UNIT V

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
1 To analyze the Wave equations.
2 To apply the wave equation for different medium.
3 To understand the concept of Polarization.
4 To understand the concept of reflection of plane waves incident on a perfect
conductor.
5 To apply the concept of reflection of a plane wave incident on a perfect dielectric.
5.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE EQUATION
Wave equation for electric field E
The application of Maxwells equations is the prediction of existence of electromagnetic
wave. Electromagnetic wave equation can be obtained from Maxwells equations.
The Maxwells equation from Faradays law in point form is given by
E =
t
B

=
t
H

Taking curl on both sides, we get

E =
t
H

.. (1)
But, Maxwells equation from Amperes law in point form is
H =
t
D
J

+
=
t
E
E

+
Differentiate
t
H

=
t
H

=
,
_

t
E
E
t
t
H

=
2
2
t
E
t
E

.. (2)
Substitute the equation (2) in equation (1)
E + =
1
1
]
1

2
2
t
E
t
E

=
2
2
t
E

t
E

.. (3)
But according to the identity
E = E ) E . (
2
.. (4)
But,
E . = D .
1

Since there is no net charge within the conductor, the charge density = 0
D . = 0 and E . = 0
Then equation (4) becomes
E = E
2
.. (5)
Comparing the equations (3) and (5)

E
2

=
2
2
t
E

t
E

E
2

= 0
t
E

t
E
2
2

.. (6)
This is the wave equation for electric field E.
Wave equation for Magnetic field H
The Maxwells equation from Amperes law in point form is given
H =
t
E
E

+
Take curl on both sides
H =
t
E
E

+ .. (7)
But Maxwells equation from Faradays law
E =
t
H

Differentiating with respect tot,

t
E

=
2
2
t
H

Substituting the values of E and
t
E

in equation (7)
H =
2
2
t
H

t
H

.. (8)
But the identity is
H = H ) H . (
2

Since B =
0 H .
We have, H = H
2
.. (9)
On comparing equations (8) and (9),
H
2

=
2
2
t
H

t
H

2
2
2
t
H

t
H
H

= 0 .. (10)
This is the wave equation for magnetic field H.
5.2 WAVE EQUATION FOR FREE SPACE
Wave equation for Electric field
For the free space (dielectric medium) the conductivity of the medium is zero. (i.e. = 0)
and there is no charge containing in it (i.e. = 0). The electromagnetic wave equations for free space
can be obtained from Maxwells equations.
The Maxwells equation from Faradays law for free space in point form is
E =
t
B

=
t
H

Take curl on both sides

E =
t
H

.. (1)
But Maxwells equation from Amperes law for free space in point form is
H =
t
D

=
t
E

Then
t
H

=
t
H

=
,
_

t
E
t
t
H

=
2

t
E
2
.. (2)
On substituting the equation (2) in equation (1), we get
E =
2
2
t
E

.. (3)
But the identity is given by
E = E ) E . (
2

But E = 0 D .
1

Then, E = E
2
.. (4)
Comparing the equations (3) and (4)
E
2

=
2
2
t
E

2
2
2
t
E
E

= 0 .. (5)
This is the wave equation for of electric field in free space.
Wave equation for Magnetic field H
The Maxwells equation from Amperes law for free space in point form is given by
H =
t
E

Take curl on both sides

H =
t
E

.. (6)
Maxwells equation from Faradays law was given as,
E
=
t
H

On differentiating,
t
E

=
2
2
t
H

.. (7)
On substituting the equation (7) in equation (6), we get
H =
2
2
t
H

.. (8)
But the identity is given by
H = H ) H . (
2
.. (9)
But,
E .
=
0 B .

