LECTURE 3:

LIMITS
MAT1051
BAU
Lecture 3 Objectives
◦ Find the equation of the tangent line to a given graph of a function.
◦ Find the average and instantaneous velocity.
◦ Determine the limit of a function graphically.
◦ Use analytical methods to find the limit of a function.
◦ Apply algebraic techniques to find the limit of a function.
◦ Compute infinite limits and find vertical asymptotes of a function.
 Why Study Limits?
◦ Limits are the founding blocks of calculus; that is of differentiation and integration
◦ They allow us to talk about:
◦ Velocity and acceleration;
◦ Population growth
◦ Marginal cost
◦ Instantaneous heart rate
◦ Optimization algorithms used in machine learning
◦ Areas under curves
◦ Surface areas
◦ Volumes
 The Tangent Problem
◦ Tangent is derived from the Latin word tangens, meaning ”touching.”
◦ A tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve, but at how many points?
◦ Euclid defined the tangent as a line that intersects the circle at exactly one point.
◦ We will adopt the same definition for a tangent to a curve but bearing in mind that the tangent line
should have the same direction as the curve at the point of intersection.

Observations:
• The line 𝑡 passing through P is not a tangent line to the curve
𝐶 since it intersects the curve at two points.
• The line 𝑙 passing through P intersects the curve 𝐶 only once, yet it
does not have the same direction as the curve at the point P.
◦ Goal: Find a precise meaning to the tangent line to a given curve.
 Example 1
◦ Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at
the point 𝑃 1,1 .
◦ Solution:
◦ An equation of a line is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, where 𝑚 is
the slope and 𝑏 is the 𝑦- intercept.
◦ Challenge: To find the slope we need two points, but we are
only given one point 𝑃 on the line 𝑡!
◦ We will attempt to compute an approximation of the slope
by choosing a nearby point, call it 𝑄 𝑥, 𝑥 2 on the parabola as
shown in the graph.
◦ Now, we have a new line, called the secant line, on which we
have two points, namely 𝑃 and 𝑄.
◦ We can, thus, compute the slope 𝑚𝑃𝑄 of the secant line.
◦ Choose 𝑥 ≠ 1, so that 𝑄 ≠ 𝑃, then
𝑥2 − 1
𝑚𝑃𝑄 =
𝑥−1
 Example 1 Continued
◦ For instance, choose the point 𝑄 1.5, 2.25 . Thus,
2.25 − 1
𝑚𝑃𝑄 = = 2.5.
1.5 − 1
◦ However, choosing just one nearby point does not give us the complete picture. So, we
need to experiment more with different nearby points, to make sure that we have the
”best” approximation. Calculations are shown in the tables on the right.
◦ Any guess what the slope of the tangent line 𝑡 is?
◦ Yes! It appears that 𝑚 = 2.
◦ We observe that as the point Q gets closer and closer to the point 𝑃, the slope of the
secant line approaches the slope of the tangent line at the point 𝑃 1,1 . We express this
as a limit and write
𝑥2 − 1
𝑚 = lim 𝑚𝑃𝑄 = lim =2
𝑄→𝑃 𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1
◦ Thus, we can write the equation of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at the point
𝑃 1,1 .
𝑦 − 1 = 2 𝑥 − 1 ⟹ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1.
Example 1
Continued
The limiting process adopted in
this example is illustrated
geometrically.
Observe that as 𝑄 gets closer
and closer to 𝑃 along the
parabola, the secant lines
approach the tangent line 𝑡.
 Instantaneous Velocity
◦ The velocity problem
◦ When driving your car in Istanbul traffic, you notice that your speedometer is constantly changing. In other
words, the velocity of the car is not constant. Therefore, you would come to the conclusion that the car has
definite velocity at each moment, and hence leading us to ask the following question:
How can one define the “instantaneous” velocity?
◦ Example: Suppose that a ball is dropped from the top of a tower, 450 m above the ground. Find the
velocity of the ball after 5 seconds.
◦ Solution: Galileo, the Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer in the 16th century, provided us with a
law to find the distance of a freely falling body. More specifically he stated that any freely falling body is
proportional to the square of the time it has been falling (neglecting air resistance). If the distance fallen
after 𝑡 seconds is denoted by 𝑠(𝑡) and measured in meters, using Galileo’s law, we get the equation
𝑠 𝑡 = 4.9𝑡 2 .
 Instantaneous Velocity
◦ Challenge: The question asks us to find the velocity after 5 seconds, that at 𝑡 = 5, so we are not dealing
with a time interval!
◦ To tackle this challenge, we are going to do our best by approximating the definite velocity at 𝑡 = 5
using the average velocity over small time periods.
◦ For instance, choose a brief time interval such as 𝑡 = 5 to 𝑡 = 5.1 seconds.
◦ Thus, the average velocity is computed as follows:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑠 5.1 − 𝑠(5)
=
0.1
4.9 5.1 2 − 4.9 5 2
= = 49.49 m/s
0.1
 Instantaneous Velocity
◦ Decreasing the time periods will give us a better approximation of the
velocity at the instant 𝑡 = 5 second.
◦ The table gives the average velocity over different time intervals.
◦ What are your observations?
◦ As the time interval is getting smaller and smaller, the average velocity
approaches 49 𝑚/𝑠.
◦ It is safe to assume that the instantaneous velocity when 𝑡 = 5 is
𝑣 = 49 m/s.
 The Tangent Problem and The Velocity
Problem
◦ Wait a minute!
◦ Is there a connection between both problems?
◦ In the tangent problem, the idea relied on the power of what we call the limit. More specifically, as 𝑥 → 1,
slopes of secant lines approach the slope of the tangent line.
◦ In the velocity problem, we have a similar notion, that is, as 𝑡 → 5, average velocities approach an
instantaneous velocity.
◦ Note that the computation of the average velocity mimics the one of the slope of the secant line.
 Computing the average velocity is analogous to computing the slope of
the secant line 𝑃𝑄 passing through the points 𝑃(𝑎, 4.9𝑎2 ) and
𝑄(𝑎 + ℎ, 4.9 𝑎 + ℎ 2 ).

