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A Guide to Fluid Mechanics

This book is written for the learner’s point of view, with the purpose of helping
readers understand the principles of flow. The theory is explained using ordinary
and accessible language, where fluid mechanics is presented in analogy to solid
mechanics to emphasize that they are all the application of Newtonian mechanics
and thermodynamics. All the informative and helpful illustrations are drawn by
the author, uniting the science and the art with figures that complement the text
and provide clear understanding. Another unique feature is that one of the chapters
is wholly dedicated to providing 25 selected interesting and controversial flow
examples, with the purpose of linking theory with practice. The book will be useful
to both beginners in the field and experts in other fields, and is ideal for college
students, graduate students, engineers, and technicians.

Hongwei Wang graduated from Beihang University with a PhD major in turbomachinery
and has been teaching fluid mechanics for 20 years. His key publication is the Chinese
edition textbook Fluid Mechanics as I Understand It, published in December 2014,
followed by the second edition published in March 2019. This book is no.1 best seller in
fluid mechanics at China’s biggest online retailer.

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A Guide to Fluid Mechanics

H O N G WEI WAN G
Beihang University, Beijing

Translated by

Y AN ZH AN G
School of Computer and Software Engineering, Nanyang Institute of Technology

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a department of the University of Cambridge.
We share the University’s mission to contribute to society through the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

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Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108498838
DOI: 10.1017/9781108671149
Original Title: 我所理解的流体力学（第2版）
© National Defense Industry Press 2019
English edition translated by Yan Zhang
© Cambridge University Press 2023
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions
of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take
place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press & Assessment.
First published 2023
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
A Cataloging-in-Publication data record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-1-108-49883-8 Hardback
ISBN 978-1-108-71278-1 Paperback
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Contents

Foreword page xi
Nomenclature xiv

1 Fluids and Fluid Mechanics 1

1.1 Fluids: Basic Concepts 1
1.2 Some Properties of Fluids 4
1.2.1 Viscosity of Fluids 5
1.2.2 Surface Tension of Liquids 10
1.2.3 Equation of State for Gases 12
1.2.4 Compressibility of Gases 14
1.2.5 Thermal Conductivity of Gases 15
1.3 The Concept of Continuum 16
1.4 Forces in a Fluid 16
Expanded Knowledge 18
States of Matter 18
Compressibility of Water 18
Compressibility of Solids 19
Questions 19

2 Forces in a Static Fluid 20

2.1 Analysis of Forces in a Static Fluid 20
2.2 Pressure in a Static Fluid under the Action of Gravity 23
2.3 Pressure in a Fluid under the Action of Inertial Forces 27
2.4 Differences and Similarities in the Transfer of Force by
Fluids and Solids 29
Expanded Knowledge 31
Atmospheric Pressure 31
Pressure Measurement 32
Questions 33

3 Description of Fluid Motion 34

3.1 Methods of Describing Fluid Motion 34
3.2 Pathlines and Streamlines 35
3.3 Velocity, Acceleration, and Substantial Derivative 37
3.4 Reynolds Transport Theorem 41

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vi Contents

3.5 Relationship between the Reynolds Transport Theorem and

Substantial Derivative 43
3.6 The Incompressibility Hypothesis 45
3.7 Motion and Deformation of a Fluid Element 47
3.7.1 Linear Deformation of a Fluid Element 50
3.7.2 Rotation of a Fluid Element 52
3.7.3 Angular Deformation of a Fluid Element 53
Expanded Knowledge 54
Streaklines and Their Applications 54
Streamline Coordinates 54
Questions 56

