Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05523-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A review on recent developments in transparent wood: sustainable

alternative to glass
Krutarth H. Pandit1 · Abhijeet D. Goswami2 · Chandrakant R. Holkar3 · Dipak V. Pinjari4

Received: 12 December 2023 / Revised: 16 February 2024 / Accepted: 12 March 2024

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2024

Abstract
Glass is transparent, durable, chemically inert, readily available, and cheap, has numerous applications in the building
and construction sector, automobile sector, and optical fibers. However, glass production is not a sustainable process due
to high energy requirements and associated carbon emissions. Due to the significant disadvantages and the need for sus-
tainable production, bio-based alternative materials are the need of the hour. Transparent wood is an alternative that can
replace glass. Transparent wood has a renewable origin, low energy requirements, and excellent optical and mechanical
properties, especially the shatterproof behaviour. The fabrication of wood is a comparatively green process as compared
to that of glass. This review paper highlights different routes of transparent wood fabrication with insights into the poly-
mers used for infiltration into transparent wood. Good optical properties along with better mechanical properties and
low thermal conductivity, low density as compared to glass, and an improved scope of multi-functionalisation have been
observed for transparent wood. Studies have shown a need for a green, energy-efficient, and scalable process for the mass
production of transparent wood. The key questions and areas that need to be worked upon have also been discussed. The
review indicates that a systematic research approach is necessary for the overall development of the field from a research
and industrial point of view.

Keywords Cavitation · Glass · Polymer infiltration · Lignin modification · Transparent Wood

1 Introduction easily available, durable, and comparatively cheap making

it a suitable candidate for widespread applications. Tradi-
Glass is one of the most widely used materials having a vari- tionally, glass has been used for window panes in build-
ety of applications as building and construction material, ings, with glass buildings becoming very popular recently.
for windows in houses/automobiles, and in optical fibres It has been predicted that the world population will increase
for nanotechnology. Glass is transparent, chemically inert, from the current 7.2 billion to around 9 billion in the next
four decades. Various challenges will be seen concerning
the growth and maintenance of infrastructures like hous-
ing, transport, energy, water waste materials, etc. To ensure
Chandrakant R. Holkar successful implementation of the activities, sustainable
[email protected]
development of infrastructure and manufacturing processes
Dipak V. Pinjari is needed [1]. Therefore, there has been a recent trend to
[email protected]
replace petroleum-based materials like glass with bio-based
1
Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical materials like wood.
Technology, Marathwada Campus, Jalna, Maharashtra, India Glass production is an energy-intensive process due to
2
Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical the high temperatures (1500 to 1600℃) needed to melt raw
Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India materials like Silica, Sodium Carbonate, Limestone, Mag-
3
Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, nesium Carbonate, and Dolomite (Fig. 1). Due to this, the
Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra, glass industry is considered to be an energy-intensive indus-
India try [2]. Raw materials like Limestone, Sodium Carbonate,
4
Department of Polymer and Surface Engineering, Institute of and Dolomite, when heated at high temperatures (1500℃
Chemical Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

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 Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

Fig. 1 Schematic of glass produc-

tion process with associated
chemical reactions

and 1600℃), undergo decomposition reactions, and break of the applications and use of glass in daily life, followed
down into calcium and magnesium oxides, releasing a large by the disadvantages pertaining to energy consumption and
amount of carbon dioxide (CO2), typically in the range of carbon emissions due to glass. Some general insights into
3 to 3.15 kg per kg of glass produced [2]. As a result, the transparent wood and its general fabrication mechanism
glass industry is also related to significant carbon emissions have been looked at followed by a brief into different wood
per tonne of energy and CO2 of products as well [3]. More- types. This paper also gives detailed insights into the fab-
over, the construction and building sector is responsible for rication of transparent wood by different routes, namely
30% of energy consumption for air conditioning, heating, delignification, lignin modification, etc. The results, fol-
lighting, etc., and CO2 emissions, pointing out the need for lowed by the significant advantages and disadvantages of
energy-efficient buildings and alternatives for glass, which the technique with an initial conclusion, have been men-
can significantly reduce demand for energy and carbon tioned in detail. Also, the different methods to characterize
emissions [4]. These severe impacts of the glass industry transparent wood have been given to understand the optical
have prompted the need for cleaner and greener alternatives and mechanical properties. The current technological gap
to glass. and scale-up opportunities are also addressed, along with
From prehistoric times, wood has been extensively used the future scope of the overall field, followed by the conclu-
for various purposes like construction, fuel, and making sion section.
tools. Wood is a bio-based, renewable, sustainable material
with excellent bio-functional and physical properties [5, 6].
Wood has been extensively used in our day-to-day applica- 2 What is transparent wood?
tions like furniture, homes, decoration, and heating [7–9].
Wood has a mesoporous and hierarchal structure consist- Optically Transparent wood, as its name suggests, is one
ing of three major components: cellulose, hemicellulose, of the examples of a multifunctional bio-composite. These
and lignin. Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Lignin account cellulose-based bio-composites are of enormous interest as
for approximately 40–50%, 20–40%, and 25% lignin in they can potentially reduce our dependence on synthetic
wood structures, respectively [10, 11]. Cellulose and hemi- polymers [14–17]. Low density, renewable origin, desirable
cellulose are polysaccharides and are transparent in nature. mechanical properties (high strength, high toughness, shat-
Lignin, on the other hand, is a three-dimensional macromol- terproof, load-bearing performance), high values of optical
ecule that is amorphous and polyphenolic. Three branches transmittance, low conductivity, and low cost [18, 19] are
of phenyl propane units are seen for lignin, forming an the driving forces for the fabrication of transparent wood
extremely complex, branched, and amorphous structure [20]. Optically transparent wood is obtained by the removal
with dark color [12]. The brownish color seen for wood is of lignin from the wood template, and this process is called
due to the presence of components like lignin, tannins, and delignification, which is followed by impregnation or infil-
chlorophyll, as they are light-absorbing. It has been seen tration of a suitable polymer having a desirable refractive
that lignin is responsible for almost 80–95% of the total index into the wood cell wall, which leads to the fabrication
light absorption seen in wood [13]. Optically transparent of optically transparent wood [21]. The primary purpose of
wood is one such product obtained from wood that has the delignification is to remove the light absorption in wood and
capability to replace glass. to reduce the refractive index mismatch between the air gap
This paper aims to review various pathways for trans- and the cell wall. Selective delignification or lignin modifi-
parent wood as an alternative to conventional glass with cation, which includes only removing the chromophores of
insights into different techniques of transparent wood fab- lignin, is also used. This dignified wood is still non-trans-
rication along with a detailed analysis of each fabrication parent and is whitish in color since light scattering occurs
technique. The Introduction section provides an overview between the cell wall and air in the lumen and with air and

