OCN/FON 18EC824/17EC82

Module 1
Optical Fiber Communication: Historical development, The general system, Advantages of optical fiber
communication, Optical fiber wave guides: Ray theory transmission, Modes in planar guide, Phase and group
velocity, cylindrical fiber: Modes, Step index fibers, Graded index fibers, Single mode fibers, Cutoff
wavelength, Mode field diameter, effective refractive index. Fiber materials, Photonic crystal fibers.

➢ Communication may be broadly defined as the transfer of information from one point to another.
➢ When the information is to be conveyed over any distance a communication system is usually required.
➢ Within a communication system the information transfer is frequently achieved by superimposing or
modulating the information onto an electromagnetic wave which acts as a carrier for the information
signal.
➢ This modulated carrier is then transmitted to the required destination where it is received and the
original information signal is obtained by demodulation.
➢ Sophisticated techniques have been developed for this process using electromagnetic carrier waves
operating at radio frequencies as well as microwave and millimetre wave frequencies.
➢ Communication may also be achieved using an electromagnetic carrier which is selected from the
optical range of frequencies.
Historical Development
✓ The use of visible optical carrier waves or light for communication has been common for many years.
Simple systems such as signal fires, reflecting mirrors, signalling lamps have provided successful
information transfer.
✓ Early as 1880 Alexander Graham Bell reported the transmission of speech using a light beam. The
photophone proposed by Bell just four years after the invention of the telephone modulated sunlight
with a diaphragm giving speech transmission over a distance of 200 m.
✓ Although some investigation of optical communication continued in the early part of the twentieth
century its use was limited to mobile, low-capacity communication links.
✓ This was due to both the lack of suitable light sources and the problem that light transmission in the
atmosphere is restricted to line of sight and is severely affected by disturbances such as rain, snow,
fog, dust and atmospheric turbulence.
✓ Lower frequency and hence longer wavelength electromagnetic waves (i.e., radio and microwave)
proved suitable carriers for information transfer in the atmosphere, being far less affected by these
atmospheric conditions.
✓ Depending on their wavelengths, these electromagnetic carriers can be transmitted over considerable
distances but are limited in the amount of information they can convey by their frequencies (i.e., the
information-carrying capacity is directly related to the bandwidth or frequency extent of the modulated
carrier, which is generally limited to a fixed fraction of the carrier frequency).
✓ In theory, the greater the carrier frequency, the larger the available transmission bandwidth and thus
the information-carrying capacity of the communication system.
✓ For this reason, radio communication was developed to higher frequencies (i.e., VHF and UHF)
leading to the introduction of the even higher frequency microwave and, latterly, millimetre wave
transmission.
✓ The relative frequencies and wavelengths of these types of electromagnetic wave can be observed from
the electromagnetic spectrum shown in Figure 1.1.

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Figure 1.1: The electromagnetic spectrum showing the region used for optical fiber communications

✓ In this context it may also be noted that communication at optical frequencies offers an increase in the
potential usable bandwidth by a factor of around 104 over high-frequency microwave transmission.
✓ An additional benefit of the use of high carrier frequencies is the general ability of the communication
system to concentrate the available power within the transmitted electromagnetic wave, thus giving an
improved system performance.
✓ A renewed interest in optical communication was stimulated in the early 1960s with the invention of
the laser. This device provided a powerful coherent light source, together with the possibility of
modulation at high frequency.
✓ The low beam divergence of the laser made enhanced free space optical transmission a practical
possibility. The previously mentioned constraints of light transmission in the atmosphere tended to
restrict these systems to short-distance applications.
✓ Despite the problems some modest free space optical communication links have been implemented for
applications such as the linking of a television camera to a base vehicle and for data links of a few
hundred meters between buildings.
✓ There is also some interest in optical communication between satellites in outer space using similar
techniques. Although the use of the laser for free space optical communication proved somewhat
limited, the invention of the laser instigated a tremendous research effort into the study of optical
components to achieve reliable information transfer using a light wave carrier.
✓ The proposals for optical communication via dielectric waveguides or optical fibers fabricated from
glass to avoid degradation of the optical signal by the atmosphere were made almost simultaneously
in 1966 by Kao and Hockham and Werts. Such systems were viewed as a replacement for coaxial
cable or carrier transmission systems.
✓ Initially the optical fibers exhibited very high attenuation (i.e., 1000 dB 𝑘𝑚−1) and were therefore not
comparable with the coaxial cables they were to replace (i.e., 5 to 10 dB 𝑘𝑚−1)).
✓ There were also serious problems involved in jointing the fiber cables in a satisfactory manner to
achieve low loss and to enable the process to be performed relatively easily and repeatedly in the field.
Within the space of 10 years optical fiber losses were reduced to below 5 dB 𝑘𝑚−1 and suitable low-
loss jointing techniques were perfected.
✓ In parallel with the development of the fiber waveguide, attention was also focused on the other optical
components which would constitute the optical fiber communication system. Since optical frequencies