4.9 𝑎 + ℎ 2 − 4.9𝑎2
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 𝑚𝑃𝑄
𝑎+ℎ −𝑎

Finding the instantaneous velocity is equivalent to finding the slope of the

tangent line 𝑚 to the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑠 𝑡 at the point 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ)

4.9 𝑎+ℎ 2 −4.9𝑎2

instantaneous velocity = lim 𝑎+ℎ −𝑎
= lim 𝑚𝑃𝑄 = 𝑚
ℎ→0 𝑄→𝑃
 Definitions of Limits
We have already seen two important applications of this concept called limits. However, the power of limits goes
beyond these two applications. We shall discuss other important calculus problems that depend on limits. To do so, one
needs to define limits more formally and study their properties.

Definition:
Suppose the function 𝑓 is defined for all 𝑥 near 𝑎 except possibly at 𝑎. If we can make the values 𝑓 𝑥
arbitrarily close to 𝐿 (as close to 𝐿 as we like) by taking 𝑥 to be sufficiently close to 𝑎 (on either side of 𝑎),
we write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
and say “the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 , as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, equals 𝐿.”

• The definition of limits says that 𝑓(𝑥) gets closer and closer to 𝐿 as 𝑥 gets closer and closer to 𝑎 from both sides of
𝑎.
• The value lim 𝑓 𝑥 (if it exists) depends on how 𝑓 behaves near 𝑎 and not at 𝑎.
𝑥→𝑎
The Three Different Scenarios of Existence
of Limits

In all the three cases the lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 .

