‭BRM Expected Questions‬

‭Q. 1 Define Business Research. What are the objectives of Business Research?‬
a‭ ns: The term Business Research refers to academic research on topics related to questions that‬
‭are relevant to the field of business and management and have a social science orientation. We‬
‭include in this category research in areas such as organizational behavior, marketing, accounting,‬
‭HRM, and strategy, which draw on the social sciences for conceptual and theoretical inspiration.‬
‭Objectives of business research:‬
‭•1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this‬
‭object in view are termed exploratory or formulative research studies);‬
‭•2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or a group (studies‬
‭with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);‬
‭•3. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as‬
‭hypothesis-testing research studies).‬

‭ .2 Differentiate between research methods, methodology, and techniques with suitable‬

Q
‭examples.‬
‭ans: Research methods vs research methodology:‬
‭—(i)‬‭Research Methods are the methods researchers‬‭use in performing research operations,‬
‭ hereas Research Methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.‬
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‭—(ii) Research Methods help in the analysis of collected data to aid in finding Results, and thus‬
‭are a subset of Research Methodology, which provides a complete footprint of the research,‬
‭starting from Formulating the problem up to Logical Conclusion.‬
‭—(iii) The scope of Research Methodology is wider than that of Research Methods.‬
‭—Thus, when we talk of Research Methodology, we not only talk of Research Methods, but also‬
‭consider the logic behind the methods we utilize in the context of the research, and explain why‬
‭we are utilizing a particular method or technique so that research results are capable of being‬
‭evaluated by the researcher or by others.‬

‭RESEARCH METHODS Vs TECHNIQUES:‬

‭—‭R ‬ esearch techniques refer to the behavior and instruments‬‭we use in performing research‬
‭operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data, and the‬
‭like. And, Research methods refer to the behavior and instruments used in selecting and‬
‭constructing research techniques. example:‬

‭ .3 Explain the research process flow chart and the various steps required to‬
Q
‭perform scientific inquiry with relevant research problems.‬
‭ans:‬

‭The research process flow chart typically includes the following steps:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Identifying a Research Problem‬‭: The first step in‬‭the research process is to‬
‭identify a problem or question that needs to be solved or answered. This could‬
‭be a gap in current knowledge, a societal issue, or a theoretical question.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Reviewing Literature‬‭: Once the problem has been identified,‬‭the researcher‬
‭reviews existing literature on the topic. This helps to understand what has‬
‭already been discovered and where gaps in knowledge exist.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Formulating a Hypothesis‬‭: Based on the literature‬‭review, the researcher‬
‭formulates a hypothesis or a set of hypotheses. A hypothesis is a proposed‬
‭explanation for a phenomenon, which can be tested.‬
 ‭4.‬ D ‭ esign Research‬‭: The researcher then designs a study to test the hypothesis.‬
‭This includes deciding on the research methodology, selecting a sample, and‬
‭determining how data will be collected and analyzed.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Collecting Data‬‭: The researcher collects data according‬‭to the study design.‬
‭This could involve conducting experiments, surveys, interviews, or‬
‭observations.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Analyzing Data‬‭: The collected data is then analyzed.‬‭This could involve‬
‭statistical analysis, qualitative analysis, or a combination of both.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Interpreting Results‬‭: The researcher interprets the‬‭results of the data analysis.‬
‭This involves determining whether the data supports the hypothesis, and what‬
‭the implications of the findings are.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Reporting Findings‬‭: Finally, the researcher reports‬‭the findings. This typically‬
‭involves writing a research paper or report, which includes an introduction,‬
‭literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.‬
‭Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the research is valid, reliable, and‬
‭contributes to the body of knowledge in the field.‬