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are accompanied by extremely small wavelengths, the development of all these optical components
essentially required a new technology.
✓ Thus, semiconductor optical sources (i.e., injection lasers and light-emitting diodes) and detectors (i.e.,
photodiodes and to a lesser extent phototransistors) compatible in size with optical fibers were
designed and fabricated to enable successful implementation of the optical fiber system.
✓ The materials growth and fabrication technology has been developed specifically for
telecommunication applications and it is now mature. For telecommunication applications such lasers
are often provided with a thermoelectric cooler together with a monitoring photodiode in the device
package in order to facilitate current and thus temperature control.
✓ Although developments in fiber technology have continued rapidly over recent years, certain
previously favoured areas of interest such as the application of fluoride fibers for even longer
wavelength operation in the mid-infrared (2 to 5 μm) and far-infrared (8 to 12 μm) regions have
declined due to their failure to demonstrate practically the theoretically predicted, extremely low fiber
losses combined with the emergence of optical amplifiers suitable for use with silica-based fibers.
✓ An important development, however, concerns the discovery of the phenomenon of photonic bandgaps
which can be created in structures which propagate light, such as crystals or optical fibers.
✓ One particular form of photonic crystal fiber, for example, comprises a micro structured regular lattice
of air holes running along its length.
✓ Such ‘holey’ fibers have the unusual property that they only transmit a single mode of light and hence
form an entirely new single-mode fiber type which can carry more optical power than a conventional
one.
✓ A further class of photonic bandgap fiber is defined by a large hollow core in which the light is guided.
Such air guiding or hollow-core optical fibers could find application in photonic bandgap devices to
provide dispersion compensation on long-haul fiber links or for high-resolution, tunable spectral
filters.
✓ Nevertheless, even without the commercial availability of photonic bandgap devices, the
implementation of a wide range of conventional fiber components (splices, connectors, couplers, etc.)
and active optoelectronic devices (sources, detectors, amplifiers, etc.) has also moved to a stage of
maturity.
✓ High-performance, reliable optical fiber communication systems and networks are therefore now
widely deployed within the worldwide telecommunication network and in many more localized
communication application areas.
The general system
✓ An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any type of communication
system.
✓ A block schematic of a general communication system is shown in Figure 1.2(a), the function of which
is to convey the signal from the information source over the transmission medium to the destination.
✓ The communication system therefore consists of a transmitter or modulator linked to the information
source, the transmission medium, and a receiver or demodulator at the destination point.

Figure 1.2(a): The general communication system

✓ In electrical communications the information source provides an electrical signal, usually derived from
a message signal which is not electrical (e.g., sound), to a transmitter comprising electrical and
electronic components which converts the signal into a suitable form for propagation over the
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transmission medium. This is often achieved by modulating a carrier which may be an electromagnetic
wave.
✓ The transmission medium can consist of a pair of wires, a coaxial cable or a radio link through free
space down which the signal is transmitted to the receiver, where it is transformed into the original
electrical information signal (demodulated) before being passed to the destination.
✓ It must be noted that in any transmission medium the signal is attenuated, or suffers loss, and is subject
to degradations due to contamination by random signals and noise, as well as possible distortions
imposed by mechanisms within the medium itself.
✓ Therefore, in any communication system there is a maximum permitted distance between the
transmitter and the receiver beyond which the system effectively ceases to give intelligible
communication.
✓ For long haul applications these factors necessitate the installation of repeaters or line amplifiers at
intervals, both to remove signal distortion and to increase signal level before transmission is continued
down the link.
✓ For optical fiber communications the system shown in Figure 1.2(a) may be considered in slightly
greater detail, as given in Figure 1.2(b).

