- enumerated and explained beliefs and opinions

- set of reasons which are organized and developed

- we should follow a logical manner in an argument to avoid

miscommunications
- presented by Stephen E. Toulmin

Parts of an argument:
– is the main idea or concept to be accepted or
believed. It is the main thesis by the author and is wanted to
be proven. (HAHAHA proben amputa)
– consists of valid evidences that support the
claim.
– valid data that can be used to prove the claim.
These are facts from reliable sources.
– supports the argument by giving additional info
to support the claim
– it connects the data to the arrant and limits
how broad the claim applies. It is sometimes introduced by
words such as most, usually, always or sometimes.
– are the counter-arguments that address
potential objections of the claim.
actually feeling q nde toh mahalaga pero sa mods so para - In a manifesto, you declare your vision, core values and
sure goals to the world.
Identify the claim and take note of the author’s main - a manifesto is a call-to-action that works to ignite the
assertion. Know the answer for the question “what does the masses. A manifesto discusses one’s personal goals in print
author would like me to believe in, act or do?” and helps to evaluate opportunities for reaching them.
Determine the first reason that the author has identified - Manifestos can be a few sentences or the length of a novel.
and enumerated to
support the claim.
Get inspired.
Identify other supporting facts and information that adds
validity to the claim. Make notes.
Know as many as alternative explanations and underlying Write a Rough Draft
assumptions presented and offered in the argument. Identify Put it away, then proofread.
the examples that refute the claim. Live it.
Ask yourself what makes the reasoning appealing and more
sound to be acted upon. Ask yourself “what impression or
impact has it made on you”.

– involves reasoning from generalized ideas and

concepts based on particular and specific evidences. Sabi sa
google specific to general daw sya
– general to specific – is one in which the premises give good
– describe people, places, things, incidents, reasons to believe the conclusion is true. A good argument is one
experiences and events in a detailed manner that presents a conclusion and then gives good reasons for
– when the author would like to expose accepting it.
or reveal something in particular – is one in which the premises do not give
– If the author would like to convince someone and good reason to accept the conclusion. The conclusion may be true,
make believe in something but the reasons do not give good reason to accept it. A bad, or
– when the author would like to argue and refute on a fallacious argument is a misleading one.
concept or idea, things and persons
 It is a type of manipulation used in place of valid logic.
, it must conform to the – This is a diversionary tactic that avoids
following three criteria: the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments rather
The premises are plausible, that is, must have good reason than addressing them.
to believe that the premises are true. – This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the
The argument must be valid or strong. argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices.
The premises are more plausible than the conclusion. – This is an attack on the character of a
person rather than his or her opinions or arguments.
– This is an appeal that presents what most
people, or a group of people think, to persuade one to think
- are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the the same way.
logic of your argument – This move oversimplifies an opponent's
viewpoint and then attacks that hollow argument.

Types of Logical Fallacies: – This fallacy compares minor

misdeeds with major atrocities, suggesting that both are
–a conclusion based on the premise that equally immoral.
if A happens, then eventually through a series of small steps,
through B, C, ..., X, Y, Z will happen.
– conclusion is based on an argument
that the origins of a person, idea, institute, or theory
– are the kind of sentences that can be true or
determine its character, nature, or worth. false.
– It occurs when you generalize
a singular experience or small sample size, essentially stating The strength of your evidence,
that limited experience as a universal fact. and your use of it, can make or break your argument.
– This is a conclusion that assumes
that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then 'B' must have caused 'A.'
Some factual evidences:
– This restates the argument – are most accessible and convincing when they
rather than actually proving it. are used sparingly and in combination with an explanation of
why the numbers are
– The conclusion that the writer
significant.
should prove is validated within the claim.
– Appropriate examples can support the writer’s
– A type of fallacy that uses emotion
contention that a general statement is true.
in place of reason in order to attempt to win the argument.
 – you will rely upon the opinions of
experts in the field you are studying both to determine your
own perspective and to support your claims.

- is an essay that presents an arguable opinion about an issue

– typically that of the author or some specified entity. Position
papers are published in academia, in politics, in law and other How to write
domains. – In the pre-writing stage you plan and
GOALS prepare your writing. This is also the stage where you
research your topic and look for relevant sources.
- A position paper can serve to transfer knowledge and
understanding of a particular topic, provide information to aid – Once you have created an outline it is
in making a decision, or present a professional perspective. time to start writing. Remember that you do not have to write
a perfect first draft.
PURPOSE – This is the stage in the writing process
- generate support on an issue where you make sure that your text is coherent and written
- In a collaborative organization, a position paper is often accurately. Make sure that you allow enough time to revise,
used to address an issue and help develop understanding of edit and proofread your assignment before submission.
a problem and build support and acceptance of a proposed
solution. A position paper can focus on pre-assessment (plan),
assessment (execute), or post-assessment (evaluate).