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Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

cellulose nanofibers in the cell wall [22, 23]. Polymer Infil- into pure liquids like methyl salicylate, ethyl cinnamate, and
tration or impregnation of the porous template is done to benzyl benzoate. The samples were then infiltrated with two
reduce the contrast in the refractive index, leading to more different monomeric mixtures of 1 (n-butyl methacrylate,
excellent transmittance [24, 25]. The polymer infiltration styrene, dibutyl phthalate, and a catalyst) and 2(iso-boronyl
step is done since post-delignification. (Fig. 2). Micro and methacrylate, diallyl phthalate, vinyl carbazole and a cata-
nanoscale voids (air gaps) are generated in the wood, which lyst). Both the monomeric mixtures were kept at a refractive
is responsible for increased light scattering, severely affect- index of 1.56. Infiltration was done for a period of 24 h at a
ing the transparency of the wood template [10]. The poly- temperature of 45℃. Significant transparency was obtained
mer infiltration reduces and eliminates the refractive index for all samples up to a thickness of 4 mm. However, no
mismatch, thus making the cell essentially transparent [24]. details about the transmittance, haze, and other physical
Balsa wood has been the most common type of wood properties have been reported. This was the first report on
for synthesizing optically transparent wood [19, 21]. Since the synthesis of transparent wood, providing a general idea
it is a light wood with a density of 121 kg/m3 and a lignin of delignification with a detailed analysis of the importance
content of around 18.3%, it is fast-growing and thus prov- of the refractive index of the polymer and the wood tem-
ing to be of economic importance since a 10-year-old wood plate [27].
can grow to almost 16 m and have a diameter of 0.5-0.6 m Another method for delignification used by Li et al. [21]
[10]. Also, Wu et al. [26] synthesized optically transparent is where the wood sample of Balsa wood was air-dried and
wood using different kinds of wood species, namely Betula delignified using a 1% by weight Sodium Chlorite (NaClO2)
A, Chinese fir, New Zealand pine, basswood, and black with a buffer solution of acetate at 80℃. The reaction time
walnut. The study concluded that the specific values of the varied between 6 and 12 h depending on the thickness of
obtained optical properties differed for each type of wood. the wood samples, ranging between 0.6 and 8 mm. The
However, multiple wood species showed similar trends, delignified samples were then dehydrated using pure ethyl
indicating that optically transparent wood fabrication can alcohol and then with an ethyl alcohol and acetone mixture
be done from a wide variety of tree species. However, it followed by pure acetone. The lignin content reduced from
was also reported that pine and poplar wood samples were 24.9 to 2.9%. The polymer infiltration step was done with a
broken down after the delignification step due to excess loss pre-polymerised polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) at 70℃
of lignin. Hence, special attention must be paid to lignin for 4 h. Vacuum Infiltration was done thrice for a period
removal if transparent wood fabrication is being carried out of 0.5 h. The infiltrated wood was then put in an ice bath,
from low-density tree species. followed by sandwiching them in two glass plates in alu-
minium foils. The transparent wood template had an optical
transmittance of 85% and a haze value of 71% for a 1.2 mm
3 Transparent wood fabrication methods thickness. The transmittance reduced as the thickness of the
template reduced. The mechanical properties of this trans-
3.1 Complete delignification followed by polymer parent wood template with respect to strength and modulus
infiltration were double as compared to Polymethyl Methacrylate, thus
making it a viable option for a variety of applications [21]. A
The first known synthesis of transparent wood was done by similar approach has been used by various researchers [28,
Fink [27] by chemical bleaching followed by physical infil- 29].
tration by the polymer. Fink fabricated transparent wood in Zhu et al. [30] used a different delignification approach
two subsequent steps. In the first step, the wood samples for transparent wood fabrication. The wood sample of bass-
were placed in a 5% aqueous solution of NaOCl (Sodium wood was immersed in a lignin removal solution of Sodium
Hypochlorite) or Chlorine Bleach for 24 to 48 h and then Hydroxide (2.5 mol/dm3), Sodium Sulphate (0.4 mol/dm3),
washed with distilled water. This step is the delignification and deionized water at 12 h at boiling temperatures. After
step of the process, thus removing the lignin. In the second rinsing with distilled water, the sample was bleached in a
step before polymer infiltration, the samples were dehy- Hydrogen Peroxide bleaching solution (2.5 mol/dm3) in
drated with ethyl alcohol or acetone and then transferred boiling deionized water. The delignified samples were then
Fig. 2 Schematic of transparent
wood production process