1

Then, H =
H
2

.. (10)
Comparing the equations (16) and (18)

H
2

=
2
2
t
H

H
2

= 0
t
H

2
2

.. (11)
This is the wave equation for free space in terms of H.
For free space
) air ( 1 and 1
r r

and the wave equation becomes
0
t
H
H
2
2
0 0
2

Here,
0 0

=
9
7
10 36
1
10 4

=
16
10 9
1

0 0

= sec / m 10 3
8

= v
Where, v is the velocity of light
Then the wave equation becomes,
0
t
H
v
1
H
2
2
2
2

or 0
t
E
v
1
E
2
2
2
2

5.3 UNIFORM PLANE WAVE
If the phase of a wave is the same for all points on a plane surface it is called as plane wave.
If the amplitude is also constant in a plane wave, it is called uniform plane wave. The properties
uniform plane waves are given as follows.
1. At every point is space electric field (E) and magnetic field (H) are perpendicular to each
other and to the direction of travel.
2. The fields vary harmonically with time and at the same frequency, everywhere in space.
3. Each field has the same direction, magnitudes and phase at every point in any plane
perpendicular to the direction of wave travel. If the electric field is in x direction and the magnetic
field in y direction, then the wave is traveling in z direction.
The wave equation for free space is given by
E
2

=
2
2
t
E

2
2
2
2
2
2
E E E
z y x

=
2
2
t
E

Consider electric field E, which varies in x direction. Then E is independent of directions y

and z.
Then wave equation becomes
2
2
E
x

=
2
2
t
E

1
1
]
1

0
E E
2
2
2
2
z y
Since E is a vector quantity, it can be written as in terms of the components of E as,
2
2
E
x
x

=
2
2
t
E

x
2
2
E
x
y

=
2
2
t
E

y
2
2
E
x
z

=
2
2
t
E

z
For free space there is no charge density. Therefore,
D .
=
0 E .
E .
= 0
z y x
z
y
x

E
E
E
= 0
For uniform plane wave, E is independent of y and z.
Then,
x
x

E
= 0
This equation shows that there is no variation of
x
E in the x direction
On differentiating the above equation with respect to x,
2
x
x
E
2
= 0
The above equation is satisfied when
x
E
becomes zero or constant.
If
x
E
is a constant, then it is not a field. So
x
E
must be zero. Therefore a uniform plane
wave propagating in the x direction has no x component of E.

x
E
= 0 for uniform plane wave
A similar analysis would show that there is no x component of H.
B .
=
0 H .
H .
= 0
z y x
z
y
x

H
H
H
= 0
Since H is propagating x direction, it is independent of y and z.
Then,
x
x

H
= 0 and 0
H
2

2
x
x
Since
x
H
is not a constant,
x
H
must be zero.

x
H
= 0 for uniform plane wave.
5.4 Characteristic impedance or intrinsic impedance
) (
0

Consider the plane wave propagating in x direction. The wave equation for free space is
2
2
E
x

=
2
2
0 0
t
E

The general solution of this differential equation is in the form.

E = ) ( ) (
0 2 0 1
t v x f t v x f + +
Where,
0
v
=
0 0

f
1
and f
2
are functions of
) (
0
t v x
and
) (
0
t v x +
respectively
The solution of wave equation consists of two waves; one traveling in positive direction and
other traveling in negative direction. Consider the wave travel in positive direction alone.
) (
0 2
t v x f +
= 0 (negative direction)
The general solution of wave equation becomes
E = ) (
0
t v x f +
E =
z y x
E E E
z y x
z y x

,
_

+
,
_

,
_

y x
z
x z
y
z x
x
x
y
z x
y
z
E
E
E E
E
E
Since the wave is traveling in x direction, E and H are both independent of y and z. Therefore,

0
E E
and 0 H E

z y
x x
E
= z
x
y
x
y
z

E
E
Similarly,
H
= z
x
y
x
y
z

H
H
But
H
=
t
E

On comparing the above two equations we get,

z
x
y
x
y
z

H
H
=
1
]
1

z y
z
y

t
E
t
E
] 0 [
x
E
Equating
y

and z

terms
x
z

H
=
t
E

y

x
y

H
=
t
E

z
From Maxwells second equation for free space,
E
=
t
H

But
E
= z
x
y
x
y
z

E
E
Equating the above two equations, we get
z
x
y
x
y
z

E
E
=
1
]
1

z y
z
y

t
H
t
H
] 0 H [
x
Equating
y

and z

terms
x
z

E
=
t
H

y
x
y

E
=
t
H

z
Let the solution of this equation is given by
y
E
=
) (
0
t v x f
On differentiating,
t
E

y
=
t
) (
) t (
0
o

t v x
v x
f
=
) ( ) ( '
0 0
v t v x f
Simply
) ( '
0
t v x f
can be written as
' f

t
E

y
= '
0
f v
But

x
z

H
=
t
E

y

x
z

H
=
) ' (
0
f v
=
'
0
f v
=
'

