CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND

STUDIES
1.1 Introduction
When soil is vulnerable from the universal force of attraction, rainfall

and water irrigation, creek bank erosion occurs. The exposed soil moves

downhill and often ends up in a creek when water flows over the waste

ground. Creek bank erosion is a natural process and the key principle in

preventing or reducing erosion along creeks is to maintain good ground cover

over the surface of the banks. This reduces contact between falling rain or

floodwaters and the banks, decreasing the amount of soil eroded.

In mitigating erosion, slope protection is vital and stands as critical

elements in the field of construction and environmental control, addressing

issues of soil erosion and land deterioration that can lead to significant

bionomical and structural challenges. It refers to engineering techniques that

are utilized to stabilize the slope surface such as riverbanks and creeks. The

execution of slope protection works requires previous studies of the land and

the area to be protected, in order to determine the instability present in the

slope and estimate the risks of failures occurring.

Effective slope protection is essential for maintaining soil integrity,

preventing landslides, and protecting infrastructure and ecosystems. Heavy

rainfall can lead to numerous hazards, which can threaten human life, disrupt

transport and communications, and cause soil erosion, landslides and damage

of properties. Slope protection helps the community from the impacts of

flooding especially for those who live near the riverbanks and creeks.
Investing in slope protection can save communities money in the long run by

reducing the costs associated with flood damage and infrastructure repairs.

1.2 Review of Related Literature

1.2.1 Slope Stability

The stability of a slope refers to its ability to resist or experience

movement [1]. A slope's stability is crucial for applications involving

geotechnical engineering. Serious problems including infrastructure damage

or even fatalities can result from a slope displacement, commonly known as a

landslide. Slope stability is contingent upon the soil mass's ability to endure

its own gravitational pull, additional stresses occurring on the slope, and any

dynamic loads (such an earthquake) [2]. Moreover, The stability of slopes is

frequently impacted by various geological and environmental factors, with

weathering effects playing a particularly important role [3].

1.2.2 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a global problem affecting both developed and

developing countries. In the Philippines, it is considered one of the worst

environmental issues [4] .Soil erosion has negative impacts on agricultural

production, quality of source water, and ecosystem health in terms of aquatic

and land environment (Fayas etal., 2019). As per Balasubramanian, soil

erosion is a significant social and economic issue that must be taken into

consideration when evaluating ecosystem function and health.

Slopes must frequently be excavated and backfilled as part of

human engineering operations. However, this process destroyed the original

surface vegetation cover, creating secondary bare land that exacerbated

environmental problems like landslides and soil erosion [5].

Soil erosion is a challenge that impacts the growth of societies both

economically and socially. As erosion becomes more severe, it brings about a

range of ecological issues and financial losses. Even though it may not appear

to directly affect everyday life, erosion leads to various adverse outcomes

like reduced water and food quality, diminished agricultural land

productivity, and natural disasters like floods and landslides that cause harm

to both people and property (Artun et al., 2017; Özvan et al., 2022) [6].

1.2.3 Slope Protection

Slope protection and stabilization are essential elements in

environmental management , construction, tackling problems of land

degradation and soil erosion that can result in serious structural and

ecological problems [7]. Slope protection strategies now employed in the

nation frequently consist of the application of sodding, stone masonry, or

concrete riprap techniques [8].

1.2.4 Factors causing soil erosion

According to Sumiahadi and Acar (2019), agricultural land is a

major area with the highest soil erosion rate in Indonesia, and it is because of

inappropriate agricultural practices such as agriculture activities on very steep

slopes (more than 15%) and cultivation in a sloping area without any

protective measures.
 Global warming has changed the global hydrological cycle in

recent years, which means that extreme rainfall events will occur more

frequently and with greater intensity on a global to regional scale in the future

(Kendon et al., 2023, Domínguez-Tuda and Gutiérrez-Jurado, 2021, Tabari,

2020).

The kinetic energy of raindrops impinging on slope runoff is also

higher during extreme rainfall events than during regular rainfall events, and

precipitation per unit of time increases dramatically during extreme rainfall

events (Zhang et al., 2023, Serio et al., 2019).

Accordingly, raindrops and runoff change the way that soil

structure is harmed (Gayen et al., 2020, Ferreira et al., 2018). A single

extreme rainfall event has been found to account for 35.0% (Makhtoumi et

al., 2023) or even 84.0% of the yearly soil loss (Cevasco et al., 2015). Fragile

ecosystems pose a greater challenge when subjected to the effects of

excessive rainfall (Myhre et al., 2019).

Because of excessive rainfall, the soil is more damaged and may

experience more severe soil erosion (Zhao et al., 2024, Panagos et al., 2022).

In addition, soils on slopes may become softer and weaker as a result

of rainwater seeping through crevices [9].

1.3 Background of the Study

Saguin Creek is a natural channel that directs rainwater and

runoff from the mountains toward the Pampanga River, playing an essential

role in local agriculture. However, the soil banks of the creek in Barangay
Saguin have been steadily eroding due to the effects of climate change.

Heavy rainfall, in particular, leads to flooding that further weakens the soil.