𝑥→𝑎
(a) lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 .
𝑥→𝑎
(b) lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 ≠ 𝑓 𝑎 .
𝑥→𝑎
(c) lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and 𝑓(𝑎) is not defined.
𝑥→𝑎
 Example 2
◦ Use the graph given on the right to determine the following values.
◦ 𝑓(1) and lim 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥→1
◦ 𝑓(2) and lim 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥→2
◦ 𝑓(3) and lim 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥→3

◦ Solution:
◦ We see that 𝑓 1 = 2 (no holes or cuts). As 𝑥 approaches 1
from either side, 𝑓 𝑥 approaches 2. Thus, lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥→1
 Example 2 Continues
◦ We see that 𝑓 2 is defined and is equal 5. ◦ We see that 𝑓 3 is undefined. However,
However, as 𝑥 approaches 2 from either side, as 𝑥 approaches 3 from either side,
𝑓 𝑥 tends to 3 since the points on the graph of 𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 tends to 4 since the points on the graph of 𝑓
approach the open circle 2,3 . Therefore, approach the open circle 3,4 . Therefore,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 ≠ 𝑓 2 . lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 4.
𝑥→2 𝑥→3
 Example 3
𝑥−1
◦ Guess the value of lim .
𝑥→1 𝑥 2 −1
◦ Solution:
𝑥−1
◦ The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 is undefined at 𝑥 = 1, but we
𝑥 −1
can still investigate the limit by definition. In order to
find the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as 𝑥 → 1, we only need to
consider the values of 𝑥 that are close to 1 but not
exactly 1.
◦ If we investigate the values of the function 𝑓(𝑥) (in the
given tables) for different values of 𝑥 that approach 1
(but not equal to 1) from the right and the left of 1, we
can make an educated guess that
𝑥−1 1
lim = .
𝑥→1 𝑥 2 − 1 2
 One-Sided Limits
◦ To motivate the idea of one-sided limits, consider the Heaviside
function 𝐻, defined by
0, if 𝑡 < 0
𝐻 𝑡 =
1, if 𝑡 ≥ 0
◦ This function is used to describe an electric current that is switched on
at time 𝑡 = 0. The name is due to the electrical engineer Oliver
Heaviside (1850-1925).
◦ By looking at the graph of this function, it is clear that as 𝑡 approaches
0, we get two different values from the right and the left. Thus, we
cannot talk about lim 𝐻 𝑡 .
𝑡→0
◦ So, we say that lim 𝐻 𝑡 does not exist (DNE).
𝑡→0
◦ However, we can talk about how the function behaves as 𝑡 approaches
0 from the right, i.e., for values of 𝑡 > 0 but near 0, as well as the
behavior of 𝐻(𝑡) as 𝑡 approaches 0 from the left (values of 𝑡 < 0 but
near 0).
 One-Sided Limits
◦ From the graph on the right, we note that the Heaviside function tends to
0 as 𝑡 approaches 0 from the left, and we write,

lim 𝐻 𝑡 = 0 𝐻(𝑡) approaches 1

𝑡→ 0− as 𝑡 → 0+
◦ Furthermore, as 𝑡 approaches 0 from the right, 𝐻(𝑡) tends to 1,
and write,
lim+ 𝐻 𝑡 = 1
𝑡→ 0
𝐻(𝑡) approaches 0
as 𝑡 → 0−
 One-Sided Limits
Definition:
• Right-sided limit Suppose 𝑓 is defined for all 𝑥 near 𝑎 with 𝑥 > 𝑎. If 𝑓(𝑥) is arbitrarily close to 𝐿 for all 𝑥
sufficiently close to 𝑎 with 𝑥 > 𝑎, we write
lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
and say the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the right equals 𝐿.

• Left-sided limit Suppose 𝑓 is defined for all 𝑥 near 𝑎 with 𝑥 < 𝑎. If 𝑓(𝑥) is arbitrarily close to 𝐿 for all 𝑥
sufficiently close to 𝑎 with 𝑥 < 𝑎, we write
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
and say the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the left equals 𝐿.
 Relationship Between One-Sided and Two-
Sided Limits
Theorem 1
Assume 𝑓 is defined for all 𝑥 near 𝑎 except possibly at 𝑎.