‭ ere's how the research process flow chart would be applied to the research problem‬
H
‭"Does the use of technology in the classroom improve student learning‬
‭outcomes?"‬
‭1.‬ ‭Identifying a Research Problem:‬‭The researcher identifies‬‭that the impact of‬
‭technology use in the classroom on student learning outcomes is a significant‬
‭issue that needs further investigation.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Reviewing Literature‬‭: The researcher reviews existing‬‭studies on technology‬
‭use in the classroom and its effects on student learning outcomes. They find that‬
‭while some studies suggest a positive impact, others do not find a significant‬
‭effect.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Formulating a Hypothesis‬‭: Based on the literature‬‭review, the researcher‬
‭hypothesizes that the use of technology in the classroom will improve student‬
‭learning outcomes.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Design Research‬‭: The researcher designs a study where‬‭they will compare‬
‭student learning outcomes in classrooms that use technology (experimental‬
‭group) with classrooms that do not (control group).‬
‭5.‬ ‭Collecting Data‬‭: The researcher collects data on student‬‭learning outcomes‬
‭from both groups, using measures such as test scores, grades, and student‬
‭engagement levels.‬
 ‭6.‬ A ‭ nalyzing Data‬‭: The researcher uses statistical analysis to compare the‬
‭learning outcomes of the two groups.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Interpreting Results‬‭: The researcher finds that the‬‭group with technology use‬
‭in the classroom performed significantly better on the measures of learning‬
‭outcomes, supporting the hypothesis.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Reporting Findings‬‭: The researcher writes a research‬‭paper detailing the study‬
‭design, results, and implications of the findings, contributing to the body of‬
‭knowledge on the impact of technology use in the classroom on student learning‬
‭outcomes.‬
‭This example illustrates how the research process flow chart guides the scientific‬
‭inquiry from start to finish.‬

‭ .4 Explain Applied, Descriptive, analytical, Qualitative, Quantitative, and‬

Q
‭fundamental research with examples.‬
‭ans:‬
‭—‬‭Descriptive Vs Analytical :‬
‭ he main purpose of Descriptive research is to find out the state of affairs as it exists at‬
T
‭present. It includes Surveys and fact-finding inquiries of various kinds. The researcher‬
‭has no control over the variables. He/She can only find out what has happened or what‬
‭is happening.‬
‭whereas, In Analytical research, the researcher has to use facts and information‬
‭already available, and analyze these through various methods to make a critical‬
‭evaluation, and arrive at the final conclusion.‬

‭ pplied Vs Fundamental:‬
A
‭Applied research aims at finding the Solution for an immediate problem facing a‬
‭business organization or society. It includes research related to social, economic &‬
‭political trends that may affect a business institution, marketing research, etc‬

‭ undamental Research is concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of‬
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‭a theory. It includes research concerning human behavior.‬

‭—‬‭Quantitative Vs. Qualitative:‬

‭Quantitative research is based on quantified measurements. It applies to phenomena‬
‭which can be expressed in terms of quantities.‬
 ‭ ualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, which cannot be‬
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‭measured. Examples, investigating the reasons for human behaviour in a particular‬
‭situation, Motivation Research, Attitude or opinion research, etc. In-depth interviews‬
‭are used for this purpose.‬
‭ .5 What is research design ? Its types . Differentiate between single‬
Q
‭cross-sectional and multiple cross-sectional and longitudinal research‬
‭designs with examples.‬
‭Ans:‬

•‭ Research‬ ‭design‬ ‭A‬ ‭framework‬ ‭or‬ ‭blueprint‬ ‭for‬ ‭conducting‬ ‭the‬ ‭marketing‬ ‭research‬
‭project.‬ ‭It‬ ‭specifies‬ ‭the‬ ‭details‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭procedures‬ ‭necessary‬ ‭for‬ ‭obtaining‬ ‭the‬
‭information needed to structure and/or solve marketing research problems.‬
•‭ Research‬ ‭design‬ ‭stands‬ ‭for‬ ‭advance‬ ‭planning‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭methods‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭adopted‬ ‭for‬
‭collecting‬ ‭the‬‭relevant‬‭data‬‭and‬‭the‬‭techniques‬‭to‬‭be‬‭used‬‭in‬‭their‬‭analysis,‬‭keeping‬‭in‬
‭view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money.‬

