Insect Pest Agroforestry Systems Strategy
Insect Pest Agroforestry Systems Strategy
Insect Pest Agroforestry Systems Strategy
Key words: biomass transfer, insect pests, integrated pest management, natural enemies,
sequential systems, simultaneous systems
Abstract. Agroforestry trees are attacked by a wide spectrum of insects at all stages of their
growth just like other annual and perennial crops. Pest management in agroforestry has not
received much attention so far, but recent emphasis on producing high value tree products in
agroforestry and using improved germplasm in traditional systems, and emergence of serious
pest problems in some promising agroforestry systems have increased awareness on risks posed
by pests. Insects may attack one or more species within a system and across systems in the
landscape, so pest management strategies should depend on the nature of the insect and
magnitude of its damage. Although greater plant diversity in agroforestry is expected to increase
beneficial arthropods, diversity by itself may not reduce pests. Introduction of tree germplasm
from a narrow genetic base and intensive use of trees may lead to pest outbreaks. In simulta-
neous agroforestry systems, a number of factors governing tree–crop–environment interactions,
such as diversity of plant species, host range of the pests, microclimate, spatial arrangement
and tree management modify pest infestations by affecting populations of both herbivores and
natural enemies. Trees also affect pest infestations by acting as barriers to movement of insects,
masking the odours emitted by other components of the system and sheltering herbivores and
natural enemies. In sequential agroforestry systems, it is mostly the soil-borne and diapausing
insects that cause and perpetuate damage to the common hosts in tree–crop rotations over seasons
or years. An integrated approach combining host-plant resistance to pests, exploiting alterna-
tive tree species, measures that prevent pest build up but favour natural enemies and biological
control is suggested for managing pests in agroforestry. Species substitution to avoid pests is
feasible only if trees are grown for ecological services such as soil conservation and low value
products such as fuelwood, but not for trees yielding specific and high value products. For
exploiting biological control as a potent, low cost and environmentally safe tool for pest
management in agroforestry, research should focus on understanding the influence of ecolog-
ical and management factors on the dynamics of insect pest–natural enemy populations. Scientists
and policy makers in national and international institutions, and donors are urged to pay more
attention to pest problems in agroforestry to harness the potential benefits of agroforestry.
Introduction
Next to genetic potential of species, soil fertility and climatic conditions, pests
and diseases play a significant role in determining plant productivity. Among
invertebrates, insects form the most dominant group of herbivores that attacks
plants. A long history of co-evolution has led to the development of diverse
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the direct interactions between trees and crops for growth resources exercise
a strong influence on pests of either or both the components of the systems.
In sequential and biomass transfer systems, the indirect interactions that occur
between trees and crops may lead to a different type of pest problems. While
both soil-borne and foliage-pests affect the sequential systems, it is mostly
pests of tree foliage that are transferred to crops in the biomass transfer
systems.
The objective of this review is to systematically analyse the factors that
contribute to insect pest problems in different agroforestry systems and
examine management strategies to cope with them. Pests unique to crops are
not dealt with here, but emphasis is given to the effect of tree component
and its insect pests on the overall performance of the system. For this reason,
a few pests other than insects such as nematodes, vertebrates, or pathogens
are cited to illustrate specific problems arising due to trees in agroforestry.
The review limits itself to tropical agroforestry systems, drawing examples
wherever possible of systems under contemporary research and development.
In the light of the review by Schroth et al. (2000), pests of agroforestry systems
based on tree crops in the humid tropics are not extensively considered here,
except for some examples to illustrate specific cases. The first part of the
paper deals with factors that contribute to the development of pest problems
as a result of herbivore–plant interactions, across all categories of agroforestry
systems at the three levels outlined earlier. The second part of the paper
discusses pest management strategies relevant to all agroforestry systems. In
the concluding section, we indicate the research needs in the pest manage-
ment area for realising the potential benefits of agroforestry.