4 Basic Equations of Fluid Dynamics 57

4.1 Integral and Differential Approach 57
4.2 Continuity Equation 59
4.2.1 Continuity Equation: Integral Form 59
4.2.2 Conversion from Integral to Differential Equation 61
4.2.3 Differential Equation for an Elemental Control Volume 62
4.3 Momentum Equation 65
4.3.1 Integral Form of the Momentum Equation 65
4.3.2 Differential Momentum Equation 67
4.4 Bernoulli’s Equation 74
4.5 Angular Momentum Equation 80
4.5.1 Integral Angular Momentum Equation 80
4.5.2 Differential Angular Momentum Equation 81
4.6 Energy Equation 83
4.6.1 Integral Energy Equation 83
4.6.2 Differential Energy Equation 88
4.6.3 Equations of Enthalpy, Entropy, Total Enthalpy, and Shaft Work 95
4.7 Solution of the Governing Equations 99
4.7.1 Boundary Conditions 99
4.7.2 Some Analytical Solutions of N-S Equations 101
Expanded Knowledge 104
A Comparison between Constitutive Equations for Fluids and Solids 104
Mathematical Properties of N-S Equations 105
Solving Flow Problems 106
Questions 107

5 Inviscid Flow and Potential Flow Method 108

5.1 Characteristics of Inviscid Flow 108
5.2 Inviscid Rotational Flow 109
5.2.1 Vorticity Generated by Viscous Force 113
5.2.2 Vorticity Generation in Baroclinic Flow 114
5.2.3 Vorticity Generation with Nonconservative Body Forces 116

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Contents vii

5.3 Irrotational Flow and Velocity Potential 117

5.4 Planar Potential Flow 118
5.4.1 Uniform Flow 119
5.4.2 Point Source and Point Sink 119
5.4.3 Point Vortex 120
5.4.4 Dipole 120
5.4.5 Uniform Flow Around a Circular Cylinder 121
5.5 Complex Potential 123
5.5.1 A More Concise Expression 123
5.5.2 Conformal Transformations 124
5.5.3 The Method of Images 125
5.6 Engineering Applications of Potential Flow and Its Current Status 126
Expanded Knowledge 126
Complex Variable Functions and Fluid Mechanics 126
Questions 127

6 Viscous Shear Flow 128

6.1 Shearing Motion and Flow Patterns of Viscous Fluids 128
6.2 Laminar Boundary Layer 131
6.2.1 Prandtl’s Boundary Layer Equations for Two-Dimensional Flows 132
6.2.2 Boundary Layer Thickness 136
6.2.3 Integral Approach for Solving Boundary Layer Problems 140
6.3 Turbulent Boundary Layer 145
6.4 Pipe Flow 151
6.4.1 Entrance Region 152
6.4.2 Fully Developed Region 155
6.5 Jets and Wakes 160
6.5.1 Jets 160
6.5.2 Wake 161
6.6 Boundary Layer Separation 163
6.7 Drag and Losses 169
6.7.1 Drag 169
6.7.2 Flow Losses 178
Expanded Knowledge 185
The Theory of Homogeneous Isotropic Turbulence 185
Numerical Computation of Turbulent Flows 187
Turbulent Boundary Layer Separation 189
Questions 189

7 Fundamentals of Compressible Flow 191

7.1 Sound Speed and Mach Number 191
7.1.1 Speed of Sound 192
7.1.2 Mach Number 194
7.2 Steady Isentropic Flow Equations 196

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viii Contents

7.2.1 Static and Total Parameters 197

7.2.2 Critical State and Coefficient of Velocity 200
7.2.3 Gasdynamic Functions 204
7.3 Expansion Wave, Compression Wave, and Shock Wave 207
7.3.1 Pressure Waves in Fluids 208
7.3.2 Normal Shock Wave 212
7.3.3 Oblique Shock Wave 213
7.4 Isentropic Flow in a Variable Cross-Section Pipe 217
7.4.1 Converging Nozzle 217
7.4.2 Laval Nozzle 222
Expanded Knowledge 226
Aerodynamic Heating 226
Shock Wave–Boundary Layer Interaction 228
Questions 228

