WHEN HISTORY WAS LEGEND.

THE SEARCH FOR A KING

T1 ESTUDIOS CULTURALES DE GRAN BRETAÑA

A TIME FOR LEGENDS

The history and culture of England are deeply intertwined with the various nations and
tribes that settled on the island over time. The first known inhabitants were likely the Iberians,
but they were soon displaced by the Celts, who established themselves in the British Isles during
the Iron Age. The Celts became the dominant people of the region, while the Iberians migrated to
the Iberian Peninsula. However, the Celts also faced waves of conquest—first by the Romans
and then by other tribes like the Saxons and Jutes. This ongoing mix of cultures has led to the
belief that the British people are a blend of multiple cultural influences.

The Roman Conquest of Britain began in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius I, but the
conquest was not easy. It took the Romans nearly two decades to fully subdue the island of
Anglesey, the stronghold of the Druids. Once conquered, the territory became a Roman province
known as Britannia. Yet, resistance to Roman rule quickly became part of the island’s legendary
past, giving rise to the story of Britain’s first significant leader and symbol of defiance: Boudica,
the warrior queen.

Boudica is one of the earliest heroic figures in British history. After her husband’s death,
Boudica demanded that the Romans honour the treaty they had made with him. When the
Romans refused and attempted to rape her two daughters, she united different Celtic tribes and
led a rebellion against the invaders. Although she was ultimately defeated, Boudica is
remembered as a symbol of resilience and strength, an iconic figure in British history and legend.

HADRIAN'S WALL

As the Romans expanded their control over Britain, they encountered fierce resistance
from the Picts, Celtic tribes inhabiting what is now Scotland. The challenge of defending the
northernmost part of the empire led to the construction of Hadrian's Wall in AD 122, a
fortification marking the northern boundary of Roman-controlled Britain. According to legend,
even after the Roman Empire began to collapse, a legion remained stationed at the wall,
continuing to fight the Picts despite Rome’s eventual defeat.

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POST-ROMAN BRITAIN: THE DARK AGES

The fall of the Roman Empire ushered in a new era for Britain, characterised by
migrations, invasions, and the formation of new kingdoms. This period can be divided into
several key phases:

★ Migration and Formation of Kingdoms (400-600 AD): Following the collapse of

Roman, various tribes, including the Anglo-Saxons, began settling in Britain,
particularly in the south and east.

★ Christianisation (600-800 AD): Christianity began to spread across the island, uniting
its people through shared faith.

★ The Viking Challenge and the Rise of Wessex (9th century): Vikings from
Scandinavia launched numerous raids and invasions, taking control of large parts of
the island, including what became known as Danelaw.

★ English Unification (10th century): After a period of conflict, the various kingdoms
of England began to unify under a single rule.

★ England under the Danes and the Norman Conquest (978-1066 AD): This period
marked the growing influence of Scandinavian rule, culminating in the Norman
Conquest.

The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms began to take shape around the year 410 AD, but this era was
marked by frequent warfare as different kingdoms vied for dominance. Between 560 and 616
AD, Ethelbert, king of Kent, earned the title Bretwalda, meaning "ruler of Britain." This title was
later given to the kings of Northumbria in the 7th century, the kings of Mercia in the 8th century,
and finally to Egbert of Wessex, whose kingdom survived the Viking invasions of the 9th
century.

The only Anglo-Saxon kingdom to withstand the Viking invasions was Wessex. Under the
leadership of Alfred the Great, the people of Wessex defeated the Danes at the Battle of Edington
in 878 AD. As a result, England became divided into two distinct regions: Wessex and the
Viking-controlled Danelaw (including Essex, East Anglia, and Northumbria).

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CHRISTIANISATION (600-800 AD)

This period saw the growing influence of Christianity, which played a crucial role in
uniting the various kingdoms of Britain under a shared religious identity. One of the most famous
kings of this era was Ethelberht of Kent, who converted to Christianity after marrying Bertha, the
Christian daughter of the king of Paris. Ethelberht became the first English king to embrace the
new faith, setting an example for future rulers.