Exotic species
As in the case of crops, introduction of tree species into new areas has been
occurring for many centuries. Movement of tree germplasm across ecolog-
ical zones and continents will continue to be an important element of tree
domestication. Many newly introduced tree species are widely grown in
tropical agroforestry. Some examples are the use of leucaena (Leucaena leu-
cocephala) as barrier hedgerows for soil conservation, fodderbanks and for
improving soil fertility (Asia and Africa), grevillea (Grevillea robusta) as a
shade tree in tea and coffee (east Africa and India), eucalypts (Eucalyptus
spp.) in boundary plantings around croplands (throughout the tropics), and
neem (Azadirachta indica) in windbreaks and boundary plantings (west
Africa). Exotic species may succumb to local pests in their new environment
or introduced pests from their original home, just as exotic pests accidentally
introduced may pose a major threat to both indigenous and exotic trees. There
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are many examples of these types of insect–host tree interactions that caused
severe economic losses (Table 1).
An exotic pest in a new environment can assume epidemic proportion and
cause severe damage to its host because of the absence of its natural enemies.
The damage could be far greater than in the pest’s native environment until
populations of its natural enemies build up. That is what happened with the
leucaena psyllid (Heteropsylla cubana) when it first spread to Southeast Asia
and South Asia in the eighties and later to east and southern Africa in the
nineties. Although the psyllid was never considered a major pest of leucaena
in its native Central America, it caused severe and extensive damage to
leucaena in Asia and Africa, demoralising both researchers and farmers at a
time when leucaena was widely being promoted in agroforestry. Introduction
and spread of leucaena from a narrow genetic base was the major reason for
such an outbreak of psyllid. A number of pests of eucalypts such as the psyllid
Ctenarytaina eucalypti, the curculionid Gonipterus scutellatus and the cer-
ambycid Phoracantha semipunctata also spread beyond continental barriers
(Cadahia, 1986). However, they did not cause as severe damage to eucalypts
as the leucaena psyllid to leucaena, probably because of the spread of many
eucalyptus species outside the original home Australia.
1. Origin of insect 2. Origin of tree 3. Long-term consequence of interaction 4. Examples of interaction of tree and insect, having
4. species 4. of insect and tree, having origins 4. origins as specified in columns 1 & 2
4. as specified in columns 1 & 2
Indigenous Indigenous A minor pest may assume epidemic Severe defoliation of Sesbania sesban by Mesoplatys
proportion due to the intensive use of ochroptera beetles due to increased use of Sesbania in
the host species in managed ecosystems planted fallows in east and southern Africa (Steinmuller,
1995; Sileshi et al., 2000).
Indigenous Exotic Increased host range and food availability Celosterna scabrator, a minor pest of Acacia spp. attacked
for a local pest. eucalypts over time in India (Sivaramakrishnan, 1986)
Exotic Exotic A new pest gets established, which not The psyllid Heteropsylla cubana caused havoc to Leucaena
only restricts the potential of an introduced leucocephala in Asia, east and southern Africa (Napompeth
exotic species but also may affect other and MacDicken, 1990; Rao, 1995).
local trees over years. The aphid Cinara cupressi devastated Cupressus lusitanica
in east and southern Africa; ‘neem decline’ and oriental
yellow scale Aonidiella orientalis caused severe damage to
Azadirachta indica in west Africa (Murphy, 1998).
Exotic Indigenous Local tree species susceptible to the new The leucaena psyllid adapted to Samanea saman in
pest may severely be damaged, if natural southeast Asia (Braza, 1987);
enemies are not established. Rastrococcus invadens established on fruit trees and other
plants in west Africa (Agounke et al., 1988).
The cypress aphid Cinara cupressi affected Juniperus
procera in eastern and southern Africa (Murphy, 1998).
249
lands, which was introduced from Australia over 100 years ago, has been
found in recent years to be attacked by a stem borer Apate sp. Even the indige-
nous tree Sesbania sesban, which is widely being tested by farmers as 1- to
2-year planted fallows for replenishing soil fertility in east and southern
Africa, has been observed to be severely damaged by defoliating beetles,
Mesoplatys ochroptera and Exosoma sp. (Sileshi et al., 2000). Similarly, in
recent years in western Kenya, Crotalaria agatiflora and C. grahamiana, used
for planted fallows, have been severely defoliated frequently by Amphicalia
pectolina (H. Girma, pers comm.). Although Prosopis cineraria – the wonder
tree of the arid zone of India – was not known to be attacked by many pests
earlier, it is now experiencing severe damage by insects and diseases in parts
of western Rajasthan, India (Singh, 1998).
