FECAL SLUDGE TREATMENT MECHANISMS (Englund, M; Strande, 2013)

What is Fecal Sludge?

Excreta is urine and faeces. Faecal sludge is composed of excreta, but also includes anything
else that goes into an onsite containment technology, for example flushwater, cleansing
materials and menstrual hygiene products, grey water (bathing or kitchen water, including
fats, oils and grease), and solid waste. Faecal sludge is stored onsite, and is periodically
collected and transported to a treatment plant, followed by safe disposal or reuse. Septic tank
sludge is also commonly called septage, and includes sludge, scum and supernatant.

In faecal sludge treatment, the efficiency of the employed treatment mechanism is affected
by the variability in the characteristics of the faecal sludge. Some of the properties of the
faecal sludge that must be considered include water content, pH, dissolved oxygen,
degradable organic matter, nutrients, density, particle size and pathogens.

(Strande et al., 2014)

(Pöschl et al., 2010)

Biogas produced: 323.5 - 922.5 ml/g VS

Karakteristik Lumpur Tinja (Abfertiawan, 2019)
Dewatering (Strande et al., 2014)
Dewatering (or “thickening”) of FS is an important treatment objective, as FS
contains a high proportion of liquid, and the reduction in this volume will greatly
reduce the cost of transporting water weight and simplify subsequent treatment
steps

Dewatering is also necessary prior to resource recovery for applications such as composting, or
combustion as a fuel. Dewatering is based on physical processes such as evaporation,
evapotranspiration, filtration, gravity, surface charge attraction, centrifugal force and pressure.
The dewatering, or thickening process can also include adding dry materials such as sawdust to
increase the solids content, This is a common practice in processes such as composting where
the sawdust also increases the carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio.

Water in FS can be available in free or bound forms. This is an important differentiation in

understanding treatment mechanisms because the free water is fairly easily removed, while
removal of the bound water is much more diffi cult (Kopp and Dichtl, 2001). Free water (also
referred to as bulk water) usually represents the majority of water in untreated sludge. It can be
separated from the solid phase by dewatering technologies such as settling or filtration.
Imhoff tank
An Imhoff tank is a compact sized tank that combines the effect of a settler and an anaerobic digestion
system in one (Figure 5.5). It is a compact system which is well-known for wastewater treatment and
has been implemented in Indonesia for FS treatment. Imhoff tanks are most often used as a primary
treatment technology in wastewater treatment where it serves as a solid-liquid separation system
including partial digestion for the settled sludge
Potential advantages and constraints of Imhoff tanks
The main advantages of Imhoff tanks compared to settling-thickening tanks are the small land
requirement, the possibility of operating only one tank (Klingel et al., 2002), and the physical
separation between the settled sludge and the liquid fraction. The main constraints compared to
settling thickening tanks are the increased operational complexity, slightly higher costs as the Imhoff
tanks require an additional elevation to accommodate the inclined baffl es, and the risk of damage to
the sludge draw-off pipe in case of an inadequate draw-off frequency. Operation and maintenance of
an Imhoff system is not as complex as some technologies, but it requires skilled operators. Cleaning
of fl ow paths, the sides of the tank as well as the removal of scum is very important. Stabilised sludge
from the bottom of the digestion compartment should be removed according to the design (EAWAG
et al., 2010).

