Structural Design of Railways and Pavements

I. Introduction to Railway Structures

What are railways?
-Are defined as terrestrial mass transport systems. It also provides that trains move on their own
(diesel traction) or remotely transmitted power (electrical traction) using steel wheels on a
dedicated steel guideway defined by two parallel rails. Railways can extend to cover any
distance in any environment be it urban, suburban, peri-urban, regional, or interurban.
Railway Structures encompass a wide array of construction intended to support the track itself
or house railway operations.
Examples of track carrying structures:
Bridges
Trestles
Viaducts
Culverts
Scales
Inspection Pits
Unloading Pits
What is Structural Design?
-Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and rigidity of
structures. The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure
capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended life.
Structural Design Process
1. Planning
consideration of the various requirements and factors affecting the general layout and
dimensions of the structure and results in the choice of one or perhaps several alternative types
of structure, which offer the best general solution.
2. Design
a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions defined in the planning phase and
results in the determination of the most suitable proportions, dimensions and details of the
structural elements and connections for constructing each alternative structural arrangement
being considered.
3. Construction
mobilization of personnel; procurement of materials and equipment, including their
transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection.
 II. Introduction to Railway Design
Components of a Railway Track
Steel Rail
As the main part of railway track, steel rail always act as two parallel lines. In general, steel
rail is used to provide a surface for train and guide the train forward. Steel rail also transmit the
pressure from locomotive to railway sleepers. According to the kilos per meter, steel rail
normally include light rail, heavy rail and crane rail.
Rail Sleeper
Railway sleeper, also known as railroad tie, cross tie, is laid perpendicular to steel rail.
Railway sleeper can be properly deformed to trimmer pressure when the train passes through,
after that, cover as much as possible. By the raw materials, railway sleeper generally can be
divided into three types: wooden sleeper, steel sleeper and concrete sleeper. The main function
of railway sleeper as follow:
 Railway sleeper give firm and even support to rail.
 Railway sleeper should have certain flexibility and elasticity. Act as elastic medium
between rail and ballast.
 Railway sleeper absorb the vibrations from locomotive and transport the load from rail to
ballast.
 Railway sleeper align the rails and keep the right rail gauge.
Railway Fish Plate and Fish Bolt
Railway Fish Plate, also called rail joint, splice bar or joint bar, is a metal bar that is used to the
connect end of two rails by fish bolts. As the connection part between two rails, railway fish plate
is used in combination with the steel rail. According to the steel rail standard, railway fish plate
has three types:
• Railway fish plate for light rail: 8kg, 9kg, 12kg, 15kg, 18kg, 22kg, 24kg and 30kg
• Railway fish plate for heavy rail: 38kg, 43kg, 50kg and 60kg
• Railway fish plate for crane rail: QU70, QU80, QU100 and QU120
Railway Fastening System
 refers to a group of railway fasteners that are used to fasten steel rail to railway sleeper.
Common components of rail fastening system include rail clip, railroad spike, rail bolt,
rail tie plate, rail pad, washer, plastic dowel, rail insulator and rail shoulder, etc.

 The main function of rail fastening system is preventing steel rail from lateral and
horizontal movement. Besides that, rail fastening system also can absorb and transfer
the pressure from locomotive to railway sleeper. In a word, rail fastening system ensures
the rail in gauge and protects rail safety. Rail fastening system has a lot of types that is
composed of different fasteners. Typical rail fastening system includes SKL, KPO, E-
type, NABLA, and etc.
Railway Switch
 Railway switch is a special component of railway track, which is applied in the railway
crossing. Railway switch has another name-turnout. Railway switch is simply a rail
component for converting track. Railway switch increase the trafficability of railroad
track, and it is important to transport safety and efficiency.
Bridge: A Track-Carrying Structure
Bridge Deck

- portion of a railway bridge that supplies a means of carrying the track rails.