Efforts are underway for genetic improvement of a number of priority agro-
forstry tree species through germplasm collection, provenance evaluation and
selective propagation (Simons, 1996). At ICRAF, emphasis is given for
improving and promoting indigenous fruit trees and other high value trees to
increase cash earnings for small-scale farmers in Africa (Leakey and Simons,
1998). Furthermore, improved germplasm of some tree species developed for
monoculture plantations is being tested in traditional agroforestry systems
for increasing productivity of the latter (e.g. introduction of high yielding
rubber clones into jungle rubber agroforests in Indonesia and use of improved
bud-grafted Zizyphus mauritiana in India). There is a need to watch whether
these improved materials would encounter any new pests that would restrict
their potential yields in agoforestry.
At system level
Simultaneous systems
Figure 1. Effects of simultaneous agroforestry systems on insect pests, and the mechanisms and
hypotheses that explain the observed effects (modified for agroforestry following Hitimana and
McKinlay, 1998).
or decreased pests. The association of trees and crops creates a new envi-
ronment in agroforestry, which may increase the ability of the system to
withstand pests or render it more susceptible to pests (‘associational hypoth-
esis’). Insect pests will be reduced if the new environment increases natural
enemies by providing congenial habitat (‘natural enemies hypothesis’).
Agroforestry increases pests if trees in the system increase and extend food
availability to insects by serving as alternate hosts (‘resource concentration
hypothesis’). Interactions among component species of a system may affect
the physiological status of one or more species, making them either vulner-
able to or robust against insect attack (‘host plant physiology hypothesis’).
Non-host trees in a system may reduce insect populations by diluting the
proportion of the host crop (‘resource concentration hypotheses’), restricting
the movement of insects, interfering with the host-seeking ability of the insect
251
and lowering quality of the host (disruptive crop hypothesis). Other mecha-
nisms that affect pests include synchrony between insect prey and natural
enemies, chemical repellence and some components inhibiting food intake of
insects (Liping, 1991; Altieri, 1994). The different mechanisms are further
discussed in the following sections.
Microclimate
The microclimatic changes caused by trees in mixed systems include shading
of the understorey crop(s), increased humidity, reduced air and soil tempera-
252
ture, and decreased wind speed. These changes may bring about positive or
negative impact on the activity of insects and their natural enemies (para-
sites, predators, and entomopathogenic microorganisms).
The activity of shade loving insects is usually increased under trees. Some
dung beetles were reported to prefer staying under shade (Doube, 1983).
Lower temperatures and higher humidity under trees in warmer regions reduce
desiccation of soft-bodied larvae and sap sucking insects (e.g. aphids) and
increase their activity. In the Sudan zone of Burkina Faso, populations of
Cicadulina sp. – the vector of maize streak virus – were observed to con-
centrate under trees and play a significant role in the initial outbreak of maize
streak (Traoré and Quedraogo, 1997). The coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus
hampei) was found to be favoured by a dense shade (Beer et al., 1998). The
activity of shade-loving insects can be reduced by pruning the branches of
upper-storey trees and by selecting open-canopy species or provenances in
preference to dense-canopy ones. Shade may have a different effect on certain
other insects. For example, density of foliage feeding beetles was lower on
bean intercropped with maize than sole-cropped bean (Risch, 1981). Zhou et
al. (1985) reported greater infestation of Polyura naraea on stands at the edges
of forest canopy facing the sun than on the shaded side. Shade of trees is
known to interfere with host seeking and reproductive behaviour of some
insects (Risch, 1981; Yang et al., 1988).
Many hymenopteran parasites exhibit greater host-searching capacity under
bright light, but moderate shade favours the parasitic wasp (Cephalonomia
stephanoderis) of coffee berry borer (Beer et al., 1998). However, lower
temperatures combined with higher humidity under trees increase parasitism
by the egg parasite Trichogamma sp. (Pu, 1978) and the effectiveness of
entomopathogenic fungi (Jacques, 1983). For an example, the half life and
viability of spores of the fungus Nomuraea rileyi were much longer in the
shade than in the open (Fargues et al., 1988). Similarly, shade increases the
persistence of entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana on coffee berry
borer (Beer et al., 1998). The length of infective period of Bacillus
thuringiensis was greatly reduced under direct sunlight.
There could also be cues from companion plants that facilitate the functioning
of natural enemies in one way or the other. Identifying the positive and
negative effects of cues of specific plants on pest–natural enemy combina-
tions will help exploit this phenomenon for pest management, but little is
known at present in agroforestry.