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 Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

preserved in ethanol. Epoxy resin was used for infiltrating 3.2 Steam-modified delignification followed by
the wood structure. The sample was degassed, and a vac- polymer infiltration
uum was used for efficient infiltration. High transmittance
values of up to 90% were seen for transparent wood tem- Another delignification approach was studied by Li et al.
plates. Mechanical Strength of 23–45 MPa and modulus of [32], using a steam-modified delignification route. Since
1.22–2.37 GPa was seen for transparent wood templates of many chemicals are used in the conventional delignification
different configurations [30]. Mi et al. [31] also showed a processes and it has been to the best of our knowledge that
two-step delignification process. the lignin content has not been reduced to more than 1.5%,
The results of the complete delignification fabrication this approach provides efficient delignification with less use
methods, along with the necessary steps, have been shown of chemicals. Also, larger size woods cannot be synthesized
in Table 1. with the mentioned techniques [18, 21, 27, 30, 33, 34].
It can be observed from the above processes that even Another major problem with solution-based delignification
though transparent wood is a viable candidate for vari- is that the delignified with low lignin content might break
ous applications, the fabrication methods need to be better down in the solutions due to lignin’s structural importance.
developed. The different techniques mentioned above signi- Using this technique, the researchers obtained a highly del-
fies that the delignification and polymer infiltration steps are ignified wood template with a very low lignin content of
time-consuming and require a variety of toxic chemicals, 0.84%, a high thickness of up to 20 mm, and a high optical
making the entire process less environmentally friendly transmittance of around 87%. First, the basswood and pine
and energy-intensive as well. Also, complete removal of wood samples of varying thickness from 5 to 20 mm were
lignin damages the core structure of the wood, thus mak- steamed with placing them on grids 20 mm above a boiling
ing it weaker and reducing its structural integrity. The stud- hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (30%Wt) aqueous solution. The
ies also reported low-thickness transparent wood templates delignified samples were then rinsed with ethanol and cold
(maximum thickness 1.2 mm), which might sometimes be water. Further, epoxy was used for the polymer infiltration
non-feasible for different applications. A need for an envi- step, and vacuum infiltration was done at 0.08 MPa thrice
ronmentally friendly, sustainable, green, and industrially for 20 min each. The treatment data regarding the optical
feasible process has to be considered for widespread and properties and transmittance has been shown in Table 2.
practical as well as large-scale real-world applications. This technology is a sustainable, greener, and highly
efficient alternative for the fabrication of transparent wood.
It has also been seen that due to effective lignin removal,
the pores generated are efficient in polymer infiltration,

Table 1 List of conventional methods of transparent wood production

Sr Wood Type Chemicals Used Polymer Parameters/Conditions Results Refer-
No used ence
1. Fresh Stem/ Sodium Monomeric • Delignification for 24–48 h. • Good clarity is seen up to a thickness [27]
Branch of Hypochlorite, Mixture • Polymer Infiltration for 24 h at of 3-4 mm.
European Chlorine Bleach 45℃
Ash / Large
Leafed Lime,
Champion
Oak.
2. Balsa Wood Sodium Chlorite, Polymethyl • Delignification for 6 to 12 h at • 85% Transmittance and 71% Haze was [21]
Acetate meth- 80℃. obtained for thickness of 1.2 mm
acrylate • Polymer Infiltration for 4 h at • Transmittance of 40% haze of 80% was
(PMMA) 70℃ and then three Vacuum cycles obtained when the thickness was 3.7 mm
of 30 min. • Transmittance of 90% haze of 50% was
obtained when the thickness was 0.7 mm
4. Balsa Wood Sodium Polyvinyl Delignification at 5% NaClO at ≈ 91% Transmittance. [31]
Hypochlorite Alcohol room temperature for 24 h. 15% Haze
(PVA) Infiltration of PVA at 90℃. Thermal conductivity = 0.19 W m− 1K− 1
5. Silver Birch Sodium Chlorite, Polyethyl- Delignification at 80℃. [32]
Wood Acetate buffer ene Glycol, Infiltration at vacuum for 15 min.
MMA Thickness: 0.5 and 1.5 mm
6. Basswood Sodium Epoxy Delignification for 12 h at boiling Transmittance values of 90% and, [30]
Hydroxide conditions. strength 23–45 MPa and modulus of
Sodium Sulphate Polymer Infiltration under vacuum 1.22–2.37 GPa

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Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

Table 2 Steam modified delignification approach

Sr No Wood Type Chemical Treatment Polymer Parameters/ Conditions Results Refer-
Used ences
1 Basswood/Pinewood Steam delignification by Epoxy 100℃ boiling solution, Lignin content 0.84%. [32]
H2O2/HAc(30%wt) 4 h treatment Transmittance = 87%
Haze = 90%
2 Basswood / Pinewood Steam delignification by Epoxy 100℃ boiling solution, Lignin content > 1%. [32]
H2O2/HAc(30%wt) 5 h treatment Transmittance = 70%
Haze = 95%
3 Basswood / Pinewood Steam delignification by Epoxy 100℃ boiling solution, Lignin content > 1%. [32]
H2O2/HAc(30%wt) 12 h treatment Transmittance = 40%
Haze = 97%

Table 3 Selective delignification/lignin modification methods

Sr Wood Chemical Polymer Parameters/ Conditions Results Refer-
No Type Treatment Used ences
1. Balsa. Alkaline H2O2 PMMA Wood dipped in lignin modifica- ~ 14% less weight loss. 18.8% more lignin [18]
lignin modifica- tion solution at 70℃. Followed by retained.
tion solution. polymer infiltration by PMMA 4 h less time is needed than the conventional
method.
2. Birch Alkaline H2O2 PMMA Wood dipped in lignin modifica- ~ 15% less weight loss. 17% more lignin retained. [18]
lignin modifica- tion solution at 70℃. Followed by 10 h less time is needed than the conventional
tion solution. polymer infiltration by PMMA method.
3. Pine Alkaline H2O2 PMMA Wood dipped in lignin modifica- ~ 16% less weight loss. 17% more lignin retained. [18]
lignin modifica- tion solution at 70℃. Followed by 10 h less time is needed than the conventional
tion solution. polymer infiltration by PMMA. method
4. Ash Alkaline H2O2 PMMA Wood dipped in lignin modifica- ~ 15% less weight loss. 17% more lignin retained. [18]
lignin modifica- tion solution at 70℃. Followed by 14 h less time is needed than the conventional
tion solution. polymer infiltration by PMMA. method