Mechanical dewatering
The following technologies are well recognised for wastewater management, and preliminary addition
of fl occulant is recommend for all of them to facilitate the separation of liquid from the solid particles.
Although they are widely used for treating wastewater sludge, further experiments are required before
recommendations can be made on design and operation of such systems for FS treatment.
Belt fi lter press: This allows the water to be squeezed out of the sludge as it is compressed between two
belts. The main disadvantages of a belt fi lter press compared to other mechanical dewatering techniques
are the need for skilled maintenance and the diffi culty in controlling odors. The system consists of:
• a gravity drainage zone where the fl occulated sludge is deposited and conveyed on a porous and
mobile belt;
• a compression zone where a second belt is applied on the upper layer of the sludge, and compresses
it to a pressure that can reach 7 bars; and
• a zone where the belts are separated and the dewatered sludge is released.
Centrifuge: This technology dries the FS as it is squeezed outwards on the surface of a cylinder rotating
around its horizontal axis, due to the centrifugal force. The fl occulated sludge is injected into the
middle of this cylinder, and the particles are pushed outward against the surface. An Archimedean
screw transports the released liquid to the side where the sludge entered, while another transports
the sludge to the other end. The main disadvantage of the centrifuge is the high energy requirements.
Frame filter press: This system consists of porous vertical frames fi xed in two walls that are positioned
in front one of the other to create a chamber. This is a batch process in which the sludge is fi lled into
the chamber at high pressure (up to 15 bars resulting in the leachate being released through the porous
frames and the dewatered sludge being released through the opening of the lower wall).
Screw press: A screw press consists of a rotational screw placed in a perforated cylinder. The sludge is
loaded at one end, it is pressurised due to a diminishing distance between the screw and the cylinder,
and the liquid that is squeezed out is removed through the pores in the cylinder. The dewatered
sludge is discharged at the other end. Screw presses provide dewatering at relatively low equipment
and operational costs, and minimal maintenance skills are required. However, the dewatering is
comparatively lower than other mechanical dewatering technologies.
Potential advantages and constraints of mechanical sludge treatment
The main constraints of these technologies in comparison to non-mechanical options are the investment
costs, the O&M requirement, the need to add fl occulants and the dependency on electricity. The general
advantages are the compactness, and the speed of the process. To transfer these types of technologies to
treat FS, information from manufacturers, laboratories, and pilot-scale tests is necessary.

`
Co-composting (Strande et al., 2014)
Composting is a biological process that involves microorganisms that decompose organic
matter under controlled predominantly aerobic conditions. The resulting end product is
stabilised organic matter that can be used as a soil conditioner. It also contains nutrients which
can have a benefi t as a long-term organic fertiliser. There are two types of composting systems,
open and closed, of which open systems are lower in capital and operating costs but typically
require more space. In an open composting system, raw organic matter is piled up into heaps
(called windrows) and left for aerobic decomposition. To increase space efficiency, the heaps of
waste can also put into walled enclosures which is called box composting. If untreated waste
feedstock is placed in a closed container this is called in-vessel or closed drum composting and
is considered in the category of closed systems.

Co-composting of FS with MSW is best implemented with sludge that has undergone dewatering
(e.g. settling-thickening tanks or drying beds). Although untreated FS can also be used and
sprayed over the compost heaps, its high water content will only allow the use of very little
volume before the compost heap is too wet and is therefore not practical. Organic MSW usually
already has a moisture of 40-60% so typically not much additional moisture can be added
before the system gets too wet. In the case of dewatered sludge, FS with a total solids (TS)
content higher than 20% is mixed together with MSW in compost piles (Koné et al., 2007). For
further guidance on ensuring optimal carbon, nitrogen and moisture content, refer to the
Sandec website (www.sandec.ch), including the publications: Cocomposting of Faecal Sludge
and Municipal Organic Waste and Marketing Compost (EAWAG and IWMI 2003) Rouse et al.
(2008) and Strauss et al. (2003).

The main advantage of co-composting is formed by the thermophilic conditions and the
resulting pathogen inactivation. The output of co-composting is a good soil conditioner which
provides potential for income generation depending on the demand for compost (see Chapter
10). However, operating a co-composting plant and generating a safe product with value
requires technical and managerial skills, which can be limiting if not available.