Figure 1.2(b): The optical fiber communication system

✓ The information source provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an electrical stage
which drives an optical source to give modulation of the light wave carrier.
✓ The optical source which provides the electrical–optical conversion may be either a semiconductor
laser or light-emitting diode (LED).
✓ The transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable and the receiver consists of an optical
detector which drives a further electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of the optical carrier.
Photodiodes (p–n, p–i–n or avalanche) and, in some instances, phototransistors and photoconductors
are utilized for the detection of the optical signal and the optical–electrical conversion.
✓ Thus, there is a requirement for electrical interfacing at either end of the optical link and at present the
signal processing is usually performed electrically.
✓ The optical carrier may be modulated using either an analog or digital information signal. In the system
shown in Figure 1.2(b) analog modulation involves the variation of the light emitted from the optical
source in a continuous manner. With digital modulation, discrete changes in the light intensity are
obtained (i.e., on–off pulses).
✓ Analog modulation with an optical fiber communication system is less efficient, requiring a far higher
signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver than digital modulation. The linearity needed for analog modulation
is not always provided by semiconductor optical sources, especially at high modulation frequencies.
✓ For these reasons, analog optical fiber communication links are generally limited to shorter distances
and lower bandwidth operation than digital links.

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Figure 1.3: A digital optical fiber link using a semiconductor laser source and an avalanche photodiode
(APD) detector
✓ Figure 1.3 shows a block schematic of a typical digital optical fiber link. Initially, the input digital
signal from the information source is suitably encoded for optical transmission.
✓ The laser drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of the semiconductor laser with the encoded
digital signal. Hence a digital optical signal is launched into the optical fiber cable.
✓ The avalanche photodiode (APD) detector is followed by a front-end amplifier and equalizer or filter
to provide gain as well as linear signal processing and noise bandwidth reduction. The signal obtained
is decoded to give the original digital information.
Advantages of optical fiber communication
Communication using an optical carrier wave guided along a glass fiber has a number of extremely attractive
features, several of which were apparent when the technique was originally conceived.
❖ Enormous potential bandwidth: The optical carrier frequency in the range 1013 to 1016 Hz (generally
in the near infrared around 1014 Hz or 105 GHz) yields a far greater potential transmission bandwidth
than metallic cable systems.
❖ Small size and weight: Optical fibers have very small diameters which are often no greater than the
diameter of a human hair. Even when such fibers are covered with protective coatings, they are far
smaller and much lighter than corresponding copper cables.
❖ Electrical isolation: Optical fibers which are fabricated from glass, or sometimes a plastic polymer,
are electrical insulators and therefore, they do not exhibit earth loop and interface problems.
❖ Immunity to interference and crosstalk: Optical fibers form a dielectric waveguide and are therefore
free from electromagnetic interference (EMI), radio-frequency interference (RFI), or switching
transients giving electromagnetic pulses (EMPs).
❖ Signal security: The light from optical fibers does not radiate significantly and therefore they provide
a high degree of signal security.
❖ Low transmission loss: The development of optical fibers over the last 20 years has resulted in the
production of optical fiber cables which exhibit very low attenuation (losses as low as 0.15 dB 𝑘𝑚−1)
or transmission loss in comparison with the best copper conductors.
❖ Ruggedness and flexibility: Although protective coatings are essential, optical fibers may be
manufactured with very high tensile strengths. Cable structures have been which have proved flexible,
compact and extremely rugged.
❖ System reliability and ease of maintenance: The low-loss property of optical fiber cables which
reduces the requirement for intermediate repeaters or line amplifiers to boost the transmitted signal
strength. With fewer optical repeaters or amplifiers, system reliability is generally enhanced and the
reliability of the optical components is no longer a problem.
❖ Potential low cost: The glass which generally provides the optical fiber transmission medium is made
from sand – not a scarce resource.