LEGENDS: LADY GODIVA

Legends played an important role in fostering a sense of unity and identity among the
Anglo-Saxon people. One such story is that of Lady Godiva, the wife of an Anglo-Saxon lord.
According to legend, Godiva was a Christian, while her husband was a pagan. She disagreed
with how he treated their people and demanded change. To prove her commitment, she promised
to ride naked through the streets of their town. When she did so, the townspeople, out of respect
for her, stayed indoors and did not look. Her husband, moved by this act of devotion, converted
to Christianity.

The story also introduces Peeping Tom, who tried to spy on Godiva during her ride and
was struck blind by God as punishment for his disrespect.

THE VIKING INVASION AND THE RISE OF WESSEX

In the 9th century, the Vikings established control over the eastern part of Britain, known
as Danelaw. However, they were unable to conquer the kingdom of Wessex, where Alfred the
Great led a successful resistance. Alfred's victory over the Vikings at the Battle of Edington in
878 AD secured his place as a legendary figure in British history. His leadership and resilience
made him a national hero, and his reign marked the beginning of a unified England.

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ENGLISH UNIFICATION (10TH CENTURY)

The unification of England in the 10th century was largely driven by the kings of Wessex,
starting with Edward the Elder (899-924) and his successors. Following the groundwork laid by
Alfred the Great, Edward expanded Wessex’s control over neighbouring Anglo-Saxon territories
and, by 927, his son Æthelstan successfully brought Northumbria under his rule, becoming the
first ruler to control all of England. Æthelstan's victory at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 further
solidified this unification, marking the creation of a single kingdom of England.

The process of unification also involved not only military conquest but the consolidation of
administrative and religious structures, which helped to strengthen royal authority. By the
mid-10th century, the reign of Edgar the Peaceful (959-975) saw the kingdom stabilise, with a
unified legal system and a shared identity beginning to emerge among the Anglo-Saxon and
Danish populations. This period laid the foundations for a centralised English monarchy, leading
into the later Norman Conquest.

ENGLAND UNDER THE DANES AND THE NORMAN CONQUEST (978-1066)

In the early 11th century, England came under Danish rule following the conquests of
Canute the Great (Knud) in 1016. After the death of King Æthelred the Unready and his son,
Canute, a Viking warrior, became the king of England, uniting the crowns of England, Denmark,
and Norway. His reign (1016-1035) marked a period of relative stability, as Canute maintained
peace and integrated Danish and Anglo-Saxon traditions. However, upon his death, England saw
a series of succession struggles, eventually leading to the return of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty with
Edward the Confessor (1042-1066).

The Norman Conquest of 1066 dramatically altered England’s political landscape. After
Edward the Confessor's death, the English throne was contested by multiple claimants, including
Harold Godwinson, who became king, and William of Normandy. William, later known as
William the Conqueror, claimed the throne and defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
This victory established Norman rule over England, transforming the kingdom’s aristocracy,
governance, and culture, and marking the end of the Anglo-Saxon era.

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KING ARTHUR

KING ARTHUR: FACT OR LEGEND?

The existence of King Arthur remains one of history’s great mysteries. There is no solid
historical evidence proving that he ever lived, but he is believed to have been born during a time
of great instability in England—a period when the island had no king. Arthur emerges in folklore
as the perfect king, destined to bring peace and unity to the land, protecting it from internal
conflicts and foreign invasions.

Arthur’s story represents more than just a heroic figure; he symbolises the idealised
concept of kingship. The English monarchy is portrayed as something that first began as a
dream—a desire for a perfect ruler—and later became a reality through historical figures who
shaped the kingdom.

EXCALIBUR: THE SWORD OF KINGSHIP

One of the most iconic elements of Arthurian legend is Excalibur, the legendary sword.
Excalibur represents the idea that it is not the king who chooses his power, but rather that the
sword (or the object of power) chooses the rightful king. The sword is more than just a weapon;
it is a divine symbol of kingship, justice, and the right to rule.

However, Excalibur’s power is not limitless. The sword can only be used for noble
purposes—specifically to protect England and Camelot. Arthur’s downfall begins when he uses
Excalibur against Lancelot, one of his closest knights, in a moment of personal vengeance. In
this fateful battle, Excalibur breaks, symbolising that Arthur had violated its sacred purpose. This
event marks the beginning of the end for Arthur’s reign.