Barrier effect
Hedgerows, boundary tree plantings and windbreaks act as physical barriers
to the dispersal and colonisation of both herbivorous and, predatory and
parasitic arthropods within a field and between fields. The permeability, height
and orientation of tree-rows in relation to wind affect the inward and outward
movement of insects (Bach, 1984; Pasek, 1988). Trees may simply act as
mechanical barriers to the dispersal of insects, and ’nurse trees’ protect other
crops from pest attacks (Kennedy et al., 1959) or have a biological role in
repelling insect pests because of unfavourable morphological features such
as hairy leaves (Levin, 1973). Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) planted
between rows of Inga edulis and Schizolobium amazonicum suffered from less
and delayed attacks of lepidopteran shoot borer Hypsipyla grandella
(Ackerman et al., 1998). The dense canopy of Inga shields the mahogany
seedlings, making their location difficult for the adult insects to lay eggs. Trees
being the tall component in agroforestry provide a platform for the weak flying
insects carried by wind to settle for a while before initiating infestation of
the crops around. The infestation of maize stalk borers (Chilo partellus, C.
orichalcociliellus and Sesamia calamiostis) was significantly lower and crop
yields greater in alleycropping between leucaena hedgerows than in sole
cropping. The hedges were suspected to act as mechanical barriers to the
dispersal of the young larvae in search of the host (Ogol et al., 1999).
Tree hedges and boundary plantings serve as reservoirs to both insect pests
and beneficial insects (van Emden, 1965; Solomon, 1981), the most abundant
of the latter category being parasitic-Hymenoptera and Diptera, and predatory
spiders and ladybird beetles. Although tree barriers contribute to maintaining
some populations of insects, most increases in the density of insects are due
to those blown in from elsewhere. The Braconids tend to accumulate on the
leeward side, while the Aphidids, Vespids, large Diptera and Lepidoptera
predominate on the windward side (Pasek, 1988). Systems in which trees block
the entry of injurious insects and hinder the outward movement of natural
enemies of insects will have fewer pest problems.
Sequential systems
that host polyphagous insects, particularly pests of crops, for planted fallow
technology. Tolerance to pests is not enough in judging tree species for planted
fallows, as even the tolerant trees can perpetuate pests to cause significant
economic losses in subsequent crops.
In the humid tropics, long-term fallows are generally cleared for cropping
by ‘slash and burn’, which destroys most insects and pathogens and permits
growing of crops free from pests for sometime. In the subhumid and semi-
arid tropics where shorter-term planted fallows (one to two years) are gaining
importance, there is no need for burning of fallow biomass because the amount
of biomass harvested is small and wood is a valuable product either as
firewood, poles or stakes for support. Foliage can be managed by either
incorporating it into the soil or spreading on the soil surface (‘slash and
mulch’). The slash and mulch or no-till practices may extend the residual
effects of tree fallows by slowing down carbon mineralisation and preserving
soil structure. Whether this practice will have any negative effects through
pests and diseases needs evaluation before it is recommended for adoption.
Foliar biomass of trees and shrubs used as green manure or mulch increases
the activity of soil fauna. Apart from suppressing weeds, mulches restrict the
spread of certain soil-borne plant diseases by reducing the splash of soil
inoculum, decreasing soil temperature, increasing soil water, and enhancing
microbial activity. Mulching is known to effectively control the soil-borne
web blight of bean caused by Rhizoctonia solani and its telemorph
Thanetephorus cucumeris (Abawi and Thurston, 1994).
Mulches may have the disadvantage of increasing certain polyphagous
insect pests and soil-borne diseases of crops. The severity of root diseases
caused by Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp. and Sclerotium rolfsii in humid
environments was attributed to specific mulches and management of organic
matter (Abawi and Thurston, 1994). In drier-environments mulching may
increase the activity of litter-feeding insects such as termites and grubs to
become pests on crops. Mulches using foliage of different trees and shrubs
were reported to increase termite activity (Budelman, 1988), although their
effects differed with the quality of the material used. Fresh materials that
decompose rapidly may escape termites and materials that contain anti-feeding
substances such as neem foliage may deter termite activity. In contrast, dried
materials that decompose slowly increase termite activity. Mulches also
provide good niche for rats to multiply. Many farmers in North Lampung,
Indonesia complained about increased rat damage by mulching of field crops,
and they preferred clean cultivation within and outside their upland crops such
as rice and cassava (Gauthier, 1996).