1
f

x
z

H
=
' f

On integrating, H
z
=

dx f '
H
z
=
f

=
y
E

z
y
H
E
=

Similarly, it can be shown that

y
z
H
E
=

If E is the total electric field and H is the total magnetic field, then
E =
2 2
E E
z y
+
H =
2 2
H H
z y
+ and
H
E
=

The above ratio is referred as characteristics impedance or intrinsic impedance of the

medium. It is the ratio of square root of permeability to the dielectric constant of the medium and it is
denoted by
=
H
E
=

For free space 1

r r
(air) and the characteristic impedance or intrinsic impedance for free
space is given by
0
=
0
0

=
9
7
10 36
1
10 4

=
2
10 36 4

0

= 120
or
0
= 377
5.4.1 Dot product of E and H
The dot product of E and H is given by
E.H = z z y y
H E H E +
But
=
y
z
z
y
H
E
H
E

E.H = z y z y
H H H H
E.H = 0
Thus in a uniform plane wave, E and H are at right angles to each other.
5.4.2 Cross product of E and H
The cross product of E and H is given by
E H =
z y x
z y x
z y x
H H H
E E E

=
] 0 [ ] 0 [ ] H E H E [ z y x
y z z y

+ +
] 0 H E [
x x
E H =
] H E H E [
y z z y
x

= ] H H [
2 2
y z
x +

E H =
2
H x

] H H H [Where,
2 2 2
z y
+
The cross product of E and H gives the direction in which the wave travels.
The following figure 5.1 shows a uniform plane wave. Here it is found that, E and H fields
are perpendicular to each other and z indicates the direction of propagation of the wave.

Figure: 5.1 Uniform Plane wave moving along z direction
5.5 MAXWELLS EQUATION IN PHASOR FORM
Maxwells equation can be rewritten for phasors, with the time derivatives transformed into
linear terms
( )
( )
2
2
2
t E
of phasor E -
t E
of phasor E j
t
t

Now, the Maxwells equation can be rewritten in phasor form as,

H j - E

E j J H +

0 B .
D .



5.6 WAVE EQUATION IN PHASOR FORM
Wave equation in phasor form for Electric and Magnetic field was written as follows:
0 H H
0 E E
0 0
2 2
0 0
2 2
+
+



5.7 WAVE PROPAGATION IN A LOSSLESS MEDIUM
The wave equation for free space (lossless medium) is
E
2

=
2
2
t
E

The phasor value of E is

E (x, t) = ] ) ( E Re[(
t j
e x

Apply to the wave equation
] [Ee Re
t j 2
= ] E [ Re
t

2
2
t j
e

] [Ee Re
t j 2
= ] E [ Re
2 t j
e


] e E) E [ Re
t j 2 2
+ = 0
E E
2 2
+ = 0
This is the wave equation for lossless medium in phasor form and it is called Vector Helmholtz
equation.
E E
2 2
+ = 0
Where,
2
=
2
and
is called as Phase shift constant
The velocity of propagation is
v =

1
The wave propagates in x direction i.e. no variation in y and z.
E
E
2
2
2
+

x
= 0
The solution of the equation is
E =
x j x j
e e

+
2 1
C C
5.8 WAVE PROPAGATION IN A CONDUCTING MEDIUM
The wave equation for conducting medium is
t
E
t
E
- E
2
2
2

= 0
The phasor form of wave equation is
E E E
2 2
j = 0
E ) ( E
2 2
+ j j = 0
E ) ( E
2
+ j j = 0
E E
2 2
= 0
Where,
) (
2
+ j j and

was called as propagation constant ( It has both real and imaginary parts)
Let us take the value of propagation constant as,
+ j
Where,
is attenuation constant and
is Phase shift constant
Now,
+ j
=
) ( + j j
Squaring on both sides
+ j 2
2 2
=
2 2
j
Equating real and imaginary parts
2 2
=
2
and
2 =
We have to solve these two equations to find the value of and .
We know that,
2 2
=
2 2 2 2 2
4 ) ( +
But,
2 2 2
) ( =
2 2
) ( and