LANCELOT: THE FAVOURED KNIGHT

Lancelot, often regarded as Arthur’s favourite and most loyal knight, plays a central role in
the legend. Known for his courage, strength, and nobility, Lancelot is a key figure in Arthur’s

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court. However, his story takes a tragic turn when he falls in love with Queen Guinevere,
Arthur’s wife. Their forbidden love becomes one of the most famous tales of treachery and
passion in medieval literature.

Though Lancelot and Guinevere’s relationship is marked by deep affection, it also leads to
the betrayal of King Arthur. Their affair is discovered, shattering the unity of the Round Table
and dividing the knights. This love triangle ultimately contributes to the downfall of Camelot, as
it weakens Arthur’s ability to rule effectively and causes a rift between the once-loyal knights.

MORDRED: ARTHUR’S BASTARD SON

Mordred, Arthur’s illegitimate son, is another pivotal character in the legend. According to
the myth, Arthur was seduced by his half-sister, Morgause (or Morgana, depending on the
version of the tale). Mordred is the product of this forbidden union, and though Arthur did not
initially know of Mordred’s existence, their relationship becomes key to the kingdom's
destruction.

Mordred grows up to challenge Arthur’s rule. Learning of Lancelot and Guinevere’s

treason, Mordred seizes the opportunity to sow discord and initiate a civil war, believing that if
the king is betrayed, he is no longer fit to rule. The once-great Round Table is broken, and
England plunges into chaos.

In the final battle between father and son, Arthur kills Mordred, but not without sustaining
fatal injuries himself. This battle marks the tragic end of Arthur’s reign, as both he and his
kingdom fall.

THE ISLE OF AVALON: ARTHUR’S FINAL RESTING PLACE

Though mortally wounded, Arthur does not die in the conventional sense. According to the
legend, he is taken to the magical Isle of Avalon, a mystical place where he is said to be
suspended in time, resting and healing from his wounds. The story suggests that Arthur is not
truly dead, but rather waiting for a time when he will be needed again.

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The legend of Arthur states that when England is once again in grave danger, divided and
in turmoil, King Arthur will return to save the kingdom. This belief in Arthur’s return has made
him not only a historical figure but also a symbol of hope and national unity.

ARTHURIAN LITERATURE TIMELINE

Geoffrey of Monmouth (1136) – History of the Kings of Britain & Life of Merlin.

★ Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain is one of the most influential
works in Arthurian legend. Written around 1136, it is responsible for much of the
popular image we have today of King Arthur and his court. Geoffrey’s work is a
pseudo-historical account of Britain’s monarchs, blending myth, history, and fiction.
It introduced the first full narrative of Arthur’s life, from his conception to his death,
and portrayed him as a mighty, almost mythical, ruler who united Britain and fought
off invaders.

★ Geoffrey’s Life of Merlin, another significant work, further solidified Merlin’s role as
Arthur’s mystical advisor and prophet. It expanded on Merlin’s character,
emphasising his abilities as a wizard and seer, making him one of the most iconic
figures in Arthurian lore.

Wace (1155) – Roman de Brut

★ Wace, an Anglo-Norman poet, adapted Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings

of Britain into a vernacular verse narrative known as Roman de Brut. Written in
1155, it played a crucial role in popularising the Arthurian legend throughout
Norman England and France.

★ One of Wace’s most significant contributions to the Arthurian tradition is the concept
of the Round Table. He introduced the idea that Arthur’s knights sat at a round table
where all men were equal, emphasizing a sense of chivalry, camaraderie, and unity
among them. This was also the first time that Arthur’s knights were portrayed as
coming from all over Europe, expanding Arthur’s reputation as an international
figure of chivalry and honor.

Chretien de Troyes (1160-1180) – The Romances

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★ The French poet Chretien de Troyes is responsible for some of the most enduring
aspects of Arthurian legend. Writing between 1160 and 1180, his romantic narratives
introduced several key elements that have since become inseparable from the
Arthurian mythos.

★ The Holy Grail: Chretien’s unfinished romance, Perceval, le Conte du Graal, is the
first text to mention the Holy Grail. Although Chretien does not clarify what the
Grail looks like, it is presented as a mysterious and sacred object with immense
significance, setting the stage for future Grail quests.

