host huge critical and base metal potentials [10] [12] [18].
The magmatic-hydrothermal fluid processes that affected these granitic intru-
sions enable the mobility of elements and their precipitations inside and outside
(country rock as hydrothermal veins) of the granitic intrusions. This is in con-
sideration of many facts including the circulation of rising hot magmat-
ic-hydrothermal reduced geofluids enriched in metal complexes (mostly chlo-
rine and fluorine ligands, and rarely hydroxyl ligands), fluid-rock interactions
with remobilization of metals from the host/country rock (lithologic control),
mixing of fluids (hot saline magmatic-hydrothermal and cooler less saline mete-
oric waters) that possibly induced the oxidization, cooling-fugacity controls, and
alteration that might be influenced and controlled the pH [6].
Fluid inclusion data (quartz, cassiterite, fluorite) and the ore chemistry (oscil-
latory cassiterite, wolframite) showed that the TOGM (such as Sn-W) precipi-
tated earlier, then followed by CGM (such as Nb, Ta, Li), and finally SGM (such

Figure 7. Plots of homogenization temperatures (Th) versus apparent salinities of fluid inclusions hosted quartz from respectively
Barren granites (Barrage site, Figure 1) and Mineralized granites (Mokama site, Figure 1) in DRC. The isobaric curves and salini-
ties were constrained by using a H2O-NaCl model [17]. Results are reported as averages and standard deviations (Avg ± σ1) calcu-
lated from 3 - 4 single measured inclusions.

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D. K. Makutu et al.

as Cu, Zn, As, Fe) that occurred at the very last stage. In the KIB, TOGM and
CGM deposits are economically valuable whereas SGM is still now of non-eco-
nomic value.

5.2. The KIB Magmatic-Hydrothermal Cu Bearing Granites as an

Unlikely Potential Source of the Sedimentary Lufilian Cu
Mineralization
The KIB hosts Cu mineralization associated with magmatic-hydrothermal
processes, and the LUB has Cu (Co) mineralization related to sedimentary (mul-
ti-source materials) processes. The Katanga supergroup relies directly on the
KIB basement and has no compelled data and evidence that show the possible
material connection between the two belts. Some researchers showed that the
LUB sediments originated from many sources from Precambrian and Archean
formations [7] [8] [9] [13]. A few questions remained unsolved especially when
it comes to addressing the source of Cu and Cu mineralization. The occurrence
of Cu mineralization in the KIB belt could possibly be the primary Cu feeder of
the LUB by the remobilization of rising mineralizing fluids through the Katanga
basin. The fact that the LUB is characterizable by Cu-Co deposits, makes the
possibility of considering the KIB as Cu feeder very inconsistent and diminished.
The best feeder of both Cu-Co metals would be intrusive mafic or ultramafic
rocks; and in the nearby LUB area, such rocks have not been discovered or well
documented. Another very unlikely source of LUB Co could be ultramafic dyke
(peridotites) intrusions in the Archean Congo-Kasai craton that formed lately
serpentinized bodies hosting Ni-Cr (with by Co-V-Zn as by products) in the re-
golith zones (such as in the Lutshatsha, Mfwamba, and Nkonko massifs) [19].
None of the above hypotheses or scenarios has been proven until today. Thus,
despite some attempts to grasp the origin of Cu, the primary source of Co in the
LUB remains totally unknown and requires more studies in the future.

6. Conclusion
The Mokama G4 leucogranite in the KIB hosts disseminated mineralization of Cu,
and the essential ore minerals are composed of chalcopyrite, chalcocite, covellite
and malachite. The hydrothermal pervasive alteration of quartz-muscovite-albite in
the Kibara belt contributed to metal mobilities during fluid-rock interactions.
Fluid inclusion results showed that this granite was emplaced at 2 - 5 km deeper
as paleodepths, the TOGM (and CGM) precipitated earlier at relatively high
temperatures (>200˚C) whereas SGM precipitated later at probably below 200˚C.
This Mesoproterozoic KIB Cu mineralization could unlikely is the source (feed-
er) of the Neoproterozoic Lufilian Cu (Co) stratiform mineralization. We rec-
ommend more studies to be done in order to establish a possible existence or not
of link between the two belts Cu mineralization.

Author Contributions
The Conception of the project, D.K.M.; field works and sampling, D.K.M., J.P.B.,

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 D. K. Makutu et al.

P.K.K., and F.M.M.; petrographic and geochemical analyses (EPMA, LA-ICPMS,

Raman spectroscopy, and fluid inclusion microthermometry), D.K.M., I.B,
C.M.M., and F.M.M.; data validation and curation, D.K.M. and J.P.B.; writ-
ing—original draft preparation, D.K.M.; writing—review, editing, D.K.M. and
F.M.M.; supervision, D.K.M.; funding acquisition, D.K.M. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Fundings
The present study received financial support from the National Institute for In-
ternational Education and Development (NIIED-2020, grant number NIIED-
200807-0012) in the Republic of Korea (D.K.M.) and the BEBUC-Kroëner Foun-
dations for sample transportation.

Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank Jung Hun Seo, Insung Lee, Sangki Kwon, Kanika Mayena
Thomas, Makutu Ma Ngwayaya, and Ongendangenda Tienge Albert for con-
structive discussions related to this study. Thanks to Junhee Lee, TongHa Lee,
Yevgeniya Kim, Yuri Choi, Hahyeon Park, Yechan Jeon, and Dedel Milikwini
for the material and sample preparations.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this pa-
per.

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