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
 Example 4
◦ Use the given graph of the function 𝑔 to state the values (if they exist) of the
following.
◦ lim− 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→2
◦ lim+ 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→2
◦ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→2
◦ lim− 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→5
◦ lim+ 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→5
◦ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→5

◦ Solution:
◦ lim− 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 but lim+ 𝑔(𝑥) = 1, therefore lim 𝑔(𝑥) does not exist. Note that g(2) is
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
undefined.
◦ lim− 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 and lim+ 𝑔(𝑥) = 2, thus lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2. Note that 𝑔 5 = 1 ≠ lim 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥→5 𝑥→5 𝑥→5 𝑥→5
 Example 5 𝜋
◦ Investigate lim sin 𝑥 .
𝑥→0
◦ Solution:
𝜋
◦ Note that the function 𝑓 𝑥 = sin is undefined at 0. When we evaluate some
𝑥
values of 𝑥 close to 0, we get
1
𝑓 1 = sin 𝜋 = 0 𝑓 = sin 2𝜋 = 0
2
1 1
𝑓 = sin 3𝜋 = 0 𝑓 = sin 4𝜋 = 0
3 4
𝑓 0.1 = sin 10𝜋 = 0 𝑓 0.01 = sin 100𝜋 = 0
𝑓 0.001 = 0 𝑓 0.0001 = 0
𝜋
◦ We might incorrectly conclude that lim sin 𝑥 = 0, but not so fast! It is true that
1 𝑥→0
𝑓 = 0 for any integer 𝑛, but also 𝑓(𝑥) oscillates between 1 and − 1 for
𝑛
infinitely many values of 𝑥 that approach 0.
◦ Since the values of 𝑓(𝑥) do not approach a fixed number as x approaches 0, then
𝜋
lim sin DNE
𝑥→0 𝑥
Techniques for Computing Limits
◦ In the previous examples, we used graphs and numerical
tables to intuitively guess the limit of a function. As in
the previous examples, we witnessed the drawbacks of
such techniques. 𝑓 𝑥 approaches 𝑓 𝑎

◦ Therefore, we would like to develop analytical methods

to precisely evaluate limits.
◦ Limits of Linear Functions
As 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from both sides
◦ The graph of the line 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 is given to the right.
◦ Note that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 2 , since as 𝑥 gets closer and
𝑥→2
closer to 2 from both sides, 𝑓 𝑥 approaches 5.
Limits of Linear Functions
Theorem 2
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑚 be real numbers. For linear functions 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎

Example:
Evaluate the following limit
1
lim 𝑥+5 .
𝑥→−1 2
Solution:
Based on the above theorem, the limit of this linear function can be computed by direct substitution:

1 1 9
lim 𝑥 + 5 = 2 −1 + 5 = 2 .
𝑥→−1 2
Theorem 3 Limit Laws
Assume lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑎nd lim 𝑔 𝑥 exist. The following properties hold, where 𝑐 is a real number, and 𝑚 > 0 and 𝑛 > 0 are
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
integers.
1. Sum lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 + lim 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

2. Difference lim (𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 − lim 𝑔 𝑥

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

3. Constant multiple lim (𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 ) = 𝑐 lim 𝑓 𝑥

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

4. Product lim (𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔 𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑔 𝑥

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓 𝑥
5. Quotient lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥→𝑎 , provided that lim 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 lim 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

𝑛 𝑛
6. Power lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑛/𝑚 𝑛/𝑚
7. Fractional Power lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 , provided that 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0, for 𝑥 near 𝑎, if 𝑚 is even and 𝑛/𝑚 is
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
reduced to lowest terms.
 Example 6
◦ Use the Limit Laws and the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 to evaluate the following limits, if
they exist.
◦ lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 5𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→−2
◦ Solution: From the graph, we see that the limit of both functions exist,
thus we can use the Limit Laws to evaluate the given limit.
◦ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔 𝑥 = −1
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
◦ lim [5 𝑔(𝑥)] = 5 lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 5(−1) = −5 (By Law 3)
. 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

◦ lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 5𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 5 lim 𝑔 𝑥 (By Law 1)

𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

◦ lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 5𝑔 𝑥 = 1 + −5 = −4.
𝑥→−2
 Example 6 Continued
◦ Use the Limit Laws and the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 to evaluate the following limits, if they
exist.
◦ lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→1
◦ Solution: From the graph, we see that