thus increasing the optical and mechanical properties of the The experimental methodology followed for selective
fabricated transparent wood. This work shows an environ- delignification is lignin modification as follows. Alkaline
mentally friendly, green, fast process of making transparent H2O2 treatment is used for the treatment of the wood tem-
wood. The additional advantage that has been seen is better plate since this process is known to remove the chromo-
lignin removal with less time and lesser use of dangerous phores of wood while preserving the overall wood template,
chemicals [32]. The disadvantage of decreased mechanical which is the bulk lignin [18]. The thickness of the wood
properties can be seen due to the almost complete removal samples used is 1.5 mm. A lignin modification solution con-
of lignin. Also, significant energy requirements will be sisting of deionized water, NaOH solution, Sodium Silicate,
needed on a large scale to maintain the boiling conditions MgSO4, Pentetic Acid, and Hydrogen Peroxide was pre-
seen for the steam delignification. pared. The wood template was then dipped into this solution
at 70℃ until the wood lost its color. Chlorine-free reagent
3.3 Selective delignification with polymer hydrogen peroxide was used to ensure only the removal of
infiltration chromophores. After this process, the wood lost its color
and preserved around 80% of the total lignin content as
Due to various problems associated with direct delignifica- well. The polymer infiltration was done using PMMA with
tion like loss of wood tissue, the use of various chemicals infiltration steps like in the work by Y. Li et al. [21]. The
and time consumption of the entire process. It has also been optical properties of the synthesized transparent wood were
seen that delignification is only feasible for some types of optical transmittance of 83% and haze of 75%, respectively.
wood structures, as it has been reported that wood species The 3-point bending test showed work to fracture glass as
like Pine break down after the delignification step [18]. 10.2 J/m3 and transparent wood as 119.5 J/m3 [18].
A different approach for delignification was used by Li Hence, it has been successfully shown that delignifi-
et al. [18] which is known as Selective Delignification. This cation is not a necessary step for preparing transparent
is an approach to delignification where only the chromo- wood. The transparent wood preparation was improved by
phoric structures of lignin responsible for giving color are removing only a certain amount of lignin-containing chro-
selectively removed (Table 3). This method is called Lignin mophore, making the overall process efficient and envi-
Modification as well. ronmentally friendly. Around 80% more lignin from the

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total lignin was preserved. Hydrogen peroxide is a suitable 3.4 Interface manipulation through acetylation for
chemical for selective delignification as it targets the chro- thick transparent wood
mophores of lignin. This retention of lignin leads to a signif-
icant improvement in mechanical properties. As mentioned Based on previous and past works, it has been observed
above, one higher order of magnitude for fracture test was that the thickness of the transparent wood that is fabri-
seen. Hence, by selectively removing the chromophores cated is less than 3.5-4 mm. However, the optical tests of
inside lignin, transparent wood can be made from a variety wood having a thickness of more than 3.5 mm have needed
of wood templates with higher efficiency and improvement improvement with transmittance up to only 40% [10]. For
in the overall process with enhanced optical and mechanical wider applications, transparent woods with higher thickness
properties as well. However, it has also been noticed that a are desirable. Li et al. fabricated 10 mm thick transparent
significant amount of chemicals are associated with the pro- wood using interference manipulation through acetyla-
cess in large volumes. Immersion of the wood template into tion. It has been stated that for higher-thickness woods, this
these solutions requires large quantities of these chemicals, decreased transparency is due to the interference debonding
and due to the temperature requirements, they can have sig- cracks present between the polymer (PMMA in this case)
nificant energy consumption when applied at a larger scale. and the wood cell wall. Also, there is still a refractive index
Hence, there is still a need for a better low-cost, fast, scal- mismatch between PMMA (n = 1.49) and holocellulose
able, and environmentally friendly way. (n = 1.53). Hence, the interference deboning introduced a
Another approach to selective delignification or lignin kind of optical heterogeneity due to the low refractive index
modification by Xia et al. [35] is the solar-assisted chemi- of air inside the deboning gap. This leads to increased light
cal brushing technique. This method solves the two key scattering and, consequently, decreased optical transmit-
disadvantages of lignin modification, namely the consump- tance [33]. This interference gap is primarily caused by
tion of large volumes of chemicals due to the immersion of the lower compatibility between the polymer (Epoxy resin,
wood templates and the significant consumption of energy PMMA, etc.), which are hydrophilic in nature, and the wood
to maintain a set temperature. The impact of these disad- cell wall, which has a hydrophilic nature [36, 37]. More-
vantages limits the industrial feasibility of the previously over, the volume shrinkage of the polymer occurs during the
mentioned processes. This technique is a chemical brush- polymerization step, thus causing more interference gaps.
ing approach rather than immersion of a wood template fol- The researcher also introduced a 25 nm interference debond-
lowed by solar illumination. The experimental methodology ing gap, due to which the transmittance reduced drastically,
used is as follows. Firstly, the structure of lignin is modi- thus proving that this is the key parameter to achieve a high
fied by brushing the H2O2 solution across the surface of transmittance value. Therefore, if the surface compatibility
the wood. This step is followed by giving ultraviolet (UV) between the polymer and wood cell wall can be increased,
light that can be used from natural sunlight. This promotes surface debonding can be reduced, thus increasing optical
a photocatalytic reaction that removes the chromophores, transmittance. Hence, surface modification through acetyla-
specifically the light-absorbing ones in the lignin structure. tion is an efficient method used to increase wood’s hydro-
Further polymer infiltration has been done by Epoxy using phobicity, reducing wood sensitivity towards moisture and,
the regular methods that have been described previously. therefore, the compatibility of both. Table 4 shows recent
Here, wood’s porous and hierarchal type structure promotes research in the area of interference manipulation through
the diffusion of H2O2 solution into the wood template. The acetylation technique.
light absorption is reduced to less than 4%. The generated This work shows the surface acetylation of deligni-
transparent wood template shows high optical transmittance fied wood before polymer infiltration (PMMA), increas-
values up to ~ 90%, a haze value of 80%, and a high value ing compatibility between the wood template and PMMA,
of tensile strength greater than 46Mpa [35]. thus reducing interference debonding and increasing opti-
Using this technique, patternable wood can also be made cal transmittance. The acetylate is done with acetate anhy-
by brushing H2O2 in a particular pattern on the wood tem- dride, and pyridine has been used as the catalyst. N-methyl
plate. As opposed to the conventional processing of trans- pyrrolidine has been used as the solvent. The volume ratio
parent wood, 930 ml less liquid waste is generated. Also, of chemicals is 7:6:100, respectively. Also, the volume
no toxic gas has been developed in this fabrication route, fraction of the wood template to the acetylation chemical
whereas around 960 ml of harmful gasses have been released acetate anhydride is 2 g/7mL. The acetylation reaction was
for previous processes. Also, high lignin retention of ~ 81% optimized with a temperature from 60–120℃ with intervals
has been seen with patternable features. This method has of 20℃ and with time from 1 to 12 h. After acetylation,
higher production efficiency, is cost-effective, environmen- sodium hypochlorite is also done to remove the yellowish
tally friendly, sustainable, and easily controllable. color until it is white [34].