‭ ingle Cross-Sectional Design‬‭: In a single cross-sectional‬‭design, data is collected at‬

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‭a single point in time from a sample of a population. This design is often used to‬
‭ nderstand the prevalence of a phenomenon or to compare groups at a specific point in‬
u
‭time. However, it does not allow for the examination of changes over time.‬
‭Example:‬‭A researcher might use a single cross-sectional design to study the‬
‭prevalence of smoking among adults in a city. They would collect data from a sample‬
‭of adults in the city at one point in time to determine how many are current smokers.‬

‭ ultiple Cross-Sectional Design‬‭: In a multiple cross-sectional design, data is‬

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‭collected at multiple points in time, but from different samples of the same population.‬
‭This design allows for the examination of changes over time, but because different‬
‭samples are used, it's not possible to track the changes at the individual level.‬
‭Example‬‭: A researcher might use a multiple cross-sectional‬‭design to study changes in‬
‭smoking habits among adults in a city over a decade. They would collect data from a‬
‭sample of adults in the city at the start of the decade and then from a different sample‬
‭of adults at the end of the decade to see if the prevalence of smoking has changed.‬

‭ ongitudinal Design‬‭: In a longitudinal design, data is collected from the same‬

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‭individuals at multiple points in time. This design allows for the examination of‬
‭changes over time at the individual level, making it possible to track the development‬
‭and progression of a phenomenon.‬
‭Example:‬‭A researcher might use a longitudinal design‬‭to study the progression of a‬
‭disease in a group of patients. They would collect data from the same group of patients‬
‭at multiple points in time to track the progression of the disease.‬

‭ .6 What do you understand by the term experimental research design?‬

Q
‭Explain the different types of informal experimental research design(with‬
‭flow chart) with the help of the suitable example of your choice‬
‭ans:‬
‭ esearch in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental‬
R
‭hypothesis-testing research’‬
‭•Experiment:‬‭The process of examining the truth of‬‭a statistical hypothesis, relating to‬
‭some research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an‬
‭experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments‬
‭can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want‬
‭to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute‬
‭experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the‬
‭impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative‬
e‭ xperiment. Often, we undertake comparative experiments when we talk of designs of‬
‭experiments.‬

‭Informal Experimental Designs:‬

•‭ Before-and-after without control design‬‭: In such a design a single test group or area‬
‭is selected and the dependent variable is measured before the introduction of the‬
‭treatment. The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured‬
‭again after the treatment has been introduced. The effect of the treatment would be‬
‭equal to the level of the phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the‬
‭phenomenon before the treatment. The main difficulty of such a design is that with the‬
‭passage of time considerable extraneous variations may be there in its treatment effect.‬

•‭ After-only with control design:‬‭In this design, two‬‭groups or areas (test area and‬
‭control area) are selected and the treatment is introduced into the test area only. The‬
‭dependent variable is then measured in both areas at the same time. Treatment impact‬
‭is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in the control area from‬
‭its value in the test area. The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are‬
‭identical with respect to their behavior toward the phenomenon considered. If this‬
‭assumption is not true, there is the possibility of extraneous variation entering into the‬
‭treatment effect. However, data can be collected in such a design without the‬
‭introduction of problems with the passage of time.‬
•‭ Before-and-after with control design:‬‭In this design, two areas are selected and the‬
‭dependent variable is measured in both areas for an identical time period before the‬
‭treatment. The treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the dependent‬
‭variable is measured in both for an identical time period after the introduction of the‬
‭treatment. The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the‬
‭dependent variable in the control area from the change in the dependent variable in the‬
‭test area.‬

‭ .7 Explain in detail various types of observation methods with suitable‬

Q
‭illustrations, relative advantages, and disadvantages of observation‬
‭methods.‬
‭ans:‬