2
) 2 ( = ( )
2

2

2

2 2 2 2 2 4
+

2

2


2
Adding these two equations

2
2
=
2 2 2 2 2 4 2
+ +

2

=
2 2
2 2 2
1
2 2

+
+
+

= 1 1
2
2 2
2 2

+
+
Attenuation factor is given by
=
1
1
]
1

1 1
2
2 2
2
By subtracting
2

2

from
2
+
2
, the value of the becomes
= 1 1
2
2 2
2 2

+
+
5.9 WAVE PROPAGATION IN GOOD DIELECTRICS
The ratio of conduction current density to displacement current density in the medium is

. Hence

= 1 can be considered to mark the dividing line between conductor and dielectrics. For
good conductors

is much greater than unity. For good dielectrics

is very much less than

unity.
For dielectrics,

< < 1
2 2
2
1

+
=
2
1
2 2
2
1 2

,
_

,
_

+
2 2
2
2
1
The attenuation factor is
=
1
]
1

+ 1 1
2
2 2
2

2
2
4

2
~
The phase shift constant is given by,
=
1
]
1

+ + 1 1
2
2 2
2

_
~
1
]
1

+
2 2
2
2
2
2

_
~
1
]
1

+
2 2
2
4
1
2

_
~
2
1
2 2
2
4
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

+
2 2
2
8
1

The velocity of the wave in the dielectric is
v =

,
_

+
2 2
2
8
1

_
~

,
_

2 2
8
1
1

,
_

1
0
v
v
_
~
,
_

2 2
0
8
1 v
The intrinsic or characteristic impedance of medium is given by

=
+

j
j

=
1
1
1

,
_

,
_

j
j
j
j
=

,
_

j
1
=
2
1
1 I
,
_

=
,
_

2
1
j
5.10 WAVE PROPAGATION IN GOOD CONDUCTOR
For good conductor 1 >>

=
) ( + j j
=
,
_

+
j
j 1
=
j ) 1 ( < <

=
45
= =
2

The velocity of the wave in conductor

v =
2

v =

2
The intrinsic impedance of the conductor
=

,
_

j
j
j
1
=

j
j
j
.
=

45
It is found that in good conductors, and are large since is large. Therefore,
the wave is attenuated greatly as it progresses through the conductor. But the velocity and
characteristic impedance are reduced considerably.
5.11 SKIN EFFECT AND DEPTH OF PENETRATION
If a plane wave is incident on a highly-conducting surface, then the electric field and
also the current density was found to be concentrated at the surface of the conductor. The
same phenomenon occurs for a current carrying conductor also. This effect depends on the
frequency and is known as skin effect.
In a good conductor the wave is attenuated as it progress. At radio frequencies the
rate of attenuation is very large and the wave may penetrate only a very short distance before
being reduced to a negligibly small value. The depth of penetration ( ) is defined as that
depth at which the wave has been attenuated to
e
1
or approximately 37 percent of its
original value. It is also known as skin depth.
The amplitude of the wave was decreased by the factor
x
e

, as it is propagating
through the conductor at a distance x.
By definition of skin depth,
x
e

=
e
1

e =
1
e


= 1

1
This is the depth of penetration or skin depth.
=

1
=
1 1
2
1
2 2
2

For a good conductor the depth of penetration is

=

2 1
5.12 POLARIZATION
The polarization of a uniform plane wave refers to the time-varying behavior of the
electric field strength vector at some fixed point in space. It represents the orientation of the
electric and magnetic field in the three dimensional space.
Consider a uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, with E and H lying in x -
y plane. If
0 E
x
and only y
E
is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the y
direction.
5.12.1 Linear Polarization


Figure: 5.2. Linear Polarization
If both
x
E
and y
E
are present and are in phase, the resultant electric field has a
direction at an angle of
) E / E ( tan
1
x y
. If the direction of the resultant vector is constant with
time, the wave is said to be linearly polarized. Figure 5.2 shows the linear polarization.
5.12.2 Circular Polarization
Let
x
E
and y
E
have the same magnitude a E and differ 90 in phase.
The resultant electric field in vector form was given as,
E = a y a x
a j a E E