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 but lim 𝑔 𝑥 does not exist since lim− 𝑔 𝑥 = −2, whereas
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
lim 𝑔 𝑥 = −1.
𝑥→1+
◦ Thus, we cannot use Law 4 to evaluate this limit.
◦ On the other hand, we can use Law 4 to evaluate the one-sided limits as
follows:

lim (𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔 𝑥 ) = ( lim− 𝑓 𝑥 )( lim− 𝑔 𝑥 ) = 2 −2 = −4

𝑥→1− 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
lim (𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔 𝑥 ) = ( lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 )( lim+ 𝑔 𝑥 ) = 2 −1 = −2
𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
 Example 6 Continued
◦ Use the Limit Laws and the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 to evaluate the following limits, if
they exist.
𝑓 𝑥
◦ lim
𝑥→2 𝑔 𝑥
◦ Solution: From the graph, we see that,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 1.5 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 0 .
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
◦ The limit of the denominator is 0, thus we cannot use Law 5.
◦ We say that this limit does not exist (DNE) since the denominator
approaches 0 while the numerator approaches a nonzero number.
 Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
◦ The Limit Laws enable us to find limits of polynomial and rational functions as in the case of linear functions, i.e.,
via direct substitution.

Theorem 4
Assume 𝑝 and 𝑞 are polynomials and 𝑎 is a constant.
• Polynomial functions: lim 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑝(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎
𝑝 𝑥 𝑝 𝑎
• Rational functions: lim = , provided that 𝑞 𝑎 ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑞 𝑥 𝑞 𝑎

𝑥 2 +3𝑥+1
◦ Example: Evaluate lim .
𝑥→2 𝑥+2
Note: In this example we used
𝑥 2 +3𝑥+1 22 +3 2 +1 11
◦ Solution: lim 𝑥+2 = = • The theorem above
𝑥→2 2+2 4
• Limit Laws 1, 3, and 5.
 Example 6: An Algebraic Function
2𝑥 3 +9+3𝑥−1
◦ Evaluate lim 4𝑥+1
.
𝑥→2

◦ Solution:
◦ Using the Limit Laws and limits of polynomial and rational functions, we have,

2𝑥 3 +9+3𝑥−1 lim ( 2𝑥 3 +9+3𝑥−1)

𝑥→2
lim = Law 5
𝑥→2 4𝑥+1 lim (4𝑥+1)
𝑥→2

(lim 2𝑥 3 +9)+lim (3𝑥−1)

𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= Law 1 and 7
lim (4𝑥+1)
𝑥→2
(2 2 3 +9)+(3 2 −1) 25+5 10
= = = Theorem 4
(4 2 +1) 9 9

NOTE: The limit at 𝑥 = 2 is the same as the value of the function at 𝑥 = 2.

 One-Sided Limits
◦ The Limit Laws as well as Theorem 2 and 4 hold for left-sided and right-sided limits. However, only Law 7 is
slightly modified as follows:

Theorem 5

Assume 𝑚 > 0 and 𝑛 > 0 are integers. The fractional power law (Law 7) in Theorem 3 is modified as follows:
𝑛/𝑚 𝑛/𝑚
• lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 , if 𝑚 is even and 𝑛/𝑚 is reduced to lowest term, we assume 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0,
𝑥→ 𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
for 𝑥 near 𝑎 with 𝑥 > 𝑎.

𝑛/𝑚
𝑛/𝑚
• lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 , if 𝑚 is even and 𝑛/𝑚 is reduced to lowest term, we assume 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0,
𝑥→ 𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎−
for 𝑥 near 𝑎 with 𝑥 < 𝑎.
 Example 7
◦ Let
−2𝑥 + 4, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑓 𝑥 = .
𝑥−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1
◦ Find the values of lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 , and lim 𝑓 𝑥 , if they exist. If not,
𝑥→ 1 𝑥→ 1 𝑥→1
state the reason.
◦ Solution:
◦ For 𝑥 ≤ 1, 𝑓 𝑥 = −2𝑥 + 4,

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− −2𝑥 + 4 = −2 1 + 4 = 2

𝑥→ 1− 𝑥→ 1 From the graph of 𝑓, we observe that
◦ For 𝑥 > 1, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→ 1− 𝑥→ 1
lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑥 − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0
𝑥→ 1 𝑥→ 1

