Quantum Computing: An Introduction

Quantum and classical computers both try to solve problems, but the way they manipulate data to
get answers is fundamentally different. This section provides an explanation of what makes
quantum computers unique by introducing two principles of quantum mechanics crucial for their
operation, superposition and entanglement. There are problems that even the most powerful
classical computers are unable to solve because of their scale or complexity. Quantum computers
may be uniquely suited to solve some of these problems because of their inherently quantum
properties.
Quantum computing is the technique of using quantum mechanics to rapidly and effectively solve
complex and large operations. Similarly, a quantum computer is used to perform quantum
computations, just as classical computers are used to perform classical computations. Quantum
computations are so difficult to solve that classical computers find it almost impossible to solve
them.
In physics, the term "quantum" comes from the principle of quantum mechanics, which explains the
physical characteristics of electrons and photons. The basic structure for profoundly explaining and
interpreting nature is quantum. This is, therefore, the explanation of why quantum computation
deals with uncertainty. A subfield of quantum information technology is quantum computing. The
best method for dealing with a complex computation has been defined. Quantum mechanics is
based on the superposition and entanglement phenomena used in quantum computing. To perform
quantum calculations, a quantum computer that is distinct from a classical computer is used.
There are several models of quantum computing. The most widely used model is the quantum
circuit. Quantum circuits are based on the quantum bit, or "qubit.” Qubits can be in a 1 or 0
quantum state, or a superposition of the 1 and 0 states. Computation is performed by manipulating
qubits with quantum logic gates. There are currently two main approaches to physically
implementing a quantum computer: analog and digital. Both approaches use qubits, which are prone
to quantum decoherence and error correction. In particular, quantum computers require significant
error correction as they are far more prone to errors than classical computers.

Motivation to Build Quantum Computer

It is important to recognize that, to build a wider understanding of quantum computers, they would
offer enormous speedups for very particular types of problems. Researchers are trying to learn
which concerns are suitable for quantum speedups. In general, quantum computers are believed to
assist greatly with optimization-related concerns. There are also some additional uses for qubit
systems that are not computer- or simulation-based and are operational. There are two most
prominent areas:
1. Quantum sensing and metrology, which exploit the extreme environmental sensitivity of
qubits, are two of the most popular fields.
2. Quantum network

History of Quantum computing

Application of quantum mechanics before the 1970s typically involved a gross level of control over
a bulk sample containing an enormous number of quantum mechanical systems, none of them
directly accessible. Since the 1970s, many techniques for controlling single-quantum systems have
been developed. The scanning tunneling microscope has been used to move single atoms around,
creating designer arrays of atoms. Electronic devices whose operation involves the transfer of only
single electrons have been demonstrated.

Quantum computing began in the early 1980s when physicist Paul Benioff proposed a quantum
mechanical model of the Turing machine. Richard Feynman and Yuri Manin later suggested that a
quantum computer had the potential to simulate things that a classical computer could not. Despite
ongoing experimental progress since the late 1990s, most researchers believe fault-tolerant quantum
computing is still a “rather distant dream.” In October 2019, Google AI and NASA claimed to have
performed a quantum computation that is infeasible on any classical computer. There are several
models of quantum computing, including the quantum circuit, the quantum Turing machine, the
adiabatic quantum computer, the one-way quantum computer, and various quantum cellular
automata.

How to work Quantum Computer

Centered on the probability of the state of an entity before it is calculated, quantum computers
conduct calculations. Exponentially, the method Uses the definite location of a physical state,
classical computers perform logical operations. Typically these are binary, meaning processes are
based on one. In quantum computation, operations use an object’s quantum state to obtain what is
known as a "qubit" instead. In a mixed superposition, unmeasured quantum states exist, not unlike a
coin spinning in the air. With those of other objects, superposition can be entangled, meaning their
results will be mathematically related. To make quick work of problems, the complicated
mathematics underlying these unsettled states of interconnected "spinning coins" can be plugged
into special algorithms. For instance, such algorithms could be useful in generating hard-to-break
security codes.