+
The corresponding time varying field is
E =
t sin E t cos E +
a y a x
a a


The components are,
E
x
=
t cos E
a and
E
y
=
t sin E
a
Then, Figure 5.3 Circular Polarization
2 2 2
E E E
a y x
+
This equation shows that the locus of the resultant E is a circle whose radius is
a
E
as
shown in figure 5.3. According to the phase angle difference between E
x
and E
y
, the
polarization is Left circular polarized or Right circular polarized as shown in the figure 5.4

Figure: 5.4 Left and Right circular polarization
5.12.3 Elliptical Polarization
If
x
E
and y
E
have different amplitudes and 2 / phase difference, then the locus of
the resultant E is a ellipse and the wave is said to be elliptically polarized.
Let
x
E
has the magnitude A and y
E
has the magnitude B and differ 90 in phase.
Then the resultant electric field in vector form is,
E =
B A
y x
a j a

+
The corresponding time varying field is
E =
t sin B t cos A +
y x
a a

The components are,
x
E
= A cos t and
y
E
= B sin t
Then, t cos
A
E

x
t sin
B
E

y

1
B
E
A
E
2
2
2
+
y y
Fig.5.5 Elliptical
Polarization
This equation shows that the locus of the resultant E is an ellipse. It is shown in
Figure 5.5.
5.13 REFLECTION OF PLANE WAVE FROM A CONDUCTOR
When the electromagnetic wave traveling in one medium strikes upon a second
medium, the wave will be partially transmitted and partially reflected. It depends upon types
of wave incidence. The two types of incidence are
1. Normal incidence and
2. Oblique incidence
Normal incidence
Whenever the plane wave was incident normally upon the surface of a perfect
conductor, the wave is entirely reflected back. Since there can be no loss within a perfect
conductor, none of the energy is absorbed. Normal incidence is shown in figure 5.6

Figure: 5.6 Normal Incident
As a result, the amplitudes of E and H in the incident wave are the same as in the
reflected wave and differ by (out of phase.)
i.e.
r i
E E
.
Let the electric field of the incident wave is
x
i
e

E
. Since attenuation is zero ( =0),
the propagation constant becomes
j
. Then incident wave is
x j
i
e

E (opposite
direction).
The resultant electric field is the sum of the electric field of incident and reflected
waves.
) ( E x
T
=
x j
r
x j
i
e e

+E E
But,
i
E
=
r
E
) ( E x
T
= ] [ E
x j x j
i
e e

x
j
e e
x j x j

1
1
]
1

sin
2
=
x j
i
sin E 2
Expressing in time variation form,
) , ( E t x
T
=
t j
i
e x j

sin E 2
If
i
E
is chosen to be real.
) , ( E t x
T
=
t x
i
sin sin E 2
This equation shows that the incident and reflected waves combine to produce a
standing wave, which does not progress.
In order to maintain the reversal of direction of energy propagation magnetic field
must be reflected without reversal of phase. So, the incident
i
H
and reflected
r
H
are in the
same phase.
) ( H x
T
=
x j
r
x j
i
e e

+H H
=
x j x j
i
e e

+ ( H
] H H [
r i

=
x
i
cos 2H
i
H
is real

) , ( H
T
t x
= ] cos [2H Re
t j
i
e x

) , ( H
T
t x
=
t x
i
cos cos 2H
This equation shows that the magnetic field H has a standing wave distribution. These
two equations indicate that the E and H are differ /2 in phase.
5.14 REFLECTION OF PLANE WAVES BY A PERFECT DIELECTRIC
Oblique Incidence
When a plane electromagnetic wave is incident obliquely on the boundary, a part of
the wave transmitted and part of it reflected. However, the transmitted wave will be
refracted. i.e. the direction of propagation will be changed.
When the wave is incident obliquely at an angle of
i

with normal, then a part of the

wave was reflected at an angle
r

in the same medium and part of it was transmitted

(refracted) at angle of
t

in second medium as shown in figure 5.7.