8 Similarity and Dimensional Analysis 230

8.1 The Concept of Flow Similarity 230
8.2 Dimensionless Numbers 231
8.2.1 Reynolds Number 232
8.2.2 Mach Number 234
8.2.3 Strouhal Number 236
8.2.4 Froude Number 236
8.2.5 Euler Number 237
8.2.6 Weber Number 238
8.3 Governing Equations in Dimensionless Form 238
8.4 Flow Modeling and Analysis 240
8.4.1 Low-Speed Incompressible Flow 240
8.4.2 High-Speed Compressible Flow 242
8.4.3 A Real-Life Example: A Milk Drop 243
Expanded Knowledge 244
Flows at Extremely Low Reynolds Numbers 244
Questions 245

9 Analysis of Some Flow Phenomena 246

9.1 What Are the Shapes of Objects in Outer Space? Properties of Fluids 246
9.2 Upside-Down Cup of Water: Incompressibility of Liquids 247
9.3 Air Blockage: Compressibility of Gases 251
9.4 How Balloons Create Thrust: Momentum Theorem 252
9.5 Thrust of a Water Rocket: Independent of Working Substance 254
9.6 Turbojet Engine Thrust: On Which Components? 255
9.7 Total Pressure and Its Measurement: Not a Property of Fluids 256
9.8 Why Does a Converging Flow Accelerate? Balance of Basic Laws 260
9.9 Impulsive Force and Stagnation Pressure: Relationship between the
Momentum Equation and Bernoulli’s Equation 263

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Contents ix

9.10 Pressure of Jet Flow: A Pressure-Dominated Flow 265

9.11 Faucet Flow Control: Total Pressure Determines Jet Speed 267
9.12 Squeeze the Outlet of a Hose to Increase Velocity: Total Pressure
Determines Jet Speed 269
9.13 Suction and Blow: Pressure-Dominated Flows 271
9.14 Wind Near Buildings: Complex Three-Dimensional Unsteady Flow 272
9.15 Coandă Effect: Viscous Effect is Indispensable 275
9.16 Shape of a Raindrop: Surface Tension and Pressure Distribution 277
9.17 Vacuum Effects in Racing Cars Related to Incoming Flow Velocity 280
9.18 Larger in Size, Longer in Range: Scale Effect 280
9.19 Meandering of Rivers: Pressure-Dominated Channel Vortex 283
9.20 Tea Leaves Gather in the Middle of the Cup: Another Channel Vortex 284
9.21 Iron Ox Moves Upstream: Pressure-Dominated Horseshoe Vortex 285
9.22 Pressure Change by a Passing Train: Not Just Bernoulli’s Equation 287
9.23 How Lift Is Created: The Coandă Effect is the Key 290
9.24 Principle of Heat Engines: Working Substance Must be Compressible 295
9.25 Principle of Compressors: Work Done by Unsteady Pressure Forces 300

Bibliography 303

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Foreword

This book is written from the perspective of learners. Its aim is to elucidate the phys-
ical principles of flow, rather than be oriented toward engineering calculations. There
are no example solutions or exercises in this book, so readers can understand the prin-
ciples of fluid mechanics and enjoy the beauty of fluid motion with a relatively easy
and interesting reading experience.
Socrates said: “Education is the kindling of a flame.” Learning is a very personal
thing. Only learners themselves can determine the success of learning. It is quite com-
mon for teachers to be enthused and excited on the podium while their students sleep
soundly below. Regardless of how extensive the content of a textbook may be, how
in-depth its discussions, and how rigorous its logic, if no one is willing to read it, its
value will not be appreciated.
Science books should not be strictly divided into textbooks and popular science
books. It is very important to get readers interested and to understand the so-called
profound theories in an accessible way. Textbooks addressed to students should
analyze problems from the learner’s perspective, so that more students can enjoy the
beauty of science through them, rather than developing a love of science by reading
popular accounts of it. Rigor and popularity need not exclude each other. Through our
efforts, we strive not only to maintain the scientific level of the discussion, but also to
make it easier for readers to understand.
It should be the responsibility and obligation of teachers to deeply understand the
subject and then to present it in an even more understandable way. This is a creative
process that may be called the “reprocessing” of knowledge. In fact, the knowledge
we have acquired is more or less written after “reprocessing.” As authors of science
books, teachers should strive to conduct a deep “reprocessing” of knowledge. There is
no need to write another book if it only repeats what has already been said in previous
books. While original discoveries and inventions are certainly important, the “repro-
cessing” and dissemination of knowledge are the keys to wider application. Euclid’s
Elements of Geometry and Newton’s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
are classic theoretical books. Nowadays, however, the teaching materials for college
students are not these abstruse works, but more understandable versions written by
Euclid’s and Newton’s successors who have mastered that ancient erudition.
A good textbook is not simply a restatement of facts, but a creative process rich in
contributions. When I was a student, in addition to learning in class, I also studied,
as a hobby, the teachers’ lecturing styles. By comparing the way my teachers and I