BASIC ELEMENTS
 Common types:
– gathers data and facts used
to draw conclusions.
– contains the same information as
the informational report, but it also offers recommendations
to solve a problem.
- A type of business communication that provides an update
about a project or event related to an organization.
Structure of formal report:
– The front section contains the title page,
transmittal letter, and the table of contents.
- are those that are shorter and deals with a specific event or • – letter informing the recipient
aspects of an organization usually written in a casual use of that a report has been included in the packet. It may
language. also state the purpose of the report.

Common types: – The main section contains an executive

summary, introduction to the problem, analysis of findings,
– provides a factual account of an and conclusions and/or recommendations.
incident to make sure that the incident will not happen again. – We end the formal report with the back
– provides a record of a job-related trip and section. Here you will place references and the appendix.
evaluate whether it was a success or not.
– featuring an assessment of a
project’s progress or process that conveys details about what
has been accomplished, what is being accomplished and has
to be accomplished still. - are documents that propose an idea or an approach to
solving a problem or issue. proposal reports is a variation of
problem-solving reports.
- It is an official report that contains detailed information,
research, and data necessary to make business decisions.
This report is generally written for the purpose of solving a Structure of proposal report:
problem. – tells the reader what your project is
about, why the project is worth doing, and why your project is a
good topic for fulfilling the objectives of the degree
requirement.
– background or the state of the art
in your topic.
– lays out the method you have selected to
conduct your research. It should emphasize how your
research will allow you to complete your project successfully.
– form on the page should - is a survey instrument used to collect data solicited from set
be copied and used to submit a budget request. It shows the of oral or written questions given to respondents.
breakdown of your costs carefully by itemizing all
anticipated expenses. Types:
– This question is answerable by yes or no,
agree or disagree, or true or false.
– are the most popular survey question
- is a kind of report that includes marketing reports, financial
type. They allow your respondents to select one or more
reports, accounting reports, and a spectrum of other reports
options from a list of answers that you define.
that provide a function specifically.
– In rating scale questions (sometimes
Common types: referred to as ordinal questions), the question displays
– set of data created to analyze the a scale of answer options from any range (0 to 100, 1 to 10,
performance of a specific marketing campaign or effort. etc.). The respondent selects the number that most
– the disclosure of financial results accurately represents their response.
and related information to management and external – give respondents a range of options—for
stakeholders about how a company is performing over a example, starting at “not at all likely” scaling all the way up to
specific period of time. (financial result) “extremely likely”.
– is periodic statement that present – If you want to ask a few questions in
the financial status of a company at a certain point in time, or a row that have the same response options, matrix
over a stated time-period. It deals with business transactions questions are your best option. series of Likert scale
and operations. (eto financial status) questions or a series of rating scale questions can work well
as a matrix question.
– are multiple choice-type
questions that add the flexibility of being able
to choose more than one option.
 – is an easy way to display a long
list of multiple -choice answers without overwhelming your
respondents. With it, you can give them a scrollable list of
answers to choose from. If this type of questionnaire will be
used in a paper and pen or face to face survey, then each
option shall be written before a box or square so respondents
will just check their answers.

- allow researchers to gain background information on

their participants. These questions provide context for the
collected survey data, allowing researchers to describe their
participants and better analyze their data. - problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition
- Common demographic questions explore participant’s age, to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling
sex, race, ethnicity, education, and employment, but can question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or
include any background characteristics that a researcher in practice that points to the need for meaningful
believes are essential to the research understanding and deliberate investigation
project. .- A research problem does not state how to do something,
offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value
question.

– is used in research work

as a claim that outlines the problem addressed by a study.
– collect data that can be used to draw
generalized conclusions based on statistical analysis. Also, answers
to closed-ended questions can easily be analyzed statistically, – pinpoints exactly what you want to
which is what you usually want to do with survey data. find out and gives your work a clear focus and purpose. They
– questions ask respondents to describe a subject. should be:
You would then look for trends and patterns in the in the responses
you have collected. This allows you to probe deep into the
respondent’s answers, gaining valuable information
about the subject at hand.
 – data is presented in tables, entering
tables, and frequency distribution table.
– There are various ways in presenting
data through graphic. They are the histogram, frequency polygon,
ogive, pie chart, pictograph and stem and leaf graph display.

- wala naman gano keme keme lang toh kaya na common

sense - It is the section where you report on the empirical evidence
derived from your research/data.
- This section is where you incorporate YOUR OWN VOICE.
So, you do not merely discuss, you INTERPRET.
- The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a
summary of the important data consisting of mostly texts and
Ensure that you remove ambiguities and errors. limited numbers if needed.
More is not always better. Remove unnecessary options.
Look for biased items and balance them.
Allow a “Don't Know” or “Not Applicable” response to all
questions, except to those in which you are certain that all
respondents will have a clear answer.
Look for questions which can be split up so as to avoid
summarizing questions or generating several answers from
one question.

Consult the guidelines or intructions.

Reflect at some parts on your results in relation to the
– data are presented in paragraph form. The text
required length of summary.
should emphasize the importance of figures and its relevance to Write your findings section in a factual and objective
another figure. manner
– data are presented in paragraph form. Review the draft of your finding sections.
The text should emphasize the importance of figures and
its relevance to another figure.