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Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

Table 4 Interference manipulation through acetylation technique

Sr Wood Type Chemical Polymer Parameters/ Conditions Results Refer-
No Treatment Used ences
1. Balsa Sodium Chlorite PMMA Wood dipped in lignin Transmittance of 92,89,71,60% was obtained [33]
Thickness of Delignification modification solution at respectively when the thickness changed from
1.5,3,7,10 mm 70℃. Followed by polymer 1.5 to 10 mm.
respectively. infiltration by PMMA Haze of 50,53,74,76% was obtained respectively
when the thickness changed from 1.5 to 10 mm
2. Birch Sodium Chlorite PMMA Wood dipped in lignin Transmittance of 94,90% and [33]
Thickness of Delignification modification solution at Haze of 31,52% was obtained respectively for
0.7,1.5 mm. 70℃. Followed by polymer the thickness of 0.7 and 1.5 mm
infiltration by PMMA

Hence, it can be concluded that high transmittance wood due to the use of toxic chemicals and the reduced mechani-
with high thickness has been successfully fabricated using cal properties of the wood template due to complete removal
the interference manipulation technique. Higher trans- of lignin. Steam delignification can be a greener alternative;
mittance values have been obtained due to compatibility however, loss in mechanical properties can still be present.
between the wood cell wall and the polymer. A wood tem- The second approach, where selective delignification or lig-
plate with a thickness of 10 mm and optical transmittance of nin modification has been done to remove the chromophores
60% has been successfully fabricated [33]. This concept can inside the lignin for transparent wood synthesis, proves to
help synthesize a thick wood template where a demand for be the desirable synthesis route since the mechanical prop-
thicker structural applications has been seen. erties are preserved. The fabrication approach used by Xia
et al. [34] is one of the best and most cost-effective routes
3.5 Lamination of single-layer transparent wood to seen for the fabrication of transparent wood. The process
produce multilayer thick transparent wood is rapid, cost-effective, sustainable, and scalable for large
scale, thus satisfying the necessary conditions for a com-
Another approach for the fabrication of this transparent mercial with commercial viability. It has been observed that
wood template has been shown by Qin et al. [38], where sin- further research can be done on the process used by Xia et
gle-layer transparent wood templates have been laminated al. [34] for thick wood templates and then understanding
to produce a thick multilayer piece of transparent wood and analysing the optical and mechanical properties. Also,
having a similar optical transmittance with increased struc- PMMA infiltration can be done in this process to understand
tural integrity and mechanical properties due to additional and analyse its feasibility with polymers other than epoxy.
thickness. The delignification was done 1% wt. Sodium For thick transparent wood fabrication, the surface modi-
Chlorite at 80 ℃ with an acetate buffer solution at a pH of fication approach used by Li et al. [34] proves useful and
4.6. After delignification, the wood templates were washed shows significant transmittance values for a 10 mm thick
with Hydrogen Peroxide of 5 mol/L at 90℃. Washing with transparent wood template. However, a significant number
ethanol increased the permeability of the lignin-removed of chemicals are being used for this process, thus showing
wood templates. Polymer infiltration was done with epoxy limited feasibility at a larger scale of operation. In contrast,
resin and incubated in a vacuum desiccator at a pressure of the lamination approach used by Qin et al. [38] can be ben-
1000 Pa for 2 h to ensure total impregnation. Additionally, eficial for making thick transparent wood.
lamination was done for multilayer fabrication by placing Further testing can be done to understand the defects,
the wood templates under vacuum and then drying naturally such as interference deboning gaps leading to more signifi-
by placing them between two glass sheets. The lamination cant scattering inside the wood template and consequently
process reduced the delignification time of the thick wood lesser transmittance. Also, polymers having more excellent
template to that of thin wood. Cross direction lamination compatibility with refractive index can be seen and used in
can improve the structural integrity of the structure, thus the process. Additionally, chromophore targeting physical
preventing damage to weaker Sect. [38]. and chemical mechanisms and approaches can be consid-
After analysing the different methods of transparent ered for efficient transparent wood fabrication. It can also be
wood synthesis, it has been observed that there is a need concluded that a combination of one or more methods men-
for an environmentally friendly, cost-effective, less energy- tioned above can be used for fabrication based on the end
intensive, green, less time-consuming, and scalable process requirement of the transparent wood and the application.
for the fabrication of transparent wood. The first type of
method, where complete delignification is done by remov-
ing essentially the entire lignin, proves to be non-feasible