★ Lancelot and Guinevere: Chretien’s romance, Lancelot, le Chevalier de la Charrette,

introduced Lancelot, Arthur’s most beloved knight, and the illicit love triangle
between Lancelot, Guinevere, and Arthur. This tragic love story would go on to
become one of the central themes of Arthurian literature, symbolising betrayal and
the moral downfall of Camelot.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (1380)

★ Written in Middle English around 1380, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is one of
the finest examples of Arthurian literature from the Alliterative Revival period in
England. The anonymous author tells the tale of Sir Gawain, one of Arthur’s knights,
and his encounter with the mysterious Green Knight.

★ The narrative explores themes of chivalry, honor, and temptation, as Gawain embarks
on a journey to prove his bravery and integrity. The work is notable for its vivid
descriptions, symbolism, and the moral challenges faced by its hero, adding depth to
the portrayal of Arthur’s knights.

Sir Thomas Malory (1485) – Le Morte d’Arthur

★ Perhaps the most famous and comprehensive retelling of the Arthurian legend, Sir
Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur was published in 1485. Malory’s work is a
compilation and reinterpretation of earlier Arthurian stories, drawing on Geoffrey of
Monmouth, Wace, and Chretien de Troyes, among others.

★ Le Morte d’Arthur presents a detailed account of Arthur’s rise to power, the

formation of the Round Table, the Grail Quest, and the tragic downfall of Camelot. It
is also where the final battle between Arthur and Mordred is depicted in detail,

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leading to Arthur’s departure to the Isle of Avalon. Malory’s work became the
definitive version of Arthurian legend for centuries and has deeply influenced
modern adaptations of the story.

BEOWULF

The legacy of the Anglo-Saxon invasions is not limited to the legend of King Arthur; it
also includes the epic poem Beowulf, which was composed in Old English by an anonymous poet
between 975 and 1025.

Recognized as the first significant text written in Britain, Beowulf provides a fixed
narrative that offers deep insights into the culture and values of the time.

Unlike the fluidity of Arthurian legends, Beowulf presents a structured story that
encapsulates the essence of heroism in Anglo-Saxon society.

SUMMARY OF THE STORY

The poem begins in a kingdom plagued by the monster Grendel, who attacks each night,
killing the warriors and instilling fear in the inhabitants.

Beowulf, a noble knight from another kingdom and the son of a former friend of the
afflicted king, learns of the attacks. Driven by loyalty, he decides to help the beleaguered
kingdom. The themes of loyalty and heroism are central to Beowulf’s character, showcasing the
manly virtues of bravery and strength.

Beowulf confronts and defeats Grendel, solidifying his reputation as a hero. He then faces
Grendel's mother, a vengeful serpent-like creature, and defeats her as well.

After becoming king of his own peaceful kingdom, Beowulf faces one last challenge in his
old age when a dragon threatens his realm. Despite his warriors’ reluctance to join him due to
their own old age, Beowulf valiantly fights the dragon to protect his kingdom. In the end, he is
fatally wounded in the battle. His warriors, who fail to support him, are left to grapple with their
disgrace, emphasising the values of loyalty and honour that define Beowulf's legacy.

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THEMES OF LOYALTY AND MANLY TRAITS IN BEOWULF

Loyalty:

★ Loyalty is central to Beowulf, shaping characters’ actions and the narrative.

★ Beowulf’s decision to help the attacked kingdom reflects his loyalty to his father’s
friend, emphasising kinship and alliances.

★ His warriors' abandonment during the dragon battle marks them as disgraceful,
highlighting the high value placed on loyalty in warrior culture.

Manly Traits:

★ The poem emphasises bravery, strength, and honour as essential masculine traits.

★ Beowulf embodies the ideal hero through his courage in fighting Grendel and the
dragon, showcasing self-sacrifice.

★ His battles test his physical prowess and commitment to his people, solidifying his
status as a legendary warrior.

The principles and spirit of the Viking people have deeply influenced British culture.
Unlike the individualistic focus of societies like the USA, British culture is more aligned with a
tribal mentality, emphasising the importance of belonging to a group rather than individual
pursuits. This cultural mindset, inherited from the Viking and Anglo-Saxon past, values
community, loyalty, and collective identity, where individuals are seen as part of a larger whole,
contributing to and relying on their social groups. The emphasis is on unity and shared
responsibility rather than prioritising personal achievement.

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