257
At landscape level
mostly related to the date of silking, greater damage being in earlier maturing
fields. The woods and hedges bordering the cropped fields were weakly cor-
related (Bollinger and Caslick, 1985). On a positive side, birds resting on trees
can predate on insect larvae on crops. Rat damage was observed in experi-
mental plots mostly adjacent to hedgerows immediately after sowing crops
and again close to harvest (Lal, 1989) and at field scale close to tree-rows on
field boundaries (authors’ observations). Periodical cultivation of land close
to hedgerows and tree-rows, and clean weeding within the rows will reduce
rat populations by eliminating weeds, which form the food source for rats
during the dry periods.
Tsetse fly (Glossina spp.), which transmits trypanosomiasis in cattle in sub-
Saharan Africa, is known to be a problem in areas dominated by large-scale
woody vegetation. In the sixties and seveties, trees were deliberately removed
to control the disease in agricultural areas and human settlements, which is
not a desirable practice from both environmental and economic considera-
tions. Recent emphasis on afforestation and agroforestry has raised doubts
about the reappearance of tsetse fly. However, it is unlikely that trees on farm
in continuously cropped areas would increase tsetse fly (Otsyina, 1993). The
sensible approach to control trypanosomiasis is by using recently developed
more effective and cheaper integrated strategies rather than by deforestation
(Jordan, 1986).
Simultaneous systems
Species diversity Low diversity with closely related species High diversity with widely differing species
Species number Fewer Many
Proportion of host to non-host species High Low
Spatial arrangement of trees and crops Wide with limited interaction among species Close with strong interaction among species
Row orientation Along wind Across wind
Tree density Low density High density
Sequential systems
Nature of tree fallows Monospecies fallows Multispecies fallows
Planting and harvesting of trees and/or
crops in the landscape Asynchronous Synchronous
Residue management Residues used as mulch Residues burnt
Diversity during cropping phase Limited diversity (e.g. monocropping) High diversity (e.g. crop rotation and mixed cropping)
Common to both systems
Field size Large fields Small fields
Distribution of fields practising the
same agroforestry system Aggregated Scattered
259
260
Table 3. Resistance to psyllid and fodder productivity of some Leucaena species, accessions
and hybrids.
Source: Glover (1988); Castillo and Shelton (1994) in Wheeler (1988); Rao and Mathuva (1997);
Hughes (1998); Mullen et al. (1998); Wandera and Njarui (1998).
Chemical control
Chemical control becomes inevitable and justifiable where all other
approaches fail, if the returns are economical and the chemicals used are
262
environmentally safe and appropriate for the targeted pest. One of the most
frequent uses of chemicals is in the control of termites on eucalyptus. Selander
et al. (1989) reviewed five studies on chemical control of termites on
Eucalyptus in Zambia, and concluded that carbosulfan could be recommended
as an alternative to organophosphates. Chey (1996) found that a single root
drench with chlorpyrifos or chlordane to young Gmelina arborea prevented
all further attack for four years, while aldrin and HCH were almost as
effective. However, Patel and Sahu (1995) found gammaxene ineffective in
protecting E. tereticornis from attack. Chilima (1991) found that controlled
release granular formulations of carbofuran, chlorpyrifos and carbosulfan
significantly reduced termite damage to eucalyptus in Malawi, and recom-
mended them as alternatives to aldrin. In Sri Lanka however, aldrin effec-
tively protected Eucalyptus seedlings from termite attack (Midgley and
Weerawardane, 1986). Mushongahande (1996) recommended fipronil for
termite control in Eucalyptus in Zimbabwe.
In Eucalyptus plantations in Brazil, Thyrinteina (Lepidoptera) is sprayed
with diflubenzuron (Santos et al., 1990). The same chemical is seen as a
substitute for the long used pyrethroids, to control bagworm (Chaliopsis
junodi) in Acacia plantations in South Africa, applied from the air (Atkinson,
1998).
An outbreak of lac insect, Kerria lacca on Santalum album and its host
trees Pongamia pinnata and Casuarina equisetifolia in Karnataka state (India)
was controlled with quinalphos (Remadevi et al., 1997). In Indonesia, melolon-
thids on Paraserianthes falcataria were controlled with carbofuran and
monocrotophos (Intari, 1995).
