Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management Vol. 5 No.

1 2012

ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL STATUS OF BOREHOLES IN CALABAR SOUTH LOCAL

GOVERNMENT AREA, CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA
Njar, G. N.,1 *Iwara, A.I.,2 Offiong, R.A.1 and Deekor, T.D.3
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ejesm.v5i1.10

Received 16th January 2012; accepted 13th February 2012

Abstract
Although, many heavy metals are necessary in small amounts for the normal development of the
biological cycles, most of them become toxic at high concentrations. The major sources of heavy
metal pollution in urban areas of Nigeria are anthropogenic, while contamination from natural
sources predominates in the rural areas. The study examined heavy metal status of boreholes in
Calabar South, Cross River of Nigeria. Four functional boreholes in the area were sampled. Result
showed that the concentrations of iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and Manganese (Mn) were within WHO
maximum permissible limit with mean values of 0.065ml-1g, 0.015mgl-1 and 0.002mgl-1
respectively. The proportion of copper (Cu), chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb) in the sampled boreholes
was zero, indicating the absence of these metals in the sampled boreholes. The absolutely low
levels of heavy metal contents across the sampled boreholes showed they were not polluted and
as such suitable for human consumption. The low content also revealed that boreholes in the area
were located far away from dumpsites; soak away pits, automobile shops and other forms of
heavy metal contaminants. In order to maintain quality status of boreholes in the area, routine
monitoring and assessment of boreholes mostly the indiscriminate sinking of boreholes in the
area by sanitary inspection officers was suggested.
Keywords: Heavy Metal, Borehole Water, Functional Boreholes, Proportion, Quality Status

Introduction
Heavy metal is a generic term that through erosion (Duruibe et al., 2007), and
describes the group of metals and metalloids when mined ores are dumped on the earth
with atomic density greater than 4 g/cm3 or 5 surfaces in manual dressing processes.
times or more, greater than water. Heavy Through rivers and streams, the metals are
metal according to Duruibe et al., (2007) has transported as either dissolved species in
little to do with density but concerns chemical water or as an integral part of suspended
properties. However, lead, cadmium, mercury matter causing the most deleterious effects on
and arsenic are main threats to human health aquatic life (Duruibe et al., 2007).
when exposed to them. Mildvan (1970) noted In addition, to a small extent, the metals
that heavy metals such as Cd, Ni, As, Pb pose enter the human bodies via food, drinking
a number of hazards to humans; and are water and air. Though, some heavy metals
indeed cofactors as activator biochemical (e.g. copper, selenium, zinc) are essential to
reactions and enzymatic for information of maintain the metabolism of the human body,
enzyme/substrate metal complex. Heavy but, concentrations above the desirable level
metals are natural components of the earth's can lead to poisoning (Lenntech, 2011).
crust, as can neither be degraded nor Heavy metal poisoning could result, for
destroyed. Environmental pollution by heavy instance, from drinking-water contamination
metals is prominent in mining and old mine (e.g. lead pipes), high ambient air
sites and pollution reduces with increasing concentrations near emission sources, or
distance away from mining sites. Through intake via the food chain. Heavy metals are
mining activities, water bodies mostly surface dangerous because they tend to
water are most polluted (Garbarino et al., bioaccumulate. Bioaccumulation results when
1995) and the possibility of contamination there is an increase in the concentration of a
1
Dept.increases with &theRegional
of Geography exposure of metal-bearing
Planning, University of chemical in a biological organism over time,
ores rather
Calabar, Nigeria than natural exposure of ore bodies compared to the natural concentration of
2
Dept. of Geography, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
3
Dept. of Geography & Environmental Management, 86
University of Port Harcourt Nigeria
*Corresponding author email:[email protected]
 Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management Vol. 5 No.1 2012

chemicals in the environment. Heavy metals systems seem to be particularly important