Some nearby houses have started to depend on these eroding banks as their

foundation, putting the properties at risk due to the lack of soil stability.

This situation illustrates creek bank erosion, a natural process where

the banks of creeks or rivers gradually wear away due to water flow, wave

action, and weathering. Such erosion has far-reaching environmental and

economic consequences, including the loss of land, destruction of habitats,

and increased sedimentation in water bodies. The ongoing erosion in Saguin

Creek not only threatens the ecosystem but also endangers local communities

that rely on the creek for agriculture and daily needs.

To combat creek bank erosion effectively, integrating slope

protection along creek presents a promising solution. All activities and

procedures aimed at halting erosion on a slope and preventing the separation

or sliding of rocks from the slopes are collectively referred to as slope

protection. Its primary goals are to protect the structure's integrity, avert

mishaps, and prevent material damage or fatalities.

To ensure the soil physical integrity, slope protection must be

established for the stabilization of land during infrastructure construction,

mining operations, and agricultural practices. Natural slopes must be

protected when they are near towns or other places where people live, like

farms, national parks, recreational areas, and particularly along

communication routes, in order to prevent mishaps that could endanger lives

or cause material and financial harm.

 This study proposes slope protection along a creek in barangay

Saguin as it aims to protect the soil from erosion. It is crucial to implement

slope protection measures to stop materials from sliding or separating off the

slope or to confine them before they reach places where people are active.

Furthermore, this study promotes environmental safety, benefiting not only

the ecosystem but also the people living near the creek.

1.3.1 Study Area

Saguin is a barrio located in the Pampanga province's San

Fernando city. 8,256 people were living there as of the 2020 Census. This

was equivalent to 2.33% of San Fernando's total population. The population

of Saguin grew from 2,787 in 1990 to 8,256 in 2020, an increase of 5,469

people over 30 years. The latest census figures in 2020 denote a positive

growth rate of 3.58%, or an increase of 1,269 people, from the previous

population of 6,987 in 2015. [10]

Figure 1: Open Street Map of Barangay Saguin, San Fernando

Pampanga
 San Fernando is a landlocked component city in the coastal

province of Pampanga. It serves as the provincial capital as well as the

regional center of Central Luzon. San Fernando has 35 barangays and Saguin

is one of them. Furthemore, Barangay Saguin is located on the island of

Luzon, roughly at 15.0959 and 120.6226. It is estimated that the elevation at

these coordinates is 56.8 meters, or 186.3 feet, above mean sea level.

Figure 2: Location at the Creek along Barangay Saguin

A creek is a small river or stream that flows into the land from

the sea, a lake, etc. or a narrow area of water that flows into the land. It is a

natural stream of water normally smaller than and often tributary to a river.

The creek responds to surface and groundwater fluxes that modify its flow

and depth. A creek is generally smaller than a river in terms of width and

depth. Creeks serve several important purposes in the natural environment.

They recharge the water table, allowing water to seep into the ground and

replenish underground reserves. Creeks also help filter and purify surface

water runoff through the action of plant roots and bottom sediments.
Additionally, they play a crucial role in stormwater drainage and flood

control.

Saguin Creek is an upstream flow of water that connects the

creek of the nearby barangays of San Fernando to the Pampanga River. It is

located between purok 5 and purok 4 of the barangay. Creek banks became a

foundation of some houses built by illegal settlers that put their safety at risk.

In 2014, families who lived along waterways who are illegally

settled on banks in Barangay Saguin, San Jose, Pandaras, Del Rosario, San

Agustin and San Pedro were given new houses in Barangay Malpitic as their

alternative homes. The structures they built were demolished along the San

Fernando River, San Agustin Creek, Saguin Creek, and Balimbing Creek.

However, in Barangay Saguin, there are still some families who chose to stay

and their house won’t be demolished. Hence, some areas in the banks of

Saguin Creek needs stabilization for the welfare of the people.

1.4 General Objectives

This study aims to propose an effective slope protection to stabilize the creek

bank of Brgy. Saguin, City of San Fernando Pampanga.

1.4.1 Specific Objectives

Specifically, the study aims to answer the following;

· Gather comprehensive data on soil properties, soil types, waterflow

and hydraulic studies for the selected area.

 · Develop a design to serve as an effective soil protection measure.

· Assess the cost-effectiveness of using the design

1.5 Significance of the Study

The study if beneficial to the following stakeholders:

· Local Government Unit (LGU), this study will maximize land

resources by making it possible to use sloped landscape for

homes, recreation, or agriculture. In the long term, preventing

erosion and floods can save LGUs money by lowering the cost of

maintaining and repairing damaged infrastructure.

· For the Barangay Officials to quickly address issues in areas that

require attention, especially regarding creeks near residences, to

minimize soil erosion and prevent damage caused by unstable

land, so that they can create a resolution regarding these issues.

· Residents, this study will benefit them to keep them safe especially

if their houses are affected by soil erosion in the creek, it also

helps them to promote a sense of responsibility towards

maintaining the creek and its surroundings, leading to a healthier

and more resilient ecosystem.