Figure: 5.7 Oblique incidence on a perfect dielectric
By Snells law,
r
i

sin
sin
=
2
1
v
v
Where,
1
v
is the velocity of wave in medium 1
2
v
is the velocity of wave in medium 2

1
v
=
1 1
1

and
2
v
=
2 2
2 2

r
i

sin
sin
=
1 1
2 2


Since the permeability of the dielectrics do not vary much from that of free space.
1

=
0 2

Substitute these values in above equation
r
i

sin
sin
=
1
2

Since there is no loss of power in perfect dielectric, the incident power must be equal to the
sum of reflected power and transmitted power.
By the conservation of energy
i
P
=
t r
P P +
The power/unit area P = E H
= E.H sin
2

=E.H =

2
E
.
i
P
=
i i i
cos H E

i
P
=
i
i

cos
E
1
2
r
P
=
r
r

cos
E
1
2
t
P
=
t
t

cos
E
2
2

i
i

cos
E
1
2
=
t
t
r
r

cos
E
cos
E
2
2
1
2
By law of reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. That is,
i

=
r

i
i

cos
E
1
2
=
t
t
r
r

cos
E
cos
E
2
2
1
2

] E E [
cos
2 2
1
i
r i

=
t
t

cos
E
2
2
On dividing by
2
E
i
on both sides of the above equation,

,
_

2
2
1
E
E
1
cos
i
r i
=
t
i
t

cos
E
E 1
2
2
2
2
2
E
E
1
i
r

=
i
t
i
t

cos
cos
E
E
2
2
2
1
2
2
E
E
i
r
=
i i
t t

cos E
cos E
1
2
2
2
1

1

=
1
1

and
2

=
2
2

=
1
0

and
2

=
2
0

] [
0 2 1

2
2
E
E
i
r
=
i i
t t

cos E
cos E
1
2
1
2
2
There are two elementary orientations (polarizations) for the electromagnetic fields
1. Perpendicular Polarization
Here the electric field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence and the magnetic field
is parallel to the plane of incidence. The fields are configured as in the Transverse Electric
(TE) modes.
2. Parallel Polarization
Here the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence and the electric field
is parallel to the plane of incidence. The fields are configured as in the Transverse Magnetic
(TM) modes.
Any plane wave with general field orientation can be obtained by superposition of
two waves with perpendicular and parallel polarization.
5.14.1 Horizontal Polarization (Perpendicular Polarization)
In this case, electric field E is perpendicular to the plane of incidence and parallel to
the reflecting surface. This is shown in figure 5.8.
Figure: 5.8 Perpendicular Polarizations
By applying the boundary condition, that the tangential component of E is continuous
across the boundary i.e. E
i
one medium is same as E
r
other medium.
r i
E E +
=
t
E
i
r
E
E
1+
=
i
t
E
E
But
2
2
E
E
i
r
=
i i
t t

cos E
cos E
1
2
1
2
2
=
i
t
i
r

,
_

cos
cos
E
E
1 1
2
1
2

i
t
i
r
i
r

cos
cos
E
E
1
E
E
1
2
1
2
2

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

i
r
i
r
E
E
1
E
E
1
=
i
t
i
r

,
_

cos
cos
E
E
1
2
1
2
i
r
E
E
1
=
i
t
i
r

cos
cos
E
E
1
1
2

,
_

+

1
1
]
1

+
i
t
i
r
cos
cos
1
E
E
1
2
=
i
t

cos
cos
1
1
2

i
r
E
E
=
i
t
i
t

cos
cos
1
cos
cos
1
1
2
1
2
=
t i
t i
+

cos cos
cos cos
2 1
2 1
Now
t
cos
2
can be written as,

t
cos
2
=
t

2
2
sin 1
But
t
i

sin
sin
=
1
2

2
sin =
2
2
1
sin

i
Substituting this value in above equation

t
cos
2
=
2
2
1
2
sin
1

t
=
i

2
1 2
sin
Substituting this value in
i
r
E
E
equation
i
r
E
E
=
i i
i i
+

2
1 2 1
2
1 2 1
sin cos
sin cos
Reflection co-efficient is given by
i
r
E
E
=
i i
i i

2
1
2
2
1
2
sin cos
sin cos
This gives the ratio of reflected to incident electric field for horizontally polarized
wave. It is the reflection co-efficient for horizontal polarization.
5.14.2 Vertical Polarization (Parallel Polarization)
In this case electric field E is parallel to the plane of incidence as shown in the figure
5.9. By applying the boundary conditions that the tangential component of E is continuous
across the boundary.