may enter a water supply by industrial and issues of present day research on risk
household wastes, or from acidic rain assessment (Sharma et al., 2004). Calabar
resulting in the disintegration of soils and South Local Government Area of Cross River
releasing heavy metals into streams, lakes, State, as an urban centre with relatively high
rivers, and groundwater (Lenntech, 2011). population of 80, 196 persons (NPC, 2006;
Many trace elements are necessary in Ottong et al., 2010), commercial activities and
small amounts for the normal development of service industries, the absence of potable
the biological cycles, but most of them water to every household has led to the
become toxic at high concentrations. The proliferation of boreholes as a result of its
major sources of heavy metal pollution in high demand and lucrative nature. As such, in
urban areas of Africa are anthropogenic, while some areas, boreholes are located too near and
contamination from natural sources downstream of soak away pits or adjoining
predominates in the rural areas. landfills/waste dump sites (Afangideh et al.,
Anthropogenic sources of pollution include 2011).
those associated with fossil fuel and coal The concentration of heavy metal in water
combustion, industrial effluents, solid waste sources (river, stream, well and boreholes) has
disposal, and mining and metal processing. In attracted concerns from scholars, as a result of
animal body, metals enter through feeds, its health implications on biotic organisms
green fodder, drinking water and especially man. The literature is exhaustive on
pharmaceuticals, consumption of mineral the subject, and every study examined the
supplements with high content of trace metal level of these metals in water sources in their
and licking of painted surfaced containing respective ecosystems (Olade, 1987; Jarup,
metallic pigments (Raikwar et al., 2008). 2003; Duruibe et al., 2007; Samudin et al.,
However, among these pathways, the 2009; Prabu, 2009; Momodu and Anyakora,
atmosphere tends to be of greatest to human 2010; Nwankwoala et al., 2011). However,
health, as a result of the quantities of despite the abundance of literature on heavy
contaminants involved and the widespread metals, there is paucity of information on
dispersion and exposure (Raikwar et al., heavy metal status of boreholes in Calabar
2008). South Local Government Area. This study
According to Olade (1987), the impact of therefore attempts to assess the heavy metal
these pollutants is confined mostly to the status of boreholes in the area as well as
urban centres with large populations, high discusses the health implications of
traffic density and consumer-oriented consuming borehole water with high
industries. Natural sources of pollution concentration of heavy metals.
include weathering of mineral deposits, brush
burning and windblown dusts. Among the Material and methods
heavy metals, the most serious effect of Study area
pollution is presently associated with lead (Pb) The study was conducted in Calabar
emission (Olade, 1987). Heavy metals like Fe, South Local Governments Area of Cross
Cu, Zn, Ni and other trace elements are River State, Nigeria between the 3rd and 7th of
important for proper functioning of biological September, 2009. Calabar South is located
systems and their deficiency or excess could approximately between longitude 80 19’E and
lead to a number of disorders. Food chain 80 21’E and latitude 40 55’N and 40 58’N.
contamination by heavy metals has become a Owing to it latitudinal location, the area
serious issue in recent years because of their receives abundant and constant insolation. The
potential accumulation in biosystems through maximum temperature is above 270C with a
contaminated water, soil and air. Therefore, a peak at about 350C during January to
better understanding of heavy metal sources, February. The vegetation of Calabar South is
their accumulation in the soil and the effect of characterized by mangrove and rainforest
their presence in water, soil and on plant ecosystems which form part of the rich fauna

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 Assessment of Heavy Metal Status of Boreholes.......................Njar et al. EJESM Vol. 5 No.1 2012