· Environment, this study will benefit the environment by reducing

soil erosion and improving biodiversity in ecosystems. It helps

prevent landslides and enhances water quality in waterways.

 Additionally, it promotes sustainable practices and strengthens the

environment's resilience to climate change.

· Researchers, to examine or test the social and economic effects of

retaining walls, researchers can interact with nearby residence of

the communities and monitor their reactions and adjustments.

Data on the efficiency of erosion control, water drainage patterns,

and the long-term performance of various retaining wall designs

and materials can be gathered by researchers.

· Future Researchers, this study could be advantageous for future

researchers interested in it, as it would simplify their search for

relevant literature and data related to this topic.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

This study will focus on slope protection as the propose design along

the creek of Barangay Saguin, City of San Fernando, Pampanga. It will

prioritize the people living in the soil bank that needs stabilization.

This study will extend to the other as it will arise in a study which is

out of the researcher’s control.

 1.7 Conceptual Framework

Input Process

Output
- Gather comprehensive

data on soil properties,

soil types, waterflow and

hydraulic studies for the

- Soil properties selected area.
- Water flow
- Slope protection
- Soil bearing capacity - Develop a design to
along creek for
- Kind of slope Barangay Saguin
serve as an effective soil
protection
- Cost effectiveness protection measure.

- Assess the cost-

effectiveness
Fig. 3. The Input–Process–Output, of model.
or IPO, using

the design

The researchers used the Input–Process–Output known as IPO

model to guide them in doing their study. The IPO model represents a system

in three stages: input, process and output. Inputs are modelled as

consumables and efforts that are introduced to a system at the beginning

stage of the life cycle. Process is modelled as the conversion of the inputs to

the outputs. Outputs are used as the result produced by the input and process

[11].

Under the input category, it consists of soil properties, water flow,

soil bearing capacity, kind of slope protection, cost effectiveness to be able to

proceed to the process category.

Within the process it includes data gathering specifically on soil

properties, soil types, water flow and hydraulic studies for the selected area.
Also, development of design to serve as an effective soil protection measure.

To assess the cost-effectiveness of using the design.

Following the application of the input and the completion of the

process, it ends up proposing a design of slope protection at the Barangay

Saguin.

1.8 Definition of Terms

· Bank Erosion is a hazard for the community leaving near the

creek. It can bring damages to their properties and danger

regarding health matters.

· Creek is a small river in Brgy. Saguin San Fernando Pampanga has

natural flow of water coming from drainages. It plays an

important role in the community.

· Flooding is one of the natural hazards that can occur in the place

especially when there is a typhoon coming.

· Global Warming is an effect of climate change.

· Input–Process–Output, or IPO, model used for conceptual

framework to serve as guide to the researchers.

· Landslides is occuring due to looseness of soil.

· River is a large stream of water where the flow of water in creek

ends

· Soil Erosion is effect on several factors happening on the soil.

 · Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land.

· Slope Protection is an essential part of the said location in

terms of preventing erosion, landslides and other forms of slope

failure.

· Stability it is the state of being stable

· Slope Stability is the state of the slope being stable

1.9. List of Abbreviation

1. IPO – Input Process Output model

2. LGU – Local Government Unit

REFERENCES

[1] Sustainable Slope Stability Analysis: A Critical Study on Methods

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/14/8847

[2] Rocscience Inc’s Course: 2D & 3D Limit Equilibrium Slope Stability

Analysis begins on Oct 23rd 2024

https://www.geoengineer.org/events/course-2d-3d-limit-equilibrium-slope-

stability-analysis]

[3] Delineating soil erosion risk in Marinduque, Philippines using RUSLE

(2022)

https://www.ukdr.uplb.edu.ph/journal-articles/420/

[4] Slope Stability Analysis of Open-Pit Mine Considering Weathering

Effects
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
384186751_Slope_Stability_Analysis_of_Open-
Pit_Mine_Considering_Weathering_Effects

[5] A systematic review of soil erosion control practices on the agricultural

land in Asia
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
340506704_A_systematic_review_of_soil_erosion_control_practices_on_the
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[6] Comprehensive Guide to Slope Protection: All You Need to Know April
2024
https://www.erizon.com.au/comprehensive-guide-to-slope-protection-all-you-
need-to-know/

[7] Soil Erosion in Indonesia and Its Control

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
337137622_Soil_Erosion_in_Indonesia_and_Its_Control

[8] A Proposal Design of Stone-Pitched Retaining Wall as a Countermeasure

for Soil Erosion in San Agustin Creek, San Agustin, San Fernando,
Pampanga. (June 2024)

https://ijsred.com/volume7/issue3/IJSRED-V7I3P195.pdf

[9] Failure Mechanisms and Protection Measures for Expansive Soil Slopes:
A Review
https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/12/5127

[10] Saguin City of San Fernando Pampanga

https://www.philatlas.com/luzon/r03/pampanga/san-fernando/saguin.html

[11] A framework for identifying performance targets for sustainable

nanomaterials

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/

S2214993714000074#:~:text=The%20IPO%20model%20represents%20a,