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The depiction of gender is the focus of a growing number of content analyses in the
fields of both mass media (Mitchell & McKinnon, 2019; Ward & Grower, 2020) and social
media (Baker & Walsh, 2018; Döring, 2019). Typically, the depiction of gender follows
traditional gender roles and, hence, does not include a lot of individuality and diversity
but sticks to established gender stereotypes. Gender stereotypes are defined as beliefs
about how men versus women are descriptive or should be prescriptive. Relevant
dimensions of gender stereotyping are occupations (e.g., the man as the hero,
breadwinner, or executive; the woman as the mother, housewife, or subordinate),
sexual and romantic behaviors (e.g., the man seeking sex; the woman seeking love),
personality traits (e.g., the man being active, aggressive, rational, and instrumental;
the woman being passive, affectionate, emotional, and social), or body types (e.g., the
man being tall, muscular and older; the woman being petite, slim, and younger).
Gender stereotypes in the media cover different dimensions of traditional masculinity
and femininity and are represented textually and/or (audio-)visually. Typically, the
occurrence and nature of gender stereotyping in different media is measured and
changes over time are of particular interest (Döring, Bhatia & Bhatia, 2020).
Nicola, Döring. (2022). Visual Gender Stereotypes (Advertisement, Social Media). DOCA,
doi: 10.34778/5i https://www.hope.uzh.ch/doca/article/view/3707
Recognition addresses the quantity of representation and, in terms of gender, has often
focused on underrepresentation of girls and women. It has been argued that a lack of
recognition signals that women are devalued in society. Analyses of diverse types of
television programming that target youth consistently find that boys and men
outnumber girls and women, with boys/men typically comprising approximately 60% or
more of characters (Walsh & Leaper 2020). Cultivation theory offers a macrosystems
approach to media effects, aiming to document cumulative effects of everyday
television viewing. It relies on two key assumptions: (a) Television presents a consistent
yet distorted view of the real world, and (b) regular exposure to these messages will
lead more frequent viewers to cultivate or adopt social attitudes that align with the
content presented. Therefore, individuals who repeatedly view television content that
promotes traditional gender stereotypes are expected to be more inclined to accept
these stereotypes as true and to endorse these beliefs in their own lives (Grower &
Ward, 2020). Portrayals in mainstream media often link masculinity with power and
dominance, aggression, sexual prowess, status, emotional restraint, heterosexuality,
and risk taking.
How does regular exposure to this content contribute to boys’ expectations of what
makes a man? This question has received some examination among undergraduate
men, with survey data linking greater consumption of television, reality television,
movies, sitcoms, or sports video games with greater support for traditional masculinity
or traditional sexual roles and scripts (Gilbert et al. 2018; Scharrer & Blackburn 2018).
However, we have seen little testing of this question among boys. Also relevant are the
potential contributions of media use to shaping boys’ assumptions about women and
femininity. Some research has linked boys’ exposure to sexually objectifying media to
their holding objectifying and sexualizing views of women (e.g., Rousseau & Eggermont
2018, Ward et al. 2015). However, more analysis is needed concerning media use and
boys’ views of women and femininity more broadly.
Ward, L. M., & Grower, P. (2020). Media and the development of gender role
stereotypes. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 2(1), 177–
199. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-051120-010630
Posting frequently on social media affects the perceived gender of men but
not women, leading to the frequent-posting femininity stereotype. This
stereotype is explained by perceived neediness and holds regardless of
whether posts are about others or the self, and whether posts are shared by
influencers or ordinary users. The study uncovers an emasculating stigma
against men who post often on social media, which may discourage men
from online participation (Edelblum, 2023)
Andrew, B, Edelblum. (2023). Real men don’t share (online): perceived

neediness and the frequent-posting femininity stereotype. European Journal
of Marketing, doi: 10.1108/ejm-12-2022-0883
https://emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/EJM-12-2022-0883/full/
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The depiction of gender is the focus of a growing number of content analyses in the

Andrew, B, Edelblum. (2023). Real men don’t share (online): perceived

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