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xii Foreword

understood a topic, I figured out why students understood when teachers lectured in
a certain way, and why it wasn’t easy for them to grasp a concept when it was taught
in a different way. I finally became a teacher myself. I naturally love teaching and I
am appreciated by my students. At the beginning my focus was on preparing lectures
and teaching methods. Later, I paid attention to knowledge understanding and student
responses, thus achieving a reverse transformation from educator to learner. Now
I regard every class as a new learning opportunity. During classroom sessions new
questions constantly pop into my head, and I can often deepen my knowledge and
gain new insights, which is what every student should do in class. As I have my own
unique understanding of what is taught, I believed that it should be written down for
more people to see it and benefit from it. That’s why I wrote this book.
However, there are risks in publishing my own understanding of fluid mechanics.
One’s interpretations could be faulty, or not rigorous enough. Will these shortcomings
mislead students? I think this is why, although many teachers can make their teach-
ing lively in class, the textbooks they write are obscure or difficult to understand. If
we faithfully follow classical works and take rigor as the highest priority, it is not
necessary to write another introductory book on some well-established area such as
fluid mechanics. Therefore, I decided to take the risk and write a book based on my
personal understanding of the subject, which I believe will be helpful to junior readers
of fluid mechanics.
Now, let me introduce the contents and characteristics of this book. It is not a pop-
ular science book, but can be used as a textbook. For this, it only needs to be supple-
mented with examples and exercises. There are numerous formulas and derivations in
the book, even more than in many undergraduate textbooks. It is said that each addi-
tional formula will scare one reader away. I admit that this claim may be right. How-
ever, scaring your readers away does not necessarily need formulas. There are actually
very few formulas in Newton’s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, but it
is not any easier to read than modern textbooks that contain plenty of formulas. After
all, mathematics is the language of science, and I have no intention of weakening its
role. On the contrary, I even hope that readers will have a deeper understanding of
some mathematical concepts through the application of them to mechanics.
Compared with existing teaching materials and books on the same topic, this one
has some distinctive characteristics, among which the many exquisite color pictures
are the most intuitive. All of these pictures have been hand-drawn by myself. Of
course, some drawings refer to relevant books, but I tried to strike a balance between
scientific accuracy and aesthetics. I can guarantee that all curve graphics can be
directly used as a reference for engineering applications, and all flow images are in
line with the actual conditions.
In the final chapter I included 25 interesting and useful flow examples for in-depth
analysis, so that readers can enjoy the experience of learning and applying their
knowledge. For example: What is the shape of falling raindrops? Why will outlet
velocity increase if you squeeze the outlet of a watering hose? As long as their think-
ing is inquisitive, anyone who has learned the basics of fluid mechanics should be able
to explain these everyday phenomena.