◦ lim 𝑓 𝑥 does not exist since lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥→1 𝑥→ 1 𝑥→ 1
 More Limit Techniques
◦ We have, so far, evaluated limits of functions using direct substitution.
◦ Unfortunately, not all limits can be evaluated by direct substitution.
◦ Goal: Develop techniques for evaluating such limits.
𝑥 2 −6𝑥+8
◦ Example 8: Find lim .
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4
◦ Solution:
◦ We can’t use direct substitution since 𝑓(2) is undefined.
Furthermore, the Quotient Law will not work since the limit of the
denominator is 0.
◦ Some algebra is needed to solve this issue.
◦ Technique: FACTOR and CANCEL
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4)
=
𝑥2 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
Example 8 Continued
◦ The numerator and denominator have a common factor of 𝑥 − 2.
◦ Recall that taking the limit as 𝑥 approaches 2, we have 𝑥 ≠ 2, so we can cancel common
factors:
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4) 𝑥 − 4
= = .
𝑥2 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 2
𝑥 2 −6𝑥+8 𝑥−4
◦ Since = whenever 𝑥 ≠ 2, the two functions have the same limit as 𝑥 approaches
𝑥 2 −4 𝑥+2
2.
◦ Therefore,
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8 𝑥−4 2 1
lim = lim =− =−
𝑥→2 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥→2 𝑥 + 2 4 2
 Example 9
◦ Evaluate the following limit • The algebraic conjugate
𝑥−1 of 𝑎 + 𝑏 is 𝑎 − 𝑏
lim . • The algebraic conjugate
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1
of 𝑎 − 𝑏 is 𝑎 + 𝑏
◦ Solution:
◦ Again direct substitution fails since the denominator is 0 at 𝑥 = 1.
◦ Technique: Use Conjugates
◦ Multiply the numerator and denominator by the algebraic conjugate of the numerator and simplify.
𝑥 − 1 ( 𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 𝑥−1 1
= = = = .
𝑥−1 (𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 + 1) 𝑥+1
◦ We are now ready to evaluate the limit:

𝑥−1 1 1
lim = lim = .
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥→1 𝑥 + 1 2
The Squeeze Theorem
◦ The Squeeze Theorem is another useful
property for evaluating limits when direct
substitution and other algebraic techniques
fail.
◦ The following graph provides a visual
explanation of the Squeeze Theorem.
◦ From the graph, we see that ℎ and 𝑓 have the
same limit 𝐿 at 𝑎.
◦ In addition, the function 𝑔 is squeezed
between ℎ and 𝑓 near 𝑎.
◦ What can you say about the limit of 𝑔 at 𝑎?
The Squeeze Theorem

Theorem 6

If 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑔 𝑥 ≤ ℎ(𝑥) when 𝑥 is near 𝑎 (except possibly at 𝑎) and

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim ℎ 𝑥 = 𝐿,
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
then
lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎
 Example 10
1
◦ Show that lim 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥
= 0.
𝑥→0
◦ Solution:
1
◦ Clearly, we cannot evaluate the limit using direct substitution since lim sin 𝑥 DNE.
𝑥→0
◦ Since the sine function is bounded by -1 and 1, we have
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤ 1
𝑥
◦ Multiplying all sides by 𝑥 2 (a positive number), we get
1
−𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 sin ≤ 𝑥 2
2 2
𝑥
◦ We know that lim −𝑥 2 = 0 and lim 𝑥 2 = 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
◦ By the Squeeze Theorem, we conclude;
1
lim 𝑥 2 sin = 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥
 Infinite Limits
1
◦ Consider the following graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = .
𝑥2
◦ Clearly, the curve never intersects the 𝑦-axis as 𝑓(0) is undefined.
◦ In calculus, we are interested in finding the behavior of the function near
points for which the function is undefined.
◦ Therefore, let us investigate the following limit
1
lim 2 .
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
◦ It appears from the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 that the values of 𝑓(𝑥) can be
𝑥
made arbitrarily large by making 𝑥 close enough to 0.
◦ Mathematically, we write
1 🛑 IMPORTANT WARNING:
lim =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 We are not considering ∞ as a number. It is
◦ We say that the limit does not exist, DNE. simply used as a symbol, in this scenario, to
say that the function is increasing without
bound near a point.
Infinite Limits
Definition
Let 𝑓 be defined on both sides of 𝑎, except
possibly 𝑎 itself. Then
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→𝑎
means the values of 𝑓(𝑥) can be made
arbitrarily large (as large as we want) by taking
𝑥 sufficiently close to 𝑎 but not equal to 𝑎.