and flora of the state. The major economic Results and Discussion
activities in the area are farming, fishing and The physico-chemical parameters of water
the public sector which are basically samples from the four boreholes shows that
government owned ministries. Presently, the the borehole water samples are acidic with
pace is set to rejuvenate a dynamic, purposeful mean pH value of 5.56. The acidic nature of
and vibrant sector economy in the metropolis borehole water is attributed to the presence of
to complement the tourism drive of the state tiny shale intercalations in the aquiferous
(Afangideh et al., 2011). The major sources of coastal plain sand (Afangideh, et al., 2011).
water for drinking in the area are pipe-borne The pH values are below the minimum
water, borehole, rainwater and river. desirable limits of 6.5 set by WHO (WHO,
Sample collection and analysis 2006). The values of total suspended solids
The procedure for data selection started (TSS) and turbidity are zero; meaning that the
with a reconnaissance survey to the area. This water is harmless, in its natural state and ideal
enabled functional boreholes to be identified. for human consumption. It further indicates
Functional borehole was conceptualized as the absence of organic and inorganic solids
one that is frequently in use with level of (Afangideh, et al., 2011). The conductivity of
patronage (use) greater than 50 persons per the borehole samples varied with a mean
day. Through this approach, 19 functional value of 357µScm-1. This value is within
boreholes were identified, with their names WHO desirable limit of 500µScm-1 for
written on pieces of paper after which 4 drinking water. However, total hardness of the
boreholes were randomly selected without water samples ranged from 16.00 to 32.00mgl-
1
replacement. Water samples were collected in with a mean value of 32.00mgl-1, and is
1.5 litre plastic bottles; before the collection of below WHO 500mgl-1 acceptable limit,
water samples, the boreholes were allowed to meaning the water is soft and foamy. This
pump for 15 minutes so that water with a indicates that the boreholes are suitable for
constant temperature and pH, representing that domestic consumption.
from the aquifer was collected. Water samples Heavy metal analysis of the groundwater
were collected at the borehole heads. Prior to samples
sample collection, all plastic bottles were Table 2 shows vital information on the
rinsed thrice with the borehole water. After contents of heavy metals in the sampled
sampling, the containers were tightly covered. boreholes. The concentration of iron (Fe) in
The samples were appropriately labeled and the borehole water ranged between 0.016 to
put in an ice-packed cooler, and immediately 0.088mgl-1 with a mean value of 0.065mgl-1.
taken to the laboratory for analysis of heavy Fe content in the sampled boreholes is with
metals using flame atomic absorption within WHO maximum permissible limit of
spectrophotometer, AAS (model 0.3mgl-1. The low concentration of Fe means
210/211VGP); 220GF Graphite furnace 220 water from these boreholes does not have the
AS Autosampler. In addition, physical potentials of staining laundering as well as
properties such as pH, TSS, turbidity, disrupt the human system. The value of
conductivity and total hardness were manganese (Mn) ranged from 0.002 to
determined using standard methods (APHA, 0.003mgl-1 with a mean value of 0.002mgl-1;
1998). Results obtained from the laboratory the mean content of Mn (0.001mgl-1) falls
analysis were represented using tables and within the maximum desirable limit of 0.5mgl-
1
averages, while analysis of variance set by WHO. The low concentration of Mn
(ANOVA) for significant variation in water implies that water from the sampled boreholes
quality among the sampled boreholes was has good taste and would not promote the
determined using SPSS 17.0 for Windows. growth of algae in reservoirs or collection
The trace elements analysed were Fe, Mn, Cu, tanks (Nwankwoala et al., 2011). Zinc is
Zn, Pb and Cr. considered non-toxic, but excess amount can
cause system dysfunctions that result in
impairment of growth and reproduction

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 Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management Vol. 5 No.1 2012