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Optical fiber waveguides:

Optical fiber cable is also called as Optical fiber waveguides. The structure is illustrated in Figure 2.1, which
shows a transparent core with a refractive index n1 surrounded by a transparent cladding of slightly lower
refractive index n2.

Figure 2.1: Optical fiber waveguide showing the core of refractive index n1, surrounded by the cladding of slightly
lower refractive index n2

The optical fiber waveguides consist of;

a) Core: It is the central region of the fiber. It consists of high refractive index[n1] (e.g., Glass) material.
Light is guided in this region.
b) Cladding: It is the outer optical material, surrounding the core. Its refractive index is slightly lesser
than the core region. i.e., n2< n1. The cladding supports the waveguide structure while also, when
sufficiently thick, substantially reducing the radiation loss into the surrounding air.
c) Buffer coating: It is the plastic coating that protects the fiber. It does not have any optical properties.
Light guiding characteristics of optical fiber waveguide is dependent on refractive index of core and cladding.
Optical fibers work on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR). Refractive index of core, n1 must be
always greater than refractive index of cladding, n2.
In essence, the light energy travels in both the core and the cladding allowing the associated fields to decay to
a negligible value at the cladding–air interface.
Ray Theory transmission
In Ray theory, the Light in Fiber Optics is considered as a simple ray, shown by a Line. Light travels at the
speed of 𝑐 = 3 ∗ 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 in free space.
When light travels through a optical material it exhibits certain behaviour explained by the laws of reflection
and refraction.
❖ Refractive Index(n): It is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in free space to the velocity of
light in any optically transparent material. It is denoted by ‘n’ and it is a dimensionless quantity.
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
Mathematically; 𝑛 =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑐 8 −1
𝑛= where 𝑐 = 3 ∗ 10 𝑚𝑠 and v= velocity of light in any medium.
𝑣
Note: Refractive index indicated the amount of bending (refraction) at the interface of two different
mediums/ materials.
Material name Refractive
index(n)
Air 1
Glass 1.5
Diamond 2
Silicon (Si) 3.5
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GaAs 3.7
AlGaAs 3.4
Higher Index medium is called “Optically denser medium”
Lower Index medium is called “Optically rarer medium”
Speed of light in any optical material is inversely proportional to refractive index.

❖ Reflection:

Laws of reflection states that;

1st Law: Incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflective surface, all lies in the same plane.
2nd Law: The Angle of Incidence= the Angle of Reflection
i.e., 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 where 𝜃1 is the Angle of incidence and 𝜃2 is the Angle of reflection

❖ Refraction:
When light rays enter from one medium to any other medium having a different refractive index, the
velocity of light changes. As a result, bending of light occurs and it is called as Refraction of light.

Let ‘O’ be the point of incidence. Dotted line indicates normal line to the interface.
Where 𝜑1 = Angle of incidence =Angle of reflection (using law of refection)
𝜑2 = Angle of refraction
** Snell’s Law: It states that the product of refractive index and sine of incidence angle in medium 1
must be equal to the product of refractive index and sine of refracted angle in medium 2.
i.e., 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑2
**Note: All angles are measured with respect to normal line.

❖ Critical Angle:
It is the angle of incidence, which results in 90º of angle of refraction. It is denoted by 𝜃𝑐 .
i.e., when 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑐 then, 𝜃𝑟 = 90° ad shown in the figure.

Note: 𝑛1 > 𝑛2

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Mathematical expression:
Using Snell’s law at the interface of medium1 and medium2
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟
Use the condition, 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑐 when 𝜃𝑟 = 90°
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛90° = 𝑛2
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
𝑛
Thus, critical angle, 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑛2 )
1

❖ Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

The Light is guided in the optical fiber based on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR). The
two necessary conditions required for TIR are;
i. The angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle. i.e., 𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑐 .
ii. The ray of light must enter from higher refractive index medium (optically denser(core)) to
lower refractive index (optically rarer(cladding)) medium. It is shown in the figure.