Another notation for lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞ is lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 → ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎.
The expression is read as:
“The limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is infinity.”
“𝑓 𝑥 increases without bound as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎”
Infinite Limits
Definition
Let 𝑓 be defined on both sides of 𝑎, except
possibly 𝑎 itself. Then
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→𝑎
means the values of 𝑓(𝑥) can be made
arbitrarily large negative (as large as we want)
by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to 𝑎 but not equal
to 𝑎.

Another notation for lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞ is lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎.
The expression is read as:
“The limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is negative infinity.”
“𝑓 𝑥 decreases without bound as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎”
One-Sided Infinite Limits
◦ We can talk about one-sided infinite limits as well.
◦ Using similar definitions as above, the following and all possible one-sided infinite limits:

◦ Recall:
◦ For 𝑥 → 𝑎− , we consider values of 𝑥 that are less than 𝑎.
◦ For 𝑥 → 𝑎+ , we consider values of 𝑥 that are greater than 𝑎.
Vertical Asymptotes
◦ In all the infinite limits we have investigated above, the line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is called a vertical asymptote; that is the graph
of 𝑓(𝑥) approaches this vertical line as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 but never crosses it.

Defintion
If lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ±∞, lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = ±∞, or lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = ±∞ , the line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is called a vertical
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
asymptote of 𝑓.

1
◦ For example, the line 𝑥 = 0 (𝑦-axis) is a vertical asymptote of the curve .
𝑥2
 Example 11
2𝑥 2𝑥
◦ Find lim+ and lim− .
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3
◦ Solution:
◦ As 𝑥 → 3+ (𝑥 approaches 3 but larger than 3), the numerator approaches 6 and the denominator
𝑥 − 3 is positive and approaches 0. approaches 6
◦ Therefore,
2𝑥 6
lim = + = +∞
𝑥→3+ 𝑥 − 3 0
Positive and approaches 0
◦ As 𝑥 → 3− (𝑥 approaches 3 but smaller than 3), the numerator approaches 6 and the denominator
𝑥 − 3 is negative and approaches 0.
approaches 6
◦ Therefore,
2𝑥 6
lim = − = −∞
𝑥→3− 𝑥 − 3 0
Negative and approaches 0
Example 11 Continued
◦ In both cases, the limit does not exist.

◦ Moreover, the two-sided limit

2𝑥
lim does not exist.
𝑥→3 𝑥−3

◦ 𝑥 = 3 is a vertical asymptote of 𝑓.
 Example 12
◦ Find the vertical asymptotes of 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥.
◦ Solution:
◦ To find vertical asymptotes (VA) of a given function, we need to find the 𝑥 values that make the
denominator 0.
sin 𝑥
◦ Since 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 = , possible VA could occur when cos 𝑥 = 0 .
cos 𝑥
+ 𝜋 − − 𝜋 +
◦ We note that as cos 𝑥 → 0 , 𝑥 → and as cos 𝑥 → 0 , 𝑥 → .
2 2
◦ Thus,
sin 𝑥 1 sin 𝑥 1
lim
𝜋 −
= + = +∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim + = − = −∞
𝑥→ 2 cos 𝑥 0 𝑥→
𝜋 cos 𝑥 0
2
𝜋
◦ Therefore, the line 𝑥 = is a vertical asymptote of 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥.
2
2𝑛+1 𝜋
◦ Similarly, the lines 𝑥 = , where 𝑛 is an integer, are vertical asymptotes for 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥.
2