Open Bridge Decks

- the rails are anchored directly to timber bridge ties supported directly on the floor system
of the superstructure.
- Open decks are less costly and are free draining, but their use over streets and
highways requires additional measures such as canopies, plates or wooden flooring to
protect highway traffic from falling objects, water or other materials during the movement
of trains.
- However, the maintenance of this deck is greater than the Ballasted

Ballasted Bridge Deck

- the rails are anchored directly National to timber track ties supported in the ballast
section.
- A ballasted deck provides a better riding track. The track modulus is consistent on the
dumps of the bridge as well as across the bridge. Thus, one is unlikely to have surface
runoff problems on the bridge dumps
- However, care must be exercised to maintain a permanent grade line in the vicinity of
and over a ballasted deck bridge to be certain that excessive quantities of ballast are not
accumulated on the bridge structure through track raises during successive reballasting
operations.
Structural Design Considerations
Bridge Loading

- In the design of any structure, the designer must consider several different load types,
including, but not limited to, dead load, live load, wind, weather (snow, ice, etc.),
earthquake or any combination there of.
Dead Load

- The dead load consists of the estimated weight of the structural members, plus that of
the tracks, ballast and any other railway appendages (signal, electrical, etc.) supported
by the structure. The weight of track material (running rails, guard rails, tie plates, spikes
and rail clips) is taken as 200 pounds per lineal track foot
Composite Design
 - The connection between the two materials is designed and constructed to transfer
adequate shear force, such that the two materials behave as a single, integral unit under
load.
- Shear connectors may be either steel channels or headed studs welded to the top flange
of the steel and embedded in the concrete deck.
- One issue to address in composite design is the magnitude of live load to be resisted.

Bridge Design Assumptions and Constructability Issues

- When planning railway structures, it is imperative to be mindful of the factors that

frequently control design and construction. Many in the railway industry would agree,
that the driving factor of design and construction is track time.
The geometric design of a railway track includes all those parameters which determine or affect
the geometry of the track. These parameters are as follows.
1. Gradients in the track, including grade compensation, rising gradient, and falling gradient.
2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical curves, transition curves, sharpness
of the curve in terms of radius or degree of the curve, cant or superelevation on curves, etc.
3. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as curved alignment.
Necessity for Geometric Design The need for proper geometric design of a track arises
because of the following considerations
∙ To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains
∙ To achieve maximum speeds
∙ To carry heavy axle loads
∙ To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way to ensure that the track
requires least maintenance.
∙ For good aesthetics

Grade Compensation on Curves

Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. As a result, gradients are
compensated to the following extent on curves .
(a) On BG tracks, 0.04% per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum
(b) On MG tracks, 0.03% per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum (c) On NG
tracks, 0.02% per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum where R is the radius of the
curve in metres. The gradient of a curved portion of the section should be flatter than the ruling
gradient because of the extra resistance offered by the curve
Example: Find the steepest gradient on a 2° curve for a BG line with a ruling gradient of 1 in
200.
Solution
(i) Ruling gradient = 1 in 200 = 0.5%
(ii) Compensation for a 2° curve = 0.04 × 2 = 0.08%
(iii) Compensated gradient = 0.5 – 0.08 = 0.42% = 1 in 238
The steepest gradient on the curved track is 1 in 238.
Introduction to pavement design
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed
materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to
provide a surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable
light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure
that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they
will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade. This chapter gives an overview of
pavement types, layers, and their functions, and pavement failures. Improper design
of pavements leads to early failure of pavements affecting the riding quality.

Requirements of a pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-grade
soil,

• Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,

• Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,

• Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed, • Produce
least noise from moving vehicles,

• Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility, • Impervious
surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and

• Long design life with low maintenance cost.

Soil Engineering for Highway Design

The basic characteristics of a soil may be described in terms of its origin, formation,
grain size, and shape.

I. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

1.Origin and Formation of Soils

2. Surface Texture
 ∙ fine-textured soils-soils consisting mainly of silts and clays with very small particle
sizes.
∙ coarse-textured soils-soils consisting mainly of sands and gravel with much larger particles
.
Distribution of particle size in soils - The distribution of particle size in soils can be determined
by conducting Sieve Analysis and Sedimentation Analysis
A) Sieve analysis – It involves several layers of sieves with different grades of sieve
opening sizes.
B) Sedimentation Analysis - Measure the relative amounts of of particles of different sizes
present in the soil sample based on the fact that large, heavy particles will settle most
rapidly in water; while small, light particles will settle most slowly.

II. PROPERTIES OF SOILS-influence their behavior when subjected to external loads

1. Phase Relations-Soil is considered 3 phase system consist of air, water, and solids.
A. Porosity-the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil.