‭ ersonal Observation:‬
P
‭•A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.‬
‭•The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being observed but‬
‭merely records what takes place.‬
•‭ For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a‬
‭department store.‬

‭ echanical Observation:‬
M
‭Do not require respondents' direct participation.‬
‭•the AC Nielsen audiometer‬
‭•turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a building.‬
‭•On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)‬
‭•Optical scanners in supermarkets‬
‭•‬
‭Do require respondent involvement.‬
‭•eye-tracking monitors‬
‭•pupilometers‬
‭•psychogalvanometers‬
‭•voice pitch analyzers‬
‭•devices measuring response latency‬

‭ udit:‬
A
‭•The researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory‬
‭analysis.‬
‭•Data are collected personally by the researcher.‬
‭•The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects.‬
‭•Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing research suppliers were discussed‬
‭in the context of syndicated data in‬

‭ ontent Analysis:‬
C
‭•The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a‬
‭communication.‬
‭•The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or objects), themes‬
‭(propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), or topics‬
‭(subject of the message).‬
‭•Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and the communication is‬
‭broken down according to prescribed rules.‬

‭ race Analysis:‬
T
‭Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past‬
‭behavior.‬
•‭ The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate was used‬
‭to determine the relative popularity of exhibits.‬
‭•The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the readership of‬
‭various advertisements in a magazine.‬
‭•The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used to estimate the‬
‭share of the listening audience of various radio stations.‬
‭•The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the affluence of‬
‭customers.‬
‭•The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people's favorite‬
‭magazines.‬
‭•Internet visitors leave traces that can be analyzed to examine browsing and usage‬
‭behavior by using cookies.‬

‭ elative Advantages of Observation :‬

R
‭•They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or‬
‭preferred behavior.‬
‭•There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer, and the‬
‭interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.‬
‭•Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.‬
‭•If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational‬
‭methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.‬

‭ elative disadvantages of Observation :‬

R
‭•The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known‬
‭about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.‬
‭•Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.‬
‭•Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to‬
‭observe certain forms of behavior.‬
‭•In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing‬
‭people without their knowledge or consent.‬
‭•‬
‭It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as‬
‭competing with them.‬

‭ .8 Explain various scale characteristics and levels of measurement.‬

Q
‭ans:‬
•‭ All the scales that we use in research can be described in terms of four basic‬
‭characteristics.‬
‭•These characteristics are description, order, distance, and origin, and together they‬
‭define the level of measurement of a scale.‬
‭•The level of measurement denotes what properties of an object the scale is measuring‬
‭or not measuring. An understanding of the scale characteristics is fundamental to‬
‭understanding the primary type of scales.‬

•‭ ‭D ‬ escription‬‭: By description, we mean the unique labels‬‭or descriptors that are used to‬
‭designate each value of the scale. Some examples of descriptors are as follows:‬
‭•1=Female, 2=Male‬
‭•1=Strongly disagree, 2= Disagree, 3=Neither agree nor disagree, 4=Agree, and‬
‭5=Strongly agree‬
‭•To amplify, Female and Male are unique descriptors used to describe values 1 and 2‬
‭of the gender scale‬

‭ rder:‬ ‭By order, we mean the relative sizes or positions‬‭of the descriptors. There are‬
O
‭no absolute values associated with order, only relative values. Order is denoted by‬
‭descriptors such as “greater than,” “less than,” and “equal to.”‬
‭•For example, a respondent’s preference for three brands of athletic shoes is expressed‬
‭in the following order, with the most preferred brand being listed first and the least‬
‭preferred brand last.‬
‭•Nike‬
‭•Reebok‬
‭•Adidas‬
‭•For this respondent, the preference for Nike is greater than the preference for Reebok.‬
‭Likewise, the preference for Adidas is less than the preference for Reebok.‬

‭ istance‬‭: The characteristic of distance means that‬‭absolute differences between the‬