Chemical control of the leucaena psyllid Heteropsylla cubana typifies the
situation with the use of pesticides in agroforestry. While a number of
chemicals are effective, rarely will they be economically justified or even
affordable by resource poor farmers (Rao, 1995). Another problem with
chemical control is that it also kills natural enemies, disrupting the ecolog-
ical balance that usually prevents insects reaching pest status. Ways round this
problem can sometimes be found; for example Sudarmadji (1988) found that
painting Leucaena trees with systemic insecticide helped control the psyllid
without affecting the introduced coccinellid predator Curinus coeruleus.
Many trees and shrubs are known to contain toxic chemicals of pesticidal
value in their plant parts and a substantial body of literature exists on their
use for pest control (Grainge and Ahmed, 1988). Botanical pesticides are
particularly relevant for poor farmers in the tropics because of their low cost,
and safety to the users, livestock and environment, but their use is often limited
by the unavailability of adequate quantity of plant material. However, trees
such as neem, Melia azedarach, Melia volkensii, Tephrosia vogelii, Euphorbia
tirucalli and Lantana camara can be exploited for their agroforestry and pest
control values.
The trend towards encouraging farmers to plant high value trees that will
provide income, (as well as food in the case of fruit trees), means that chemical
263
control may become more affordable to resource poor farmers in the future.
This could be considered an indication of successful development, but it has
been suggested that the potential pest problems on these trees should be
investigated now, so that farmers have alternatives to chemicals when
problems arise (Day and Murphy, 1998)
Biological control
The classical biological control, or the introduction of a natural enemy from
the pest’s area of origin, has been implemented for some agroforestry insect
pests, leucaena psyllid probably being the commonest target. Day et al. (1995)
listed 17 countries where the coccinellid Curinus coeruleus had either been
introduced or arrived, seven countries for the coccinellid Olla v-nigrum, and
seven for the encyrtid parasitoid Psyllaephagus yaseeni. In recent years P.
yaseeni has also been introduced to Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia, and the
eulophid Tamarixia leucaenae to Tanzania, Kenya, Zambia and Malawi.
Indications are that the parasitoids are having only a minor effect in Africa
(Day, 1999) and there is no strong evidence of any of the agents having a
major effect in Asia (Day et al., 1995), although qualitative reports claim some
impact (Napompeth, 1994).
More success was achieved in controlling the eucalyptus snout beetle
Gonipterus scutellatus, which was controlled in the 1940s in Africa with the
egg parasite Patasson nitens (Greathead, 1971). Egg parasitoids have also
been released in South Africa and Zambia (O. Shakacite, pers. comm.) for
control of Phoracantha spp., again on eucalyptus.
Psyllaephagus pilosus was introduced to USA for control of the psyllid
C. tenarytaina eucalypti, with a benefit: cost ratio estimated to be in excess
of 9:1 considering only reduced chemical control costs (Dahlsten et al.,
1998), though this is a very different situation from resource poor farmers
in the tropics. Muniappan (1993) reports control of two Erythrina pests
using introduced natural enemies, Icerya purchasi with the parasitoid
Cryptochetum iceryae in Israel, and I. aegyptiaca with the coccinellid Rodolia
pumila in the Pacific, though Erythrina was not the main host plant of the
pests.
A number of parasites (e.g. Perilitus larvicida), including an ento-
mophagous nematode (Hexamermis sp.), and predators (Glypsus conspicuus,
Macrorhaphis acuta and Mecosoma mensor) has been found to attack
Mesoplatys on S. sesban in Zambia and Ethiopia (Sileshi GW, pers. comm.;
Steinmuller, 1995), but their relative importance to check the beetle popula-
tions and ecological conditions favouring their multiplication are not yet
known.
Biological control of the cypress aphid Cinara cupressivora has been
implemented in Malawi, Kenya and Uganda in recent years, using the braconid
parasitoid Pauesia juniperorum. The agent is now established in all the three
countries (C. Z. Chilima, K. E. Mutitu, P. Kiwuso, pers. comm.), but it is not
yet clear what impact it will have.
As with the other examples, biological control of the cypress aphid was
implemented primarily because the pest was causing economic damage to
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large-scale plantings, rather than because the tree is popular amongst rural
farmers. This pattern is likely to continue until planting of high value agro-
forestry trees on farms becomes more widespread.
Conclusion
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