(Nolan, 2003). The clinical signs of zinc have indicating the absence of these metals in the
been reported to include vomiting, diarrhea, sampled boreholes (table 2). The ANOVA
bloody urine, icterus (yellow mucus result shows that the contents of heavy metals
membrane), liver failure, kidney failure and do not vary significantly among the four
anemia (Fosmire, 1990); Duruibe et al., 2007). boreholes (F 3, 20 = 242, P>0.05).
Zinc (Zn) content in the borehole water
samples ranged from 0.012 to 0.018 mgl-1 Conclusion/Recommendations
with a mean value of 0.015mgl-1 is within The absolutely low levels of heavy metal
WHO maximum allowable of 3.0mgl-1 for contents across the sampled boreholes show
drinking water (table 2). This indicates that they are not polluted and as such suitable for
water from the sampled water contain the human consumption. The low content also
right proportion of Zn which is an essential reveals that boreholes in the area are located
plant and human nutrient element. The low far away from dumpsites, automobile shops
concentration further implies the boreholes do and other forms of heavy metal
not have caustic taste, hence ideal for contamination. The result therefore implies
consumption and other domestic uses. Lead is that the quality status of boreholes in the area
the most toxic of the heavy metals. Its is not in any way polluted, as the examined
inorganic forms are absorbed through parameters are within WHO maximum
ingestion by food, water and inhalation permissible limits for drinking water. In order
(Ferner, 2001). In humans exposure to lead to maintain the present quality status of
can result in a wide range of biological effects boreholes in the area, routine monitoring and
depending on the level and duration of assessment of boreholes mostly the
exposure. High levels of exposure may result indiscriminate sinking of boreholes to meet
in toxic biochemical effects in humans which the ever increasing demands of people in the
in turn cause problems in the synthesis of area by sanitary inspection officers is
haemoglobin, effects on the kidneys, suggested.
gastrointestinal tract, joints and reproductive
system, and acute or chronic damage to the References
nervous system (Lenntech, 2011; Duruibe et Afangideh, A.I., Njar, G. N., Ewa, E. E., Eli,
al., 2007). The proportion of lead (Pb) in the H.D. and Iwara, A. I. (2011) Assessment of
sampled boreholes was zero, indicating the Water Quality Status of Borehole in Calabar
absence of lead contamination. Copper is an South Local Government Area, Cross River
essential substance to human life, but in high State. International Journal of Biosciences, 1
doses it can cause anemia, liver and kidney (5): 71-76
damage, and stomach and intestinal irritation. Duruibe, J. O. Ogwuegbu, M. O. C. and
Copper occurs in drinking water from Egwurugwu, J. N. (2007) Heavy Metal
copper pipes, as well as from additives Pollution and Human Biotoxic Effects.
designed to control algal growth. Just like Pb, International Journal of Physical Sciences, 2
Cu and Cr were absent in the sampled (5): 112-118
boreholes. Chromium is used in metal alloys Ferner, D. J. (2001) Toxicity, Heavy Metals.
and pigments for paints, cement, paper, eMed. J., 2(5): 1.
rubber, and other materials. Low-level Fosmire, G. J. (1990) Zinc Toxicity. Am. J.
exposure can irritate the skin and cause Clin. Nutr., 51(2): 225 -227
ulceration. Long-term exposure can cause Garbarino, J. R. Hayes, H. Roth, D.
kidney and liver damage, and damage too Antweider, R. Brinton, T. I. and Taylor, H.
circulatory and nerve tissue. Chromium often (1995) Contaminants in the Mississippi River,
accumulates in aquatic life, adding to the U. S. Geological Survey Circular 1133,
danger of eating fish that may have been Virginia, U.S.A.
exposed to high levels of chromium www.pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1133/
(Lenntech, 2011). The proportion of copper
(Cu), chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb) was zero,

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 Assessment of Heavy Metal Status of Boreholes.......................Njar et al. EJESM Vol. 5 No.1 2012

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Table 1 Physico-chemical parameters of borehole water samples

Range
Parameters Mean values WHO*
Min Max
pH 5.46 5.62 5.62 6.5 – 8.5
TSS (mgl-1) 0.00 0.00 0.00 -
Turbidity (FTU) 0.00 0.00 0.00 5
Conductivity(µScm-1) 190 494 357 500
Total Hardness (mgl-1) 16.00 32.00 32.0 500
*WHO (2004: 2006)

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Table 2 Heavy metal concentrations of borehole water samples

Range Max. acceptable limit

Parameters Mean
Max Min (WHO)*
Iron (Fe) mgl-1 0.088 0.016 0.065 0.3
Manganese (Mn) mgl-1 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.5
Copper (Cu) mgl-1 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.0
Zinc (Zn) mgl-1 0.018 0.012 0.014 3.0
Lead (Pb) 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.01
Chromium (Cr) mgl-1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.05
Selected boreholes
Parameters
Goldie Harcourt Atamuno Palm Street
Fe ( mgl-1) 0.088 0.073 0.016 0.082
Mn (mgl-1) 0.002 0.003 0.001 0.002
Cu (mgl-1) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Zn (mgl-1) 0.018 0.012 0.014 0.011
Pb (mgl-1) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Cr (mgl-1) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
*WHO (2004)

91