D
‭scale descriptors are known and may be expressed in units. A five-person household‬
‭has one person more than a four-person household, which in turn has one person more‬
‭than a three-person household. Thus, the following scale possesses the distance‬
‭characteristic.‬
‭•Number of persons living in your household ___________________‬
‭•Notice, that a scale that has distance also has order. We know that a five-person‬
‭household is greater than a four-person household in terms of the number of persons‬
l‭iving in the household. Likewise, a three-person household is less than a four-person‬
‭household. Thus, distance implies order but the reverse may not be true.‬

‭ rigin‬‭: The origin characteristic means that the scale‬‭has a unique or fixed beginning‬
O
‭or true zero point. Thus, an exact measurement of income by a scale such as: What is‬
‭the annual income of our household before taxes? $ ____________________ has a‬
‭fixed origin or a true zero point. An answer of zero would mean that the household has‬
‭no income at all. A scale that has origin also has distance (and order and description).‬
‭•Many scales used in marketing research do not have a fixed origin or true zero point,‬
‭as in the disagree-agree scale considered earlier under description. Notice that such a‬
‭scale was defined as 1 Strongly disagree, 2 Disagree, 3 Neither agree nor disagree, 4‬
‭Agree, and 5 Strongly agree. However, 1 is an arbitrary origin or starting point.‬

‭ .9 What do you mean by measurement? Explain all primary scales of‬

Q
‭measurement.‬
‭ans:‬
‭ easurement‬‭means assigning numbers or other symbols‬‭to characteristics of objects‬
M
‭according to certain prespecified rules.‬
‭The most important aspect of measurement is the specification of rules for assigning‬
‭numbers to the characteristics.‬
‭•One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being‬
‭measured.‬
‭•The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly.‬
‭•Rules must not change over objects or time.‬

‭There are four primary scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.‬

‭ ominal Scale‬‭:‬
N
‭•The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects.‬
‭•When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the‬
‭numbers and the objects.‬
•‭ The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the objects.‬
‭•Each number is assigned to only one object and each object has only one number‬
‭assigned to it.‬
‭•The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting.‬
‭•Common examples include Social Security numbers and numbers assigned to football‬
‭players. In marketing research, nominal scales are used for identifying respondents,‬
‭brands, attributes, stores, and other objects‬

‭ rdinal Scale‬‭: An ordinal scale is a ranking scale‬‭in which numbers are assigned to‬
O
‭objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic.‬
‭An ordinal scale allows you to determine whether an object has more or less of a‬
‭characteristic than some other object, but not how much more or less. Thus, an ordinal‬
‭scale indicates the relative position, not the magnitude of the differences between the‬
‭objects. The object ranked first has more of the characteristics as compared to the‬
‭object ranked second, but whether the object ranked second is a close second or a poor‬
‭second is not known.‬
‭•The ordinal scales possess description and order characteristics but do not possess‬
‭distance (or origin). Common examples of ordinal scales include quality rankings,‬
‭rankings of teams in a tournament, socioeconomic class, and occupational status. In‬
‭marketing research, ordinal scales are used to measure relative attitudes, opinions,‬
‭perceptions, and preferences.‬

I‭ nterval Scale‬‭: In an interval scale, numerically‬‭equal distances on the scale represent‬

‭equal values in the characteristic being measured. An interval scale contains all the‬
‭information of an ordinal scale, but it also allows you to compare the differences‬
‭between objects.‬
‭•The difference between any two scale values is identical to the difference between any‬
‭other two adjacent values of an interval scale. There is a constant or equal interval‬
‭between scale values. The difference between 1 and 2 is the same as the difference‬
‭between 2 and 3, which is the same as the difference between 5 and 6. The distance‬
‭between descriptors is known.‬
‭•A common example in everyday life is a temperature scale.‬
‭•In an interval scale, the location of the zero point is not fixed, i.e., these scales do not‬
‭possess the origin characteristic. Both the zero point and the units of measurement are‬
‭arbitrary.‬
‭Ratio Scale:‬‭A ratio scale possesses all the properties‬‭of the nominal, ordinal, and‬
‭interval scales and, in addition, an absolute zero point. Thus, ratio scales possess the‬
c‭ haracteristic of origin (and distance, order, and description). Thus, in ratio scales, we‬
‭can identify or classify objects, rank the objects, and compare intervals or differences.‬
‭It is also meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.‬
‭•Not only is the difference between 2 and 5 the same as the difference between 14 and‬
‭17 but also 14 is seven times as large as 2 in an absolute sense.‬
‭•Common examples of ratio scales include height, weight, age, and money. In‬
‭marketing, sales, costs, market share, and number of customers are variables measured‬
‭on a ratio scale.‬