❖ Numerical Aperture
Light collecting and gathering ability of optical fiber is called Numerical aperture. It is denoted by NA.
Mathematically;
NA=√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 where, 𝑛1 = refractive index of core > 𝑛2
𝑛2 = refractive index of cladding.

❖ Relative Refractive index difference (∆)

Relative refractive index difference between core and cladding refractive indices (𝑛1 &𝑛2 ) is given by,
𝑛12 − 𝑛22
∆=
2𝑛12
Relation between NA and Relative refractive index difference (∆):
W.K.T. NA=√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 → 𝑁𝐴2 = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
Relative refractive index difference (∆)

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𝑛12 − 𝑛22
∆=
2𝑛12
𝑁𝐴2
∆= → 𝑁𝐴2 = 2𝑛12 ∆
2𝑛12
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 √2∆

❖ Acceptance angle (𝜽𝒐 )

It is the maximum entrance angle at which a ray of light can strike the fiber axis in order to be
propagated. It is denoted by ‘𝜃𝑜 ’.
Mathematically;
𝑁𝐴
Acceptance angle, 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑛 ), where NA=√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 , n=R.I of outside medium, if outside
medium is air, then n=1.
Proof:
Consider a ray of light ‘A’, enters the fiber core from a medium of refractive index ‘n’ at an angle ‘𝜃𝑜 ’
with respect to fiber axis. This angle is known as acceptance angle.
Hence, a ray should strike the interface (Air-fiber core) within the angle 𝜃𝑜 to propagate the light
through the core of the fiber. When the entrance angle is 𝜃𝑜 then the ray of light strikes he core-cladding
interface at an angle of ‘𝜃𝑐 ’, where 𝜃𝑐 is the critical angle given by,
𝑛
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑛2 ). It is shown in the figure.
1

Apply Snell’s law at the surrounding medium (n) and fiber core (𝑛1 ) interface;
𝑛3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟
From triangle OXY, refracted angle 𝜃𝑟 = 90° − 𝜃𝑐
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛1 sin (90° − 𝜃𝑐 )
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 ……………. (1)
W.K.T from critical angle definition
𝑛 𝑛 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 Thus, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐 =√1 − (𝑛1 )
1 2

√𝑛12 −𝑛22
𝑛12 −𝑛22 𝑁𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 = √ = = ………….. (2)
𝑛12 𝑛1 𝑛1
Where NA= Numerical Aperture of fiber = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑁𝐴
Substitute 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛 in equation (1)
1
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 ∗ 𝑛1
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐴
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜 = ∗ 𝑛1 → 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛
𝑛1
𝑁𝐴
𝜃𝑜 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑛 ) , If outside medium is Air, then n=1 and we get
Acceptance angle, 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑁𝐴) where NA=√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 𝑛1 √2∆.

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❖ Acceptance Cone
Rotating the Acceptance angle ‘𝜃𝑜 ’ around the fiber axis, a cone shaped pattern is obtained. It is called
as Acceptance Cone of the fiber input. The figure shows the acceptance cone of the fiber input.

From the figure the total cone angle= 2𝜃𝑜

Acceptance angle, 𝜃𝑜 = half of cone angle
The cone of acceptance is the angle within which the light is accepted into the core and is able to
propagate along the fiber core by TIR.

❖ Skew rays
Light rays which are transmitted without passing through the fiber axis are called skew rays. These
rays follow a helical path, through the fiber as shown in the figure.

The acceptance angle for skew rays is larger than that of meridional rays, Acceptance angle of skew
rays is given by,
𝑁𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝑠 = where 𝜃𝑎𝑠 is the acceptance angle of skew rays.
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

❖ Meridional rays
Light rays which are transmitted through the meridian planes of the fiber (fiber axis) are called as
meridional rays.
These rays follow a zig-zag path through the fiber as shown in the figure. It is the default ray path that
is considered in the laws of geometrical optics.