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Foreword xiii

This book is suitable as a supplementary textbook for students, as well as for self-
study material for engineering and technical personnel. Readers who are studying
fluid mechanics for the first time, and using this book as a textbook or as self-study
material, will find that a large number of concepts in classical physics, theoretical
mechanics, and solid mechanics are used. Therefore, they do not need to regard fluid
mechanics as a completely separate discipline, which will make their learning easier.
By placing understanding at its core, this book is also highly suitable as a textbook
for those who have studied fluid mechanics before and seek to refresh their knowl-
edge of it.
I hope that this translated version of the book brings a new experience to
English-language readers, and I would be very happy if it could also provide them
with a deeper understanding of some facts or concepts.
I am indebted to my alumni Dr. Yan Zhang, who translated the entire book from
Chinese into English, for his elaborate work. Also, the extensive efforts and excellent
work of Prof. Arturo Sangalli are truly appreciated, for the intensive grammar check-
ing and creative text polishing.

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Nomenclature

Notation

f Vector quantities
f Average of f
f¢ (1) Derivative of f
(2) Perturbation of f
f* Dimensionless value of f
fcr Critical value of f
f¥ Value of f far away from the point of interest
Df Change of f
δf Infinitesimal change of f
df (1) Differential of f
(2) Infinitesimal change of f
Df Dt Material derivative of f

Letters

a (1) Speed of sound

(2) Acceleration
A Area or surface
AR Diffuser or nozzle area ratio (exit area/inlet area)
B Volume
const A constant
cp Specific heat at constant pressure
cv Specific heat at constant volume
Cf Skin friction parameter
Cp Pressure rise coefficient
CD Drag coefficient
d Diameter
D (1) Diameter
(2) Drag force
e Total energy per unit mass

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Nomenclature xv

E Total energy
Eu Euler number
f (1) Force per unit mass
(2) Friction factor
fb Body force per unit mass
F Force
Fr Froude number
g Gravitational acceleration
G Gravitational force
h (1) Enthalpy per unit mass
(2) Height
ht Stagnation enthalpy per unit mass
H Boundary layer shape factor
i Imaginary root
k (1) Thermal conductivity
(2) Specific heat ratio
L Length
m Mass
m Mass flow rate
M Molar mass
Ma Mach number
n Normal unit vector
p Pressure
p0 Atmospheric pressure
pt Stagnation pressure
q Rate of heat per unit mass
q x Rate of heat per unit mass per unit area
q(λ ), q( Ma ) Mass flow function
Q Rate of heat
r, R Radius

r Position vector
R Gas constant of air
R0 Universal gas constant
Re Reynolds number
s (1) Entropy per unit mass
(2) Streamwise unit vector
S Entropy
St Strouhal number
t Time
T Temperature
Tt Stagnation temperature
u, v, w Velocity components in Cartesian coordinates
ui Velocity components in Tensor form

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xvi Nomenclature

û Internal energy
U Reference velocity or characteristic velocity
v (1) Velocity component in y direction
(2) Specific volume (volume per unit mass)
V Velocity magnitude
w (1) Velocity component in z direction
(2) Work per unit mass
ws Shaft work per unit mass
W Work
We Weber number
x, y, z Cartesian coordinates

Symbols

α Planar diffuser half-angle

β Shock angle
Γ (1) Stress
(2) Circulation
d (1) Deflection angle
(2) Boundary layer thickness
dij Kronecker delta
d* Boundary layer displacement thickness
D Difference of change
e Strain rate
h Dimensionless distance from wall
q (1) Boundary layer momentum thickness
(2) Circumferential coordinate
λ (1) Coefficient of thermal conductivity
(2) Coefficient of velocity
m Dynamic viscosity
n Kinematic viscosity
r Density
ψ Stream function
τ Shear stress
φ (1) Velocity potential
(2) Some mechanical property per unit mass
F Some mechanical property
Fv Dissipation function
ω Vorticity
W Angular velocity

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Nomenclature xvii

Subscripts

b Body (as in body force)

c Center or core
cr Critical condition
cv Control volume
D (1) Diameter (as in Reynolds number)
(2) Drag (as in drag force)
e Exit station
i Inlet station
i, j , k Indices of Tensor
n Normal direction or component
r Radial direction or component
s Streamwise direction
sys System
t Stagnation condition
x, y, z Components in x, y, z directions

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