‭10. Concepts of Research design‬

‭ ariable:‬‭A concept which can take on different quantitative values‬‭is called a‬
V
‭variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of‬
‭variables.‬

•‭ ‬‭Dependent‬ ‭Variable:‬ ‭If‬ ‭one‬ ‭variable‬ ‭depends‬ ‭upon‬ ‭or‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭consequence‬‭of‬‭the‬‭other‬
‭variable, it is termed as a dependent variable.‬
‭Independent Variable:‬‭The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable‬‭is‬
‭termed as an independent variable‬
‭Example:‬‭For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height‬‭is a‬
‭dependent variable and age is an independent variable‬

•‭ ‬‭Extraneous‬‭variable:‬‭Independent‬‭variables‬‭that‬‭are‬‭not‬‭related‬‭to‬‭the‬‭purpose‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.‬

•‭ Example:‬ ‭The‬ ‭researcher‬ ‭wants‬ ‭to‬ ‭test‬ ‭the‬ ‭hypothesis‬ ‭that‬ ‭there‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭relationship‬
‭between‬ ‭children’s‬ ‭gains‬ ‭in‬‭social‬‭studies‬‭achievement‬‭and‬‭their‬‭self-concepts.‬‭In‬‭this‬
‭case‬ ‭self-concept‬ ‭is‬ ‭an‬ ‭independent‬ ‭variable‬ ‭and‬ ‭social‬ ‭studies‬ ‭achievement‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬
‭dependent‬‭variable.‬‭Intelligence‬‭may‬‭as‬‭well‬‭affect‬‭the‬‭social‬‭studies‬‭achievement,‬‭but‬
‭since‬‭it‬‭is‬‭not‬‭related‬‭to‬‭the‬‭purpose‬‭of‬‭the‬‭study‬‭undertaken‬‭by‬‭the‬‭researcher,‬‭it‬‭will‬‭be‬
‭termed as an extraneous variable.‬

•‭ ‬‭Control:‬ ‭One‬ ‭important‬ ‭characteristic‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭good‬ ‭research‬ ‭design‬ ‭is‬ ‭to‬ ‭minimize‬ ‭the‬
‭influence‬‭or‬‭effect‬‭of‬‭extraneous‬‭variable(s).‬‭The‬‭technical‬‭term‬‭‘control’‬‭is‬‭used‬‭when‬
‭we‬ ‭design‬ ‭the‬ ‭study‬ ‭minimising‬ ‭the‬ ‭effects‬ ‭of‬ ‭extraneous‬ ‭independent‬ ‭variables.‬ ‭In‬
e‭ xperimental‬ ‭researches,‬ ‭the‬ ‭term‬ ‭‘control’‬ ‭is‬ ‭used‬ ‭to‬ ‭refer‬ ‭to‬ ‭restrain‬ ‭experimental‬
‭conditions‬
•‭ ‬‭Confounded‬‭relationship:‬‭When‬‭the‬‭dependent‬‭variable‬‭is‬‭not‬‭free‬‭from‬‭the‬‭influence‬
‭of‬ ‭extraneous‬ ‭variable(s),‬ ‭the‬ ‭relationship‬ ‭between‬ ‭the‬ ‭dependent‬ ‭and‬ ‭independent‬
‭variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).‬
•‭ ‬‭The‬‭research‬‭hypothesis‬‭is‬‭a‬‭predictive‬‭statement‬‭that‬‭relates‬‭an‬‭independent‬‭variable‬
‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭dependent‬ ‭variable.‬ ‭Usually‬ ‭a‬ ‭research‬ ‭hypothesis‬ ‭must‬ ‭contain,‬ ‭at‬ ‭least,‬ ‭one‬
‭independent‬ ‭and‬ ‭one‬ ‭dependent‬ ‭variable.‬ ‭Predictive‬ ‭statements‬ ‭which‬ ‭are‬ ‭not‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬
‭objectively‬ ‭verified‬ ‭or‬ ‭the‬ ‭relationships‬ ‭that‬ ‭are‬ ‭assumed‬‭but‬‭not‬‭to‬‭be‬‭tested,‬‭are‬‭not‬
‭termed research hypotheses‬