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Electromagnetic Mode Theory for optical propagation

Light rays propagate as an Electromagnetic wave along the fiber. The two components, the electric field and
magnetic field form patterns across the fiber. These patterns are called as ‘Modes’ of transmission (TE modes
& TM modes).
Mode: The mode of a fiber refers to the number of paths for the light rays within the optical fiber cable. It is
obtained by solving Maxwell’s Equations.
Modes in a planar guide
The planar guide is the simplest form of optical waveguide. Assume it consists of a slab of dielectric with
refractive index 𝑛1 sandwiched between two regions of lower refractive index 𝑛2 .
In order to obtain an improved model for optical propagation it is useful to consider the interference of plane
wave components within this dielectric waveguide. The conceptual transition from ray to wave theory may be
aided by consideration of a plane monochromatic wave propagating in the direction of the ray path within the
guide (see Figure).

As the refractive index within the guide is 𝑛1 , the optical wavelength in this region is reduced to λ/𝑛1 , while
the vacuum propagation constant is increased to 𝑛1 k.
When θ is the angle between the wave propagation vector or the equivalent ray and the guide axis, the plane
wave can be resolved into two component plane waves propagating in the z and x directions, as shown in
Figure.
The component of the phase propagation constant in the z direction 𝛽𝑧 is given by: 𝛽𝑧 = 𝑛1 k cos θ
The component of the phase propagation constant in the x direction 𝛽𝑥 is: 𝛽𝑥 = 𝑛1 k sin θ
✓ The component of the plane wave in the x direction is reflected at the interface between the higher and
lower refractive index media.
✓ When the total phase change after two successive reflections at the upper and lower interfaces (between
the points P and Q) is equal to 2mπ radians, where m is an integer, then constructive interference
occurs and a standing wave is obtained in the x direction.
✓ In this illustration it is assumed that the interference forms the lowest order (where m = 0) standing
wave, where the electric field is a maximum at the center of the guide decaying towards zero at the
boundary between the guide and cladding.
✓ The optical wave is effectively confined within the guide and the electric field distribution in the x
direction does not change as the wave propagates in the z direction.

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✓ The stable field distribution in the x direction with only a periodic z dependence is known as a mode.
✓ A specific mode is obtained only when the angle between the propagation vectors or the rays and the
interface have a particular value.
✓ To visualize the dominant modes propagating in the z direction we may consider plane waves
corresponding to rays at different specific angles in the planar guide.
✓ These plane waves give constructive interference to form standing wave patterns across the guide
following a sine or cosine formula.
✓ Figure shows examples of such rays for m = 1, 2, 3, together with the electric field distributions in the
x direction.

✓ The ‘m’ denotes the number of zeros in this transverse field pattern. In this way m signifies the order
of the mode and is known as the mode number.
✓ When light is described as an electromagnetic wave it consists of a periodically varying electric field
E and magnetic field H which are orientated at right angles to each other.
✓ The transverse modes shown in Figure illustrate the case when the electric field is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation and hence 𝐸𝑧 = 0, but a corresponding component of the magnetic field H is
in the direction of propagation.
✓ In this instance the modes are said to be transverse electric (TE).
✓ When a component of the E field is in the direction of propagation, but 𝐻𝑧 = 0, the modes formed are
called transverse magnetic (TM).
✓ The mode numbers are incorporated into this nomenclature by referring to the TE and TM modes, as
illustrated for the transverse electric modes shown in Figure.
✓ When the total field lies in the transverse plane, transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves exist where
both 𝐸𝑧 and 𝐻𝑧 are zero.
✓ Although TEM waves occur in metallic conductors (e.g. coaxial cables) they are seldom found in
optical waveguides.

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In simple words mode refers to Number of paths.