Qubit
Quantum bits are subatomic particles that are composed of electrons or photons. It is difficult to
generate and manage qubits, and it is a challenging task for scientists who are working in this field.
Researchers make use of microwave beams or lasers for manipulating qubits. A connected group of
quantum bits, or "qubits," has much more power than the same binary digit number. The bit is the
most fundamental concept in computer science. There are two states for the bits in classical
computation, which are 0 and 1. Nevertheless, the subjects are completely different in quantum
space. Atomic particles behave like waves and do not have a deterministic position. As a result,
quantum information and computation benefited from their foundation, which is the quantum bit, or
qubit. Many complex problems are now solved by quantum computers in much shorter times and
with less complexity. Shor’s algorithm for factoring large numbers and Grover’s for finding marked
items in huge databases, among others, Classical computers consist of circuits and wires and bit
streams that form data units. Some of the best-known of these single-qubit gates are shown here.

Superposition
Quantum mechanics deals with the smallest particles in existence, i.e., electrons and photons. In this
case, superposition determines the capacity of the quantum system. For example, a time machine in
which a person may be present at one or more locations at the same time is known as a
"superposition."
Superposition is the counterintuitive ability of a quantum object, like an electron, to simultaneously
exist in multiple “states.” With an electron, one of these states may be the lowest energy level in an
atom while another may be the first excited level. If an electron is prepared in a superposition of
these two states it has some probability of being in the lower state and some probability of being in
the upper. A measurement will destroy this superposition, and only then can it be said that it is in the
lower or upper state.
Understanding superposition makes it possible to understand the basic component of information in
quantum computing, the qubit. In classical computing, bits are transistors that can be off or on,
corresponding to the states 0 and 1. In qubits such as electrons, 0 and 1 simply correspond to states
like the lower and upper energy levels discussed above. Qubits are distinguished from classical bits,
which must always be in the 0 or 1 state, by their ability to be in superpositions with varying
probabilities that can be manipulated by quantum operations during computations.
Entanglement
A very strong association between quantum particles is characterized by entanglement. When two
or more particles link up in a certain way, no matter how far apart they are in space, their states
remain linked. That means they share a common, unified quantum state. So observations of one of
the particles can automatically provide information about the other entangled particles, regardless of
the distance between them. And any action to one of these particles will invariably impact the others
in the entangled system.
Quantum entanglement is a quantum phenomenon whereby a group of particles is produced so that
their quantum states are unclear until calculated as a whole. The act of calculating one decides the
result of calculating the other even if they are far from each other. In other words, each particle’s
quantum state cannot be sketched independently of the state of other particles (despite the spatial
differences).
The subject of quantum entanglement is at the centre of the fundamental difference between
quantum and classical mechanics. Entanglement is a unique quantum phenomenon that is
completely absent in classical physics.
Entangled System
An entangled system can be defined as a system whose quantum state cannot be considered as a
result of states of its individual constituents. In other words, they are not just independent particles
but are inextricable ensembles. One particle cannot be fully explained in such systems without
analysing other remaining particles. The condition of an entangled system is only definable as a
superposition of states of individual constituents. Entanglement in quantum systems can occur
through various interactions. Most of them are still unknown.
Meaning of entanglement
An entangled system is defined to be one whose quantum state cannot be factored as a product of
states of its local constituents; that is to say, they are not individual particles but are an inseparable
whole. In entanglement, one constituent cannot be fully described without considering the other(s).
The state of a composite system is always expressible as a sum, or superposition, of products of
states of local constituents; it is entangled if this sum cannot be written as a single product term.
When a quantum state is measured, the wavefunction collapses and you measure the state as either a
zero or a one. In this known or deterministic state, the qubit acts as a classical bit. Entanglement is
the ability of qubits to correlate their state with other qubits.

Decoherence
Decoherence is the loss of the quantum state in a qubit. Environmental factors, like radiation, can
cause the quantum state of the qubits to collapse. A large engineering challenge in constructing a
quantum computer is designing the various features that attempt to delay decoherence of the state,
such as building specialty structures that shield the qubits from external fields.