Figure: 5.9 Vertical Polarization
From the figure 5.9
i r i
cos ) E E (
=
t t
E cos
Divide
i
E
on both sides
i
r
E
E
1
=
i
t
i
t

cos
cos
E
E
i
t
E
E
=
t i
r
i

,
_

cos
cos
E
E
1
But
2
2
E
E
i
r
=
i i
t t

cos E
cos E
1
2
1
2
2
Substituting the value of
i
t
E
E
in above equation
2
2
E
E
i
r
=
t
i
i
r

,
_

cos
cos
E
E
1 1
2
1
2
2
E
E
1

,
_

i
r
=
2
1
2
E
E
1
cos
cos

,
_

i
r
t
i

,
_

,
_

i
r
i
r
E
E
1
E
E
1
=
2
1
2
E
E
1
cos
cos

,
_

i
r
t
i

i
r
E
E
1+
=

,
_

i
r
t
i
E
E
1
cos
cos
1
2

1
1
]
1

+
t
i
i
r
cos
cos
1
E
E
1
2
=
1
cos
cos
1
2

t
i
1
1
]
1

+
i
i t
i
r
cos
cos cos
E
E
1
2 1
=
1
1
]
1

+
i
t i
cos
cos cos
1
1 2

i
r
E
E
=
1
1
]
1

+

t i
t i
cos cos
cos cos
1 2
1 2
But
t
cos
=
t

2
sin 1 ,
i
r
E
E
=
1
1
]
1

+

t i
t i
2
1 2
2
1 2
sin 1 ( cos
sin 1 ( cos
But,
t
i

sin
sin
=
1
2

t
sin
=
2
1

i
sin
t

2
sin =
2
1

2
sin
Substituting
i
r
E
E
=
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

i i
i i
2
2
2
1
1 2
2
2
2
1
1 2
sin cos
sin cos
i
r
E
E
=
1
1
1
1
]
1

i i
i i
2 2
1 2 1
2
2
2 2
1 2 1
2
2
sin
1
cos
sin
1
cos

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

i i
i i
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
sin cos
sin cos
Dividing numerator and denominator by
1
2

, we get the reflection coefficient as,

t C o e f f i c i e n
R e f l e c t i o n
=
i i
i i
i
r
E

2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
sin cos
sin cos
E

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

This equation gives the ratio of reflected to incident electric field for vertically
polarized wave. It is nothing but a reflection coefficient for parallel to vertical polarization.
5.14.3 Brewster Angle (Total Refraction)
It is the angle at which no reflection takes place. This is shown in figure 5.10. This
occurs, when the numerator of the reflection coefficient is zero.
0 sin cos
2
1
2
1
2

i i

0 sin cos
2
1
2
1
2

i i

i i

2
1
2 2
1
2
sin sin 1
On squaring both side of the above equation, we get
( )
i

2
2
1
2
2
sin 1 = i

2
1
2
sin
Figure: 5.10 Total
refraction
i

2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
sin = i

2
1
2
sin

,
_

2
1
2
2 2
1 sin
i
=
2
1
2
2
1
2

) ( sin
2
2
2
1
2

i
=
2
2 2 1

=
) (
2 1 2

i

2
sin =
2
2
2
1
2 1 2
) (



i

2
sin =
2
2 1
2
+

2
cos =
2 1
1
+

2
tan =
1
2

i
tan
=
1
2

=
1
2 1
tan

When the incident wave is parallel polarized, this angle is called as Brewster angle
and at this angle there is no reflection takes place.
5.14.4 Total Internal Reflection:
When a wave is incident from the denser medium into rarer medium at an angle equal
to or greater than the critical angle, the wave will be totally, internally reflected back. This
phenomenon is called as total internal reflection and shown in figure 5.11.

Figure: 5.11 Total Internal Reflection
If
1

is greater than
2

, then both the reflection coefficients for vertical and

horizontal polarizations become complex when
1
2
sin

>
i
At critical angle the reflection coefficients has unity value.
i
r
E
E
=
i i
i i

2
1
2
2
1
2
sin cos
sin cos
But,
c i

(Critical angle)

c c

2
1
2
sin cos
=
c c

+
2
1
2
sin cos
=
c

2
1
2
sin
= 0

c

2
sin =
1
2

and

c

=
1
2 1
sin

This is the critical angle at which no refraction (transmission) takes places. That is,
the wave traversed along the boundary surface.