According to number of modes optical fibers can be classified into two types;
i. Single mode fibers
ii. Multimode fibers
Single Mode fibers:
Single mode fibers allow propagation of light rays by only one path, as shown in the figure

The core radius is very small. It is of the order of 10µm

The launching of optical power into single-mode fiber is very difficult as the core radius is small. It supports
larger bandwidth.
Intermodal dispersion is absent. Ideally very low loss. It is used for long distance communication. Optical
source used must be LASER.
Multi-Mode fibers:
Multimode fibers allow propagation of light rays by multiple paths i.e., multiple light rays are carried
simultaneously through the multi-mode fiber core, as shown in the figure. These suffer from intermodal
dispersion.

Comparison between single mode and multimode fibers:

Single mode fiber Multimode fiber
Core radius is small (𝑎 ≅ 10𝜇𝑚) Core radius is large (𝑎 ≅ 50𝜇𝑚)
Supports one mode of propagation Supports hundreds of modes
Optical source is LASER Optical source is LED
Supports larger bandwidth Supports lesser bandwidth
Intermodal dispersion is absent Intermodal dispersion is present
The launching of optical power into the The launching of optical power into the fiber
fiber is very difficult as the core radius is is easier as the core radius is large
small
Low transmission loss High transmission loss
Used for long distance communication Used for short distance communication
Ex: telecommunication, broadcasting Ex: LAN
Suitable for integrated optics Not suitable for integrated optical technology
Less expensive More expensive

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Classification of Optical Fibers based on R.I. profile:

Depending on the refractive index distribution in the core and cladding regions, optical fiber is classified into
two types. They are:
1. Step index fibers
2. Graded index fibers
Step Index Fibers
In step index fibers the refractive index of the core is constant through out its region but there is an abrupt
change in the refractive index at the core-cladding interface.
Mathematically, the refractive index (R.I) profile for a step index fiber is given by,

𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛1 ; |𝑟| < 𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)

𝑛2 ; |𝑟| ≥ 𝑎(𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)

Where r= radial distance from the fiber axis, a= radius of the core, 𝑛1 = refractive index of the core, 𝑛2 =
refractive index of the cladding
In Step index fibers light ray propagates as Meridonal rays in zig-zag pattern. The bending (refraction) of light
takes place only at core cladding interface. Data transmission is slow.
The ray of light travels at a constant velocity,
𝑐
𝑣=
𝑛1
Depending on the number of modes, step index fibers are classified into;
i. Single mode Step index fiber
ii. Multimode Step index fiber

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In Single mode Step index fibers, single ray of light propagates through step index fiber core. The ray path is
meridional and propagates in zig-zag pattern.

In Multimode Step index fibers, multiple rays of light can be carried simultaneously through step index fiber
core. The ray path is skew rays and propagates in helical pattern.

Graded Index Fibers

In graded index fibers (GRIN) the refractive index of core gradually varies with respect to fiber axis.
In the GRIN fibers the bending of light (refraction) takes place at every point in its core region. Therefore the
ray of light propagates in helical path and these rays are called as skew rays.

The refractive index profile of GRIN fiber is given by

𝑟 𝛼
𝑛(𝑟) = 𝑛1 (1 − 2∆ ( ) ) ; |𝑟| < 𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)
𝑎
1⁄
𝑛2 (1 − 2∆) 2 ≅ 𝑛2 ; |𝑟| ≥ 𝑎(𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)
Where r= radial distance from the fiber axis,
a= radius of the core,
𝑛1 = refractive index of the core,
𝑛2 = refractive index of the cladding
∆= Relative refractive index difference and 𝛼 is the profile parameter

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In GRIN fibers the velocity of the ray of light continuously changes in the core region. The R.I of the core is
maximum at the center of fiber axis.
1
The velocity of light wave is minimum (𝑣 =∝ 𝑛 ) at the axis and maximum t core-cladding interface.
1

In graded index fibers, data travels at higher speed than that of step index fibers.
Depending on number of modes, GRIN fibers are classified into
i. Single mode GRIN fibers
ii. Multimode GRIN fibers
Comparison between Step and Graded Index Fibers:

Parameters Step Index fiber Graded index fiber

Refractive index of core Constant Not constant

Numerical Aperture Constant Varies w.r.t fiber axis

Ray Path Zig-zag (meridional ray) Helical path (Skew ray)