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4 Polymers for infiltration to make optical transmittance has been seen due to absorption by a
transparent wood polymer that has been infiltrated into the wood template.
The transmittance of wood depends on factors like the
Epoxy resin and polymethyl methacrylate are the two most amount of lignin removed, cellulose fiber orientation, cel-
commonly used polymers in the polymer infiltration step lulose volume fraction, and thickness of fraction [10, 39].
of transparent wood fabrication. The primary factor for the For transmittance measurements, hemispherical trans-
selection of polymers is the refractive index. The refrac- mittance is measured using an integrating sphere. The sam-
tive index of the selected polymer should be as close to ple is put in front of the sphere’s incident beam input port ad
the refractive index of wood as possible. The greater the and then directed out from another through an optical fiber
refractive index mismatch between the wood template and and recorded [40, 41]. The hemispherical transmittance
the polymer, the more the light scattering will lead to lower value differs from actual transmittance values since the
transmittance and transparency. Furthermore, the compati- sphere collects the total cone of scattered light consisting of
bility issues between wood template and polymer have been randomly scattered and ballistic photons. Hence, the actual
discussed by Li et al. (2017) [33], and how the problems can transmittance values are lower than the measured transmit-
be circumvented has also been discussed. tance values. Parameters like wood thickness, orientation,
Other alternative polymers can also be looked upon beam size, setup geometry, etc., will impact the estimated
besides PMMA and Epoxy resin, which have a refractive data and must be characterized to analyze the optical prop-
index of 1.49 and 1.5 respectively. The other polymers erties [10]. For measured values to be close to actual values,
include n-butyl methacrylate (n ≈ 1.53), dibutyl phthalate a “transmittance coefficient” is also needed for better cor-
(n ≈ 1.52), polyvinyl pyrrolidine (n ≈ 1.53), etc. [10]. . How- relation. Transmittance coefficient can be applied where the
ever, it has to be noted that there is no value about the actual sample thickness may or may not be more than the transport
refractive index of wood, due to which some refractive mean free path (TMFP) [42]. Propagation of light inside a
index mismatch will always be present, leading to reduced scattering medium can be used to describe TMFP [43].
transmittance. Not much literature is available on incorpo-
rating a variety of polymers into the delignified wood tem- 5.1.2 Haze
plate to understand the feasibility. Additional work in this
direction will help in finding newer and better polymers that Another important optical parameter is the haze percentage
might have greater compatibility with the wood that can be of transparent wood. The haze value characterises transpar-
obtained. Transparency and mechanical property studies ency and gives us an estimate of how clear an image has
can be done to further understand the polymer’s impact on been observed through the sample. The active ASTM Stan-
the transparent wood. Furthermore, a set of green polymers dard for the measurement of haze is ASTM D1003-21. The
can also be worked upon to avoid using synthetic polymers haze percentage can be measured by the following formula.
for a greener process.  
Td T4 T3
Haze = = − × 100%
Tt T2 T1
5 Characterisation of transparent wood
where,
Transparent wood can be characterized based on two major Tt = Total Transmittance Td = Transmittance of diffused
aspects, namely, its optical and physical properties. The light.
optical properties of interest are optical transmittance, which T1 = Reference transmittance T2 = Light measured by
measures energy loss due to light scattering and absorption, sample.
and haze, which is the imaging content loss. The mechani- T3 = Light Scattered by instrument T4 = light scattered by
cal properties of interest are Young’s Modulus (E) and stress instrument and specimen.
(σ). These properties help us understand transparent wood’s T3/T1 is the error term of the formula, which takes into
applicability to the abovementioned applications. account the experimental error.
The critical parameters for haze measurements are typi-
5.1 Optical properties cally anisotropy, TMFP factor, and material thickness.
The transmittance values for transparent wood are highly
5.1.1 Transmittance dependent on thickness and are inversely proportional to
thickness. Unlike transmittance, haze value is directly pro-
High transmittance has been observed for transparent wood portional to the thickness. A variety of transmittance values
in visible and infrared regions. At other wavelengths, low from a range of 40–90% have been observed for transparent

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Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