Applications of Quantum Entanglement

 Entanglement has numerous uses in quantum information science. With the use of
entanglement, many impractical tasks can be achieved.
 Some of the important applications of quantum entanglement are quantum teleportation and
superdense coding.
 Entanglement is considered to be necessary for the complete deployment of quantum
computing.
 Quantum entanglement is used in a few protocols of quantum cryptography. However, under
the standard assumption, entanglement is not required to confirm the security of quantum
key distribution.
Questions:
What is quantum entanglement?
Quantum entanglement is a quantum phenomenon whereby a group of particles is produced so that
their quantum states are unclear until calculated as a whole. The act of calculating one decides the
result of calculating the other even if they are far from each other.
What is an entangled system?
An entangled system can be defined as a system whose quantum state cannot be considered as a
result of states of its individual constituents. In other words, they are not just independent particles
but are inextricable ensembles. The condition of an entangled system is only definable as a
superposition of states of individual constituents.
How is quantum entanglement created?
Entanglement is generally produced by explicit interaction between elementary particles. Such
interactions can take many forms. One of the common methods is unconstrained parametric down-
conversion to create a photon pair entangled in polarisation. Other techniques include the
application of a fibre coupler to control and intermix photons. It can also be generated from the
decay stream of the bi-excitons in quantum dots.
What are the two main applications of quantum entanglement?
Some of the important applications of quantum entanglement are quantum teleportation and
superdense coding.
Entanglement is considered to be necessary for the complete deployment of quantum computing.
Is it possible to generate quantum entanglement between particles that have not directly
interacted with one another?
It can be done through entanglement swapping. Two identical particles from different sources could
be entangled if their wave function just spatially overlapped.

Applicable use case of Quantum Computing

 Cybersecurity: to secure data from hacking, we need a very good cybersecurity scheme.
Classical machines are strong enough for cyber defense, but they are compromised by
insecure threats and assaults. Scientists in this area deal with quantum computers.
 Cryptography is also an area of protection in which quantum computers help to establish
cryptographic strategies to securely deliver packets to the network. This invention of
encryption methods is referred to as quantum cryptography.
 Weather Forecasting: Even quantum systems can predict more detailed climate models with
perfect timings. Quantum computers have enhanced power to analyze, recognize patterns,
and forecast the weather in a short period.
 AI and Machine Learning: Via AI and machine learning, several tools, applications, and
features have been developed. As a consequence, classical systems have been challenged to
balance precision and distance. Quantum computers can help manage those complicated
issues with less time.
 Drug Design and Development: drug production is based on a system of trial and error,
which is costly as well as dangerous. Researchers hope that quantum computation will
become an important way to understand human beings’ medications and their reactions. The
day that quantum computation can successfully produce medications would save a lot of
time and resources for the drug business.
 Finance Marketing: only if it provides its clients with fruitful returns will the finance sector
thrive in the market. To achieve growth, such industries require specific and successful
strategies. The system of Monte Carlo simulations is used in traditional computers.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Quantum Computing

Advantages
Quantum computers, therefore, have a critical speed advantage over classical computers. This pace
gain is so important that many researchers think that there will be no possible amount of
development in classical computation so the difference between a classical computer’s power and a
quantum computer’s power can be solved. Quantum computing can handle a finite amount of noise
in general, unlike analog computing, and yet maintain its computational benefits. Not just that, but
another advantage of quantum computation is that much more efficient functions can be measured
using qubits and quantum gates. And there is also the ability to solve scientific and commercial
problems. Quantum computing has increased the security of data. They are used to protect protected
websites, encrypted messages, and many other forms of data.

Disadvantage
Quantum computers are difficult to build and program. They are crippled by errors in the form of
noise, faults, and loss of quantum coherence. If we get the quantum technology right, the benefits
should lift the entire economy and enhance U.S. competitiveness. The breakthrough is probably
several years away, says Amitai Etzioni, founder of the California Institute for Sensorative
Engineering. The benefits should be felt in the finance, retail business, and physics fields, the
authors say. No existing hardware platform can maintain coherence and provide the robust error
correction required for large-scale computation. And also hard to control quantum particles. Not
only that, it is expensive and difficult to build.

What are the components of a quantum computer?

Quantum computers have hardware and software, similar to a classical computer.

Quantum hardware
Quantum hardware has three main components.
Quantum data plane
The quantum data plane is the core of the quantum computer and includes the physical qubits and
the structures required to hold them in place.
Control and measurement plane
The control and measurement plane converts digital signals into analog or wave control signals.
These analog signals perform the operations on the qubits in the quantum data plane.
Control processor plane and host processor
The control processor plane implements the quantum algorithm or sequence of operations. The host
processor interacts with the quantum software and provides a digital signal or classical bits
sequence to the control and measurement plane.

Quantum software
Quantum software implements unique quantum algorithms using quantum circuits. A quantum
circuit is a computing routine that defines a series of logical quantum operations on the underlying
qubits. Developers can use various software development tools and libraries to code quantum
algorithms.

What are the types of quantum technology?