Pulse spreading More Less

Coupling efficiency High Low

Data rate Slow transmission High data rate

Relative refractive index 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

∆= ∆=
difference 𝑛1 2𝑛12

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Attenuation of light Typically, less (0.34 dB/km at More (0.6 dB/km at 1300nm)
1300 nm)

Materials used Plastic or glass Glass

Bandwidth efficiency 10-20 MHz 1 GHz

V-number and Number of guided modes:

V-number is called as the normalised frequency. It is a dimensionless parameter used to determine the
maximum possible modes of a fiber.
It gives a relation between operating wavelength(λ), core radius(a) and numerical aperture of the optical fiber.
2𝜋𝑎
𝑉= . 𝑁𝐴
λ
To find the number of guided modes in Multimode fibers V-number is used. Number of guided modes in
multimode step index fiber is;
𝑉2
𝑀𝑔 =
2
Number of guided modes in multimode graded index fiber is;
𝛼 𝑉2
𝑀𝑔 = ( ).
𝛼+2 2
Where 𝛼 is profile parameter. For parabolic variation 𝛼=2, then
𝑉2
𝑀𝑔 =
4
Single mode operation and Cut-off wavelength:
At single mode operation, cut-off wavelength λ=λ𝑐 and 𝑉=V𝑐 then
2𝜋𝑎
V𝑐 = . 𝑁𝐴
λ𝑐
Where V𝑐 is the normalized V-number for single mode operation.
V𝑐 λ
Now consider = . Thus, Cut-off wavelength is
V λ𝑐

𝑉.λ 2𝜋𝑎. 𝑁𝐴
λ𝑐 = =
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
For step index fibers, 𝑉𝑐 = 2.405

For single mode graded index fiber with parabolic profile (𝛼 = 2), 𝑉𝑐 = 2.405√2
Mode Field diameter (MFD):
For single mode fibers operating near the cut-off wavelength λ𝑐 , the field can be approximated by “Gaussian
distribution”.

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In single mode optical fiber, light-ray propagates as a single gaussian pulse along the length of the fiber with
maximum intensity at the center of the fiber core.

Figure shows the electric field distribution E(r) as a function of radial distance from fiber axis.

Mode Field diameter representation

The MFD is the distance between the opposite field amplitude points where the field intensity is (1/𝑒) times
maximum field intensity ‘E0 ’
MDF is twice the spotsize (𝜔0 )
𝑀𝐷𝐹=2. 𝜔0
Mode field diameter is slightly greater than single mode core diameter.
Fiber Materials:
The following requirements must be satisfied for fiber materials;
i. It must be possible to make long, thin and flexible fibers from materials.
ii. The material must be optically transparent
iii. Physically compatible materials that have slightly different refractive indices for core and cladding
must be available.
The Materials that satisfy these properties are: glass and plastics. The refractive index of glass can be varied
by adding dopants such as 𝐺𝑒𝑂2, 𝑃2 𝑂5 , 𝐵2 𝑂3 , and F.
Photonic Crystal Fibers:
• Photonic crystal fibers are also called as micro structured fibers.
• The photonic crystal fibers have air holes in the cladding and in some cases the core region along the
entire length of the fiber.
• Materials used in fabrication are Si, Ge or GaAs.
• The light guiding characteristics of PCF are determined by
✓ Size and spacing between the air holes
✓ Refractive index of its constituent materials.
• There are two types of PCF’s

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✓ Index guiding fiber

✓ Photonic band gap fiber

Index guiding fiber

A high solid index core is surrounded by cladding with embedded holes.
The holes have a diameter ‘d’ and pitch ‘A’.

Core and cladding are made up ‘silica’. Air holes lower the refractive index of cladding. This microstructure
arrangement creates step index fibers.
Photonic band gap fiber
The photonic band gap fiber has a hallow core that is surrounded by a cladding region which contains air holes
along the length of the fiber.
Diameter of the air holes is ‘d’ and spacing between the air holes is called a pitch ‘A’

Here the hallow core acts as a defect in the photonic bandgap structure, which creates the region in which the
light can propagate.

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