wood. Haze values ranging from 15 to 85% have been seen and for anatomy studies [27]. Several other applications are
for the same. A higher transmittance value of > 70% is suit- discussed in the subsequent sections.
able for a variety of applications. Haze values for transparent
wood depend on its application in the field. For applications 6.1 Building sector
where some kind of privacy is needed, high haze values are
feasible (> 50%). The primary application of transparent wood is in the build-
ing sector. Some novel applications in smart/energy-effi-
5.2 Mechanical properties cient buildings and load-bearing structures are seen. It has
been studied that thermal comfort (Air Conditioning and
The overall mechanical properties of transparent wood are heating) and lighting contribute to around half the energy
known to be better than the properties of the infiltrated poly- requirement needed for commercial and residential build-
mers and wood itself [21]. These properties depend mainly ing complexes [47]. Hence, the conversation of lighting and
on the cellulose and lignin content of the wood template air conditioning during the daytime can lead to significant
[44]. A significant advantage of transparent wood over glass energy and cost savings. Most commonly, glass is used for
is its shatterproof behaviour. Weaker properties are seen for harvesting sunlight. However, the usage of glass has certain
transparent wood in the transverse direction as compared to disadvantages like glare, shadowing effect, and shattering
the longitudinal direction due to cell wall bending effects. quality, which can cause safety issues. Light scattering and
This weakness will be suppressed by infiltration of the high transparency are needed for efficient and uniform arti-
polymer in the cell wall lumen space. Another direct cor- ficial lighting. Artificial lighting can be replaced by natu-
relation is seen between the tensile strength and cellulose ral sunlight using transparent wood panels instead of glass
volume fraction. Li et al. showed a 100% increase in modu- windows and rooftops. Transparent wood proves to be an
lus (~ 4GPa) at a 19% volume fraction, the initial being 5%. excellent alternative due to its high transparency (> 85%),
The main mechanical properties used to understand the high haze (> 95%), non-shatterproof behaviour, low ther-
structural integrity of transparent wood are the Young mod- mal conductivity, which is not seen in glass, and high haze
ulus, the 3-point bending test, and the stress test to under- [47]. The thermal conductivity value is almost 80% less
stand the tensile strength and ductility of transparent wood. than that of conventional glass [47, 48]. Due to the low ther-
The Youngs modulus is a measure to measure the elasticity mal conductivity of transparent wood, heat from sunlight
property of the material. Typical Young’s modulus values of can be rejected, and only bright light can be allowed to pass
transparent wood in perpendicular and longitudinal direc- through, thus reducing the use of air conditioning and artifi-
tion range from 1.22GPa-3.6Gpa [7, 21]. The three-point cial lighting as well. The high haze can be used to efficiently
bending test of transparent wood had a value of 1.2 MJ/m3, maintain the uniformity and intensity of sunlight as well as
which is one order of magnitude higher than glass (0.1 the privacy of the people inside the house. The fabricated
MJ/m3). Mechanical strength is the value of the maximum transparent wood will also be water-resistant due to the pres-
stress that a material can withstand before failure and break- ence of infiltrated polymers like epoxy or PMMA. Addition-
down of the particular material [45]. The strength value of ally, the brick containing 25% by weight of polymer waste
transparent wood was in the range of 23–140 MPa [7, 21, (polyethylene terephthalate) has been explored for the wood
46]. plastic composites (WPCs) with 3.343 MPa compressive
strength and 21.270 Rockwell R-scale hardness [49]. Also
lonicera rupicola grass, generally applied to get thermally
6 Applications insulate buildings can also be incorporated with transparent
wood to enhance the advantage of saving energy, reducing
Transparent wood displays an excellent variety of physi- the costs, and protecting the environment [50].
cal and mechanical properties, namely high transmittance
and haze, low thermal conductivity, high toughness, and 6.1.1 Photovoltaic devices
low density. Other properties are the unique anisotropic
and mesoporous structure and open channels along the Another application of transparent wood is for optical and
growth direction [10]. These properties must be exploited structural materials used in photovoltaic devices like solar
and utilized appropriately for a variety of transparent wood cells [51, 52]. Since high haze values are seen for transpar-
applications. ent wood, it can also be used for light diffusion. High haze
In the past, transparent wood was not fabricated for means large scattering angles, which means a larger path of
practical considerations and engineering applications. The light inside the wood, leading to the higher efficiency of the
design was done to study the wood structure and properties solar cell. Zhu et al. (2016) [51] showed that the efficiency

13
 Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

of solar cells has increased by 18% due to transparent wood the polymer infiltration step. It was seen that the modified
due to light scattering and increased light absorption. transparent wood showed a lower temperature increase than
Li et al. (2019) [52] showed the application of transpar- conventional glass, which means lower thermal conduc-
ent wood in perovskite solar cells. The study concluded that tivity. Hence, the heat shielding application was indicated
transparent wood is an excellent candidate for solar cells here. This also shows that transparent wood can be used
leading to energy-efficient buildings due to the high opti- for energy-saving smart specialty windows as well. Elec-
cal and good mechanical properties. A solar cell power tromagnetic Interference Shielding and Magnetic Switches
conversion efficiency of 16.8% was seen by using a low- applications have also been explored for transparent wood
temperature process. The solar cell device also showed where magnetic nanoparticles have been used [29, 53].
long-term efficiency. The research suggested that molecular
and nanoscale materials designs can be used to optimize the
transparency and haze of the transparent wood template for 7 Future scope and perspectives
higher efficiency.
For successful use of transparent wood in building appli-
6.2 Smart windows cations, large-scale production of big-size and thick trans-
parent wood is necessary. The transparent wood samples
Another transparent wood smart windows application was reported in this literature are predominantly of low thick-
shown by Lang et al. using electrochromic devices having ness; however, some high thickness samples have also been
a conjugate polymer base. A vibrant clear to the magenta reported, but the industrial applicability and scale-up of the
color scheme has been seen with high coloration efficiency process need to be explored. Further, for research purposes,
and low driving forces. The incident light can be thus con- areas understood for a wider scope and industrial appli-
trolled by this and help facilitate smart and energy-saving cations are as follows. A green and industrially scalable
buildings. fabrication route can still be searched upon where there is
In the smart windows applications, Li et al. (2017) [33] minimum use of toxic chemicals and low energy consump-
showed the application of transparent wood in smart win- tion as well. More lignin mechanisms can be looked upon
dows. A switch on-demand smart window was made with by selective chromophore targeting by understanding the
transparent wood by adding polymer-dispersed liquid crys- chromophores and breaking them down. This will lead to
tals (PDLC) film onto the transparent wood. The optical less loss of wood content from the wood, thus providing
properties were adjusted using an electric field by changing optical transmittance and maximum structural integrity.
the alignment of crystals. When there was no electric field, New polymers with greater compatibility with wood struc-
the window shoed high haze, privacy protection, and a lim- ture can be looked upon for higher optical and mechani-
ited amount of light entering. When the power was on, the cal properties for the transparent wood template. Similarly,
window became transparent. High transmittance and low additional wood types most feasible to manufacture trans-
haze, along with high thickness, were distinguishing fea- parent wood must be explored for the best possible results.
tures of this transparent wood. Biopolymers with suitable properties can also be looked
Li et al. [33] have explored the applications of lumines- upon, thus reducing the dependence on synthetic polymers.
cent transparent wood. Adding optical media in the trans- Some novel physical treatment methods for lignin and chro-
parent wood can facilitate a broader range of applications. mophore breakdown can also be researched as alternatives
During the polymer infiltration step, the polymer MMA was to chemical ones. These methods can include some cavita-
mixed with luminescent quantum dots and then infiltrated tion or irradiation techniques.
into the delignified wood template for fabrication of the A combination of one or more fabrication methods can
luminescent transparent wood. Diffused luminescence is be used using a different and better technique for each pro-
seen for the fabricated transparent wood due to increased cess step. This can also help to understand the impact of
scattering, making it a viable application for luminescent using each process’s positive advantage and the impact it
light buildings or planar light sources. This type of wood will have on the transparent wood.
can also be used for illumination sources, light LEDs with
different colours, which vary based on the type of quantum
dots used. 8 Conclusions
Yu et al. (2017) [46] showed the application of transpar-
ent wood in heat-shielding windows and buildings using Transparent wood is an interesting and novel material in the
CSxWO3 nanoparticles. The nanoparticles are pre-polymer- field of wood nanotechnology from a research and indus-
ized into the Methyl Methacrylate polymer matrix before trial/commercial angle. Different delignification techniques