No one has shown the best way to build a fault-tolerant quantum computer, and multiple companies
and research groups are investigating different types of qubits. We give a brief example of some of
these qubit technologies below.
Gate-based ion trap processors
A gate-based quantum computer is a device that takes input data and transforms it according to a
predefined unitary operation. The operation is typically represented by a quantum circuit and is
analogous to gate operations in traditional electronics. However, quantum gates are totally different
from electronic gates.
Trapped ion quantum computers implement qubits using electronic states of charged atoms called
ions. The ions are confined and suspended above the microfabricated trap using electromagnetic
fields. Trapped-ion based systems apply quantum gates using lasers to manipulate the electronic
state of the ion. Trapped ion qubits use atoms that come from nature, rather than manufacturing the
qubits synthetically. Representing the trapped ions community of companies in the quantum space,
we have Quantinuum (a company that came out of the merger between Cambridge Quantum
Computing and Honeywell Quantum Solutions), IonQ, Quantum Factory, Alpine Quantum
Technologies, eleQtron amongst others

Gate-based superconducting processors

Superconductivity is a set of physical properties that you can observe in certain materials like
mercury and helium at very low temperatures. In these materials, you can observe a characteristic
critical temperature below which electrical resistance is zero and magnetic flux fields are expelled.
An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power
source.
Superconducting quantum computing is an implementation of a quantum computer in
superconducting electronic circuits. Superconducting qubits are built with superconducting electric
circuits that operate at cryogenic temperatures. Companies actively researching and manufacturing
superconducting quantum computers include Google, IBM, IQM and Rigetti Computing to name
just a few.

Photonic processors
A quantum photonic processor is a device that manipulates light for computations. Photonic
quantum computers use quantum light sources that emit squeezed-light pulses, with qubit
equivalents that correspond to modes of a continuous operator, such as position or momentum.
There are dozens of companies working with photonic quantum computing technology. Some of
these include Xanadu, ORCA Computing, Quantum Computing Inc and PsiQuantum.
Photonics is a very good example of how Photonics is a general category used to bucket quantum
computers. Xanadu’s “squeezed light” approach is materially different from PsiQuantum’s
approach, for example.

Neutral atom processors

Neutral atom qubit technology is similar to trapped ion technology. However, it uses light instead of
electromagnetic forces to trap the qubit and hold it in position. The atoms are not charged and the
circuits can operate at room temperatures. A number of companies working with neutral (cold) atom
quantum computing technology include Pasqal (merged with Qu&Co), Atom Computing,
ColdQuanta, and QuEra.
Rydberg atom processors
A Rydberg atom is an excited atom with one or more electrons that are further away from the
nucleus, on average. Rydberg atoms have a number of peculiar properties including an exaggerated
response to electric and magnetic fields, and long life. When used as qubits, they offer strong and
controllable atomic interactions that you can tune by selecting different states.

Quantum annealers
Quantum annealing uses a physical process to place a quantum system's qubits in an absolute
energy minimum. From there, the hardware gently alters the system's configuration so that its
energy landscape reflects the problem that needs to be solved. The advantage of quantum annealers
is that the number of qubits can be much larger than those available in a gate-based system.
However, their use is limited to specific cases only.
A number of companies working with Quantum annealing include D-Wave, Qilimanjaro
Quantum Tech, NEC Corporation, Automatski, Lockheed Martin.

How do companies use quantum computing?

Quantum computing can revolutionize industries. We give some example use cases below:

ML
Machine learning (ML) is the process of analyzing vast quantities of data to help computers make
better predictions and decisions. Research in quantum computing studies the physical limits of
information processing and is breaking new ground in fundamental physics. This research leads to
advances in many fields of science and industry, such as chemistry, optimization, and molecular
simulation. It is also a growing area of interest for financial services to predict market movements
and for manufacturing to improve operations.

Optimization
Quantum computing can improve research and development, supply-chain optimization, and
production. For example, you could apply quantum computing to decrease manufacturing process–
related costs and shorten cycle times by optimizing elements such as path planning in complex
processes. Another application is the quantum optimization of loan portfolios so that lenders can
free up capital, lower interest rates, and improve their offerings.

Simulation
The computational effort required to simulate systems accurately scales exponentially with the
complexity of drug molecules and materials. Even using approximation methods, current
supercomputers cannot achieve the level of accuracy that these simulations demand. Quantum
computation has the potential to solve some of the most challenging computational problems faced
in chemistry, allowing the scientific community to do chemical simulations that are intractable
today.