•‭ ‬‭Experimental‬‭and‬‭non-experimental‬‭hypothesis-testing‬‭research:‬‭When‬‭the‬‭purpose‬
‭of‬‭research‬‭is‬‭to‬‭test‬‭a‬‭research‬‭hypothesis,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭termed‬‭as‬‭hypothesis-testing‬‭research.‬
‭It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.‬
•‭ Research‬ ‭in‬ ‭which‬ ‭the‬ ‭independent‬ ‭variable‬ ‭is‬ ‭manipulated‬ ‭is‬ ‭termed‬ ‭‘experimental‬
‭hypothesis-testing‬ ‭research’‬ ‭and‬ ‭a‬ ‭research‬ ‭in‬ ‭which‬ ‭an‬ ‭independent‬ ‭variable‬ ‭is‬ ‭not‬
‭manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’.‬
•‭ For‬‭instance,‬‭suppose‬‭a‬‭researcher‬‭wants‬‭to‬‭study‬‭whether‬‭intelligence‬‭affects‬‭reading‬
‭ability‬‭for‬‭a‬‭group‬‭of‬‭students‬‭and‬‭for‬‭this‬‭purpose‬‭he‬‭randomly‬‭selects‬‭50‬‭students‬‭and‬
‭tests‬ ‭their‬ ‭intelligence‬ ‭and‬ ‭reading‬‭ability‬‭by‬‭calculating‬‭the‬‭coefficient‬‭of‬‭correlation‬
‭between‬ ‭the‬ ‭two‬ ‭sets‬ ‭of‬ ‭scores.‬ ‭This‬ ‭is‬ ‭an‬ ‭example‬ ‭of‬ ‭non-experimental‬
‭hypothesis-testing‬‭research‬‭because‬‭herein‬‭the‬‭independent‬‭variable,‬‭intelligence,‬‭is‬‭not‬
‭manipulated.‬
•‭ But‬ ‭now‬ ‭suppose‬ ‭that‬ ‭our‬ ‭researcher‬ ‭randomly‬ ‭selects‬ ‭50‬ ‭students‬ ‭from‬ ‭a‬ ‭group‬ ‭of‬
‭students‬‭who‬‭are‬‭to‬‭take‬‭a‬‭course‬‭in‬‭statistics‬‭and‬‭then‬‭divides‬‭them‬‭into‬‭two‬‭groups‬‭by‬
‭randomly‬ ‭assigning‬‭25‬‭to‬‭Group‬‭A,‬‭the‬‭usual‬‭studies‬‭programme,‬‭and‬‭25‬‭to‬‭Group‬‭B,‬
‭the‬ ‭special‬ ‭studies‬‭programme.‬‭At‬‭the‬‭end‬‭of‬‭the‬‭course,‬‭he‬‭administers‬‭a‬‭test‬‭to‬‭each‬
‭group‬ ‭in‬ ‭order‬ ‭to‬ ‭judge‬ ‭the‬ ‭effectiveness‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭training‬ ‭programme‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭student’s‬
‭performance-level.‬ ‭This‬ ‭is‬ ‭an‬ ‭example‬ ‭of‬ ‭experimental‬ ‭hypothesis-testing‬ ‭research‬
‭because‬ ‭in‬ ‭this‬‭case‬‭the‬‭independent‬‭variable,‬‭viz.,‬‭the‬‭type‬‭of‬‭training‬‭programme,‬‭is‬
‭manipulated‬