B. Void Ratio-the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.

C. Moisture Content-quantity of water in a soil mass.

D. Degree of Saturation-percentage of void space occupied by water.

 E. Dry Density-density of the soil with the water removed.

F. Submerged Density-density of the soil when submerged in water and is the

difference between the saturated density and the density of water.

2. Atterberg Limits-The water content levels at which the soil changes from one state to
the other mare the Atterberg limits.
a. Shrinkage Limit (SL)- When a saturated soil is slowly dried, the volume shrinks,
but the soil continues to contain moisture
b. Plastic Limit (PL)- the moisture content at which the soil crumbles when it is rolled
down to a diameter of one-eighth of an inch.
c. Liquid Limit (LL)- the moisture content at which the soil will flow and close a
groove of one-half inch within it after the standard LL equipment has been
dropped 25 times.

III. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE-Soil classification is a method by

which soils are systematically categorized according to their probable engineering
characteristics.

1. AASHTO Soil Classification System-based on the Public Roads Classification

System that was developed from the results of extensive research conducted by
the Bureau of Public Roads, now known as the Federal Highway Administration.
2. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- The original USCS system was
developed during World War II for use in airfield construction.

IV. SOIL SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION-Soil surveys for highway

construction entail the investigation of the soil characteristics on the highway route and
the identification of suitable soils for use as subbase and fill materials.

1. Geophysical Methods of Soil Exploration-Soil profiles can also be obtained from one of
two geophysical methods of soil exploration known as the resistivity and seismic
methods.
a. Resistivity Method- is based on the difference in electrical conductivity or resistivity
of different types of soils.
 b. Seismic Method- is used to identify the location of rock profiles or dense
strata underlying softer materials.

V. SOIL COMPACTION- When soil is to be used as embankment or subbase material in

highway construction, it is essential that the material be placed in uniform layers and
compacted to a high density.

Computational
Analysis of Pavement Design

 Thickness of Rigid Pavement WITHOUT dowels or tie bars

 Thickness of Rigid Pavement WITH Dowels or Tie bars

 Thickness of Flexible Pavement

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

- In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the

aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible pavement, having less flexural
strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road)
TYPES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
1. Conventional Layered Flexible Pavement
- are layered systems with high quality expensive materials are placed in the top where
stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers.
2. Full-depth Asphalt Pavement
- are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the soil sub-grade. This is more
suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not available.
3. Contained Rock Asphalt Mat (CRAM)
- are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers in between two asphalt
layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-grade will
significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from
surface water
TYPICAL LAYERS OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
SEAL COAT

- Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.
TACK COAT

- Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with
water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin,
uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
PRIME COAT

- Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like
granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers.
Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a
water tight surface.
SURFACE COURSE

- Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains
superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete (AC).
BINDER COURSE

- This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to
distribute load to the base course.
BASE COURSE

- The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder
course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface
 drainage. It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or
stabilized materials.
-

SUB-BASE COURSE

- The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of
fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure.
SUB-GRADE

- The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from
the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should
be compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.
ADVANTAGES
● The initial construction cost is low.
● It doesn’t require joints.
● There is no effect of temperature variation on stress variation.
● Repair works can be carried out quickly.
● The thickness can be increased easily as per the need.
● No glare due to sunlight.
● It is more comfortable for travel.

DISADVANTAGES
● The life span is decreased with repeated prolonged use.
● Maintenance cost is relatively higher.
● It is susceptible to heat, oils, greases, and chemicals.
● Poor night visibility due to the use of asphalt.
● Pavement Failures (fatigue cracking,rutting, and thermal cracking )

Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements are constructed of portland cement concrete slabs resting on a
prepared subbase of granular material or directly on a granular subgrade. Load is
transmitted through the slabs to the underlying subgrade by flexure of the slabs.
The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement concrete slab of
sufficient strength to resists the loads from traffic. The rigid pavement has rigidity and high
modulus of elasticity to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil. Minor variations
in subgrade strength have little influence on the structural capacity of a rigid pavement. In
the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural strength of concrete is the major factor and not
the strength of subgrade. Due to this property of pavement, when the subgrade deflects
beneath the rigid pavement, the concrete slab is able to bridge over the localized failures
and areas of inadequate support from subgrade because of slab action.
Types of Rigid Pavements
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
uses contraction joints to control cracking and does not use any reinforcing steel.
Transverse joint spacing is selected such that temperature and moisture stresses do not
produce intermediate cracking between joints. This typically results in a spacing no longer
than about 6.1 m (20 ft.). Dowel bars are typically used at transverse joints to assist in load
transfer. Tie bars are typically used at longitudinal joints.
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
uses contraction joints and reinforcing steel to control cracking. Transverse joint spacing is
longer than that for JPCP and typically ranges from about 7.6 m (25 ft.) to 15.2 m (50 ft.).
Temperature and moisture stresses are expected to cause cracking between joints, hence
reinforcing steel or a steel mesh is used to hold these cracks tightly together. Dowel bars
are typically used at transverse joints to assist in load transfer while the reinforcing steel/wire
mesh assists in load transfer across cracks.
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements (CRCP)
is a type of concrete pavement that does not require any transverse contraction joints.
Transverse cracks are expected in the slab, usually at intervals of 1.5 - 6 ft (0.5 - 1.8 m).
CRCP is designed with enough embedded reinforcing steel (approximately 0.6-0.7% by
cross-sectional area) so that cracks are held together tightly. Determining an appropriate
spacing between the cracks is part of the design process for this type of pavement.
Prestressed concrete pavements
are designed and produced to be prestressed to bear tensile forces caused by external
loads by various live objects such as vehicles on the roads or aircraft in the airports.
Prestressed concrete pavements well achieve the due performance in their relatively thinner
thickness design.
Advantages & Disadvantages
 Advantages Disadvantages

These pavements
This pavement The initial cost
have strong edges.
has a long service of construction
As such, there is no
life. is high.
requirement of kerbs.

Rigid
The overall cost It can be constructed
pavement has
of maintenance is on low-quality soils as
a high cost of
low. well.
repairs.

This pavement
It is resistant to oil This pavement
allows future
spill damage and has a rough
resurfacing by
chemicals. riding quality.
asphalt.

Allows wider load Provision for

distribution with joints needs to
lesser be made to
requirements of allow for
base and sub- contraction
base and expansion.

Stage
construction is
not possible.

Failure criteria of rigid pavements

Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only criterion for rigid
pavement design. The allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking
depends on the stress ratio between flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of
rupture.
SOIL STABILIZATION- is the treatment of natural soil to improve its engineering properties.
CHEMICAL STABILIZATION- Cement stabilization of soils usually involves the addition of 5
to 14 percent Portland cement by volume of the compacted mixture to the soil being
stabilized.
The procedure for stabilizing soils with cement involves:
• Pulverizing the soil
• Mixing the required quantity of cement with the pulverized soil • Compacting the soil
cement mixture
• Curing the compacted layer
Asphalt Stabilization- is carried out to achieve one or both of the following:
Waterproofing of natural materials through asphalt stabilization aids in maintaining the
water content at a required level by providing a membrane that impedes the penetration of
water, thereby reducing the effect of any surface water that may enter the soil when it is
used as a base course.
Binding of natural materials- improves the durability characteristics of the natural soil by
providing an adhesive characteristic, whereby the soil particles adhere to each other,
increasing cohesion.
Lime Stabilization- is one of the oldest processes of improving the engineering properties
of soils and can be used for stabilizing both base and sub-base materials.
AASHTO Design Method- The AASHTO method for design of highway pavements is
based primarily on the results of the AASHTO road test that was conducted in Ottawa,
Illinois.
Design Considerations
The factors considered in the AASHTO procedure for the design of flexible pavement as
presented in the 1993 guide are:
• Pavement performance
• Traffic
• Roadbed soils (subgrade material)
• Materials of construction
• Environment
• Drainage
•Reliability
A general equation for the accumulated ESAL for each category of axle load is obtained as
ESALi = fd X Grn X AADTi X 365 × Ni X FE
ESALi = equivalent accumulated 18,000lb (80 kN) single-axle load for the axle category i fd
= design lane factor
Grn = growth factor for a given growth rate r and design period n
AADTi = first year annual average daily traffic for axle category i
Ni = number of axles on each vehicle in category i
FEi = load equivalency factor for axle category i