13
Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

4. Alliance G (2020) Global Status Report for Buildings and Con-

like complete delignification, selective delignification, struction, in: 2020 Build. Constr. Summit, 2020: pp. 1–13
and interference manipulation have been analysed to fab- 5. Huang F, Tian Z, Ma H, Ding Z, Ji X, Si C, Wang D (2023) Com-
ricate transparent woods of different sizes and optical and bined alkali impregnation and poly dimethyl diallyl ammonium
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ment of wheat straw. Adv Compos Hybrid Mater 6:1–11. https://
polymers in the fabrication step has been looked upon with doi.org/10.1007/s42114-023-00789-z
future scope from the polymer angle. 6. Shan L, Zhang Y, Xu Y, Gao M, Xu T, Si C (2023) Wood – based
Significant progress has been seen in the fabrication meth- hierarchical porous nitrogen – doped carbon / manganese dioxide
ods with transparent wood templates made with enhanced composite electrode materials for high – rate supercapacitor. Adv
Compos Hybrid Mater 6
optical-mechanical properties. Fabrication of thicker and 7. Zhu H, Luo W, Ciesielski PN, Fang Z, Zhu JY, Henriksson G, Him-
bigger transparent wood has also been seen with demonstra- mel ME, Hu L (2016) Wood-Derived materials for Green Elec-
tions in smart buildings, smart windows, and photovoltaic tronics, Biological devices, and Energy Applications. Chem Rev
devices. Additional functionalization has been done for the 116:9305–9374. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00225
8. Li J, Lu Y, Yang D, Sun Q, Liu Y, Zhao H (2011) Lignocellu-
transparent wood for luminescence or heat shielding appli- lose aerogel from wood-ionic liquid solution (1-allyl-3- methy-
cations using Quantum Dots, Organic Dyes, and Infrared- limidazolium chloride) under freezing and thawing conditions.
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Some fundamental questions regarding the actual refrac- bm200205z
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tive index of wood and light-wood interactions need to be able and functional wood materials by grafting polymerization
explored and answered for further work in the field. Other within cell walls, ChemSusChem. 7:1020–1025. https://doi.
areas that can be worked upon in the field have been elabo- org/10.1002/cssc.201301107
rated in the Future scope and perspectives section. More 10. Li Y, Vasileva E, Sychugov I, Popov S, Berglund L (2018) Opti-
cally transparent Wood: recent progress, opportunities, and
work still needs to be done to produce transparent wood by challenges. Adv Opt Mater 6:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/
an industrially automated process with minimum energy adom.201800059
and chemical costs. 11. Novaes E, Kirst M, Chiang V, Winter-Sederoff H, Sederoff R
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Acknowledgements The authors like to acknowledge the Department mation and lignin content in trees. Plant Physiol 154:555–561.
of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, and the Uni- https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.110.161281
versity Grand Commission (UGC), Government of India, for financial 12. Wu J, Wu Y, Yang F, Tang C, Huang Q, Zhang J (2019) Impact of
assistance. delignification on morphological, optical and mechanical proper-
ties of transparent wood. Compos Part Appl Sci Manuf 117:324–
331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2018.12.004
Author contributions Krutarth H. Pandit: Conceptualization, Method-
13. Müller U, Rätzsch M, Schwanninger M, Steiner M, Zöbl H
ology, Project administration, data curation, Resources, Writing – re-
(2003) Yellowing and IR-changes of spruce wood as result of UV-
view and editing. Abhijeet D. Goswami: Methodology, data curation,
irradiation. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol 69:97–105. https://doi.
resources, review, and editing. Chandrakant R. Holkar: Data collec-
org/10.1016/S1011-1344(02)00412-8
tion, Formal analysis, Investigation, instrumental analysis, Writing –
14. Yang Y, Kang X, Yang Y, Ye H, Jiang J, Zheng G, Wei K, Ge
review and editing and Supervision. Dipak V. Pinjari: Investigation,
S, Lam SS, Ouyang H, Chen X, Peng W (2023) Research prog-
Methodology, Resources, Supervision, reviewing, editing, funding
ress in green preparation of advanced wood-based composites.
acquisition.
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater 6:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s42114-023-00770-w
Declarations 15. Ge S, Ouyang H, Ye H, Shi Y, Sheng Y, Peng W (2023) High-
performance and environmentally friendly acrylonitrile butadiene
Competing interests The authors declare that they have no known styrene/wood composite for versatile applications in furniture
competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have and construction. Adv Compos Hybrid Mater 6:1–13. https://doi.
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. org/10.1007/s42114-023-00628-1
16. Xie K, Wei S, Alhadhrami A, Liu J, Zhang P, Elnaggar AY,
Zhang F, Mahmoud MHH, Murugadoss V, El-Bahy SM, Wang
F, Li C, Li G (2022) Synthesis of CsPbBr3/CsPb2Br5@silica
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