•‭ ‬‭Experimental‬ ‭and‬ ‭control‬ ‭groups:‬ ‭In‬ ‭an‬ ‭experimental‬ ‭hypothesis-testing‬ ‭research‬

‭when‬ ‭a‬ ‭group‬ ‭is‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭usual‬‭conditions,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭termed‬‭a‬‭‘control‬‭group’,‬‭but‬‭when‬
‭the‬‭group‬‭is‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭some‬‭novel‬‭or‬‭special‬‭condition,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭termed‬‭an‬‭‘experimental‬
‭group’.‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬ ‭possible‬ ‭to‬ ‭design‬ ‭studies‬ ‭which‬ ‭include‬ ‭only‬ ‭experimental‬ ‭groups‬ ‭or‬
‭studies which include both experimental and control groups.‬
•‭ ‬‭Treatments:‬ ‭The‬ ‭different‬ ‭conditions‬ ‭under‬ ‭which‬ ‭experimental‬ ‭and‬ ‭control‬ ‭groups‬
‭are‬ ‭put‬ ‭are‬ ‭usually‬ ‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭‘treatments’.‬‭In‬‭the‬‭illustration‬‭taken‬‭above,‬‭the‬‭two‬
‭treatments‬ ‭are‬ ‭the‬ ‭usual‬ ‭studies‬ ‭programme‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭special‬ ‭studies‬ ‭programme.‬
‭Similarly,‬ ‭if‬ ‭we‬ ‭want‬ ‭to‬ ‭determine‬ ‭through‬ ‭an‬ ‭experiment‬ ‭the‬ ‭comparative‬‭impact‬‭of‬
t‭hree‬ ‭varieties‬ ‭of‬ ‭fertilizers‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭yield‬ ‭of‬ ‭wheat,‬ ‭in‬ ‭that‬ ‭case‬ ‭the‬ ‭three‬ ‭varieties‬ ‭of‬
‭fertilizers will be treated as three treatments‬
•‭ ‬‭Experiment:‬‭The‬‭process‬‭of‬‭examining‬‭the‬‭truth‬‭of‬‭a‬‭statistical‬‭hypothesis,‬‭relating‬‭to‬
‭some‬ ‭research‬ ‭problem,‬ ‭is‬ ‭known‬ ‭as‬‭an‬‭experiment.‬‭For‬‭example,‬‭we‬‭can‬‭conduct‬‭an‬
‭experiment‬‭to‬‭examine‬‭the‬‭usefulness‬‭of‬‭a‬‭certain‬‭newly‬‭developed‬‭drug.‬‭Experiments‬
‭can‬‭be‬‭of‬‭two‬‭types‬‭viz.,‬‭absolute‬‭experiment‬‭and‬‭comparative‬‭experiment.‬‭If‬‭we‬‭want‬
‭to‬ ‭determine‬ ‭the‬ ‭impact‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭fertilizer‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭yield‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭crop,‬ ‭it‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬‭case‬‭of‬‭absolute‬
‭experiment;‬‭but‬‭if‬‭we‬‭want‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭impact‬‭of‬‭one‬‭fertilizer‬‭as‬‭compared‬‭to‬‭the‬
‭impact‬ ‭of‬ ‭some‬ ‭other‬ ‭fertilizer,‬ ‭our‬ ‭experiment‬ ‭then‬ ‭will‬ ‭be‬‭termed‬‭as‬‭a‬‭comparative‬
‭experiment.‬‭Often,‬‭we‬‭undertake‬‭comparative‬‭experiments‬‭when‬‭we‬‭talk‬‭of‬‭designs‬‭of‬
‭experiments.‬