With regard to helminth eggs, an optimum composting period of at least 2 months was
necessary to produce compost that complied with the WHO guidelines of 1 Ascaris egg/gTS.
High Ascaris inactivation effi ciency (90–100%) was reached after 80 days due to heat
generation during the composting process, thus exposing the helminth eggs for more than one
month to temperatures over 45˚C . Note that if these conditions are not met, pathogen reduction
will not be adequate to meet the WHO guidelines. In that case, one possibility is extended
storage prior to enduse. (Adapted from Cofi e and Kone, 2009)
Co-treatment in waste stabilisation ponds
Waste stabilisation ponds (WSPs) are widely used for the treatment of municipal wastewater.
The mechanisms for stabilisation are based on natural processes that occur in aquatic
ecosystems. WSPs are considered to be good options for wastewater treatment in low-income
countries when adequate land is available, particularly in tropical climates (Mara, 2004). WSPs
consist of several ponds having different depths and retention times.

A combination of three types of ponds in series is frequently implemented in wastewater

treatment (anaerobic, facultative, maturation). Waste stabilisation ponds can be used for the co-
treatment of wastewater with the effl uent following solid-liquid separation of FS in settling-
thickening tanks.

Potential advantages and constraints of waste stabilisation ponds

WSPs are simple to build and require relatively low O&M requirements. The technology is
appropriate for tropical climates, and achieves relatively high pathogen removal in the effl uent.
Constraints include land availability, high rate of solids accumulation if preliminary solids
separation is not performed, and potential inhibition due to high salt and ammonia
concentrations. The removal of sludge that
accumulates in the anaerobic ponds may require heavy mechanical equipment (Strauss et al.,
2000).

Deep row entrenchment

Deep row entrenchment is a technology that can be considered as both a treatment and enduse
option. Deep row entrenchment consists of digging deep trenches, filling them with sludge and
covering them with soil. Trees are then planted on top, which benefit from the organic matter
and nutrients that are slowly released from the FS. In areas where there is adequate land
available, deep row entrenchment can present a solution that is simple, low cost, has limited
O&M issues and produces no visible or olfactory nuisances. Benefits are also gained from the
increased production of trees. However, the availability of land is a major constraint with deep
row entrenchment, as is the distance/depth to clean groundwater bodies.
Deep row entrenchment is considered most feasible in areas where the water supply is not
directly obtained from the groundwater source and where sufficient land is available, which
means the sludge would have to be transportable to rural and peri-urban areas.
Potential advantages and constraints of deep row entrenchment
The main advantage of deep row entrenchment is that very little is needed for it: no expensive
infrastructure or pumps that are very susceptible to poor maintenance. In addition, growing trees
has many benefits such as extra CO2 fixation, erosion protection, or potential economic benefits.
Constraints are that sufficient land has to be available in an area with a low enough groundwater table
and, moreover, legislation still needs to catch up in many countries to allow for this technology.

Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion treats organic waste in airtight chambers to ensure anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic
digestion has been widely applied in centralised wastewater treatment facilities for the digestion of
primary sludge and waste activated sludge, typically with plug fl ow (PFR) or continuously stirred
reactors (CSTRs). Anaerobic treatment technologies also include upfl ow anaerobic sludge blanket
(UASB) reactors, anaerobic baffl ed reactors (ABRs) and anaerobic fi lters. Anaerobic treatment is also
well known and developed for industrial wastes and highly loaded wastewater treatment plants (e.g.
agro-industries, Arthur et al., 2011). Throughout Asia, the onsite anaerobic digestion of animal manure
with or without the addition of FS is widely practised (Koottatep et al., 2004). However, the potential
for semi-centralised to centralised treatment of FS in urban areas still remains untapped. There is great
potential for the future development of anaerobic digestion of FS.

Arthur et al. (2011) and Klingel et al. (2002) recommend preliminary thickening to reduce the sludge volume
and,
consequently, the digester size.

Potential advantages and constraints of anaerobic digestion for faecal sludge management
Anaerobic digestion has the potential to produce biogas while stabilising FS, reducing sludge volume
and odors. However, operation and maintenance (O&M) of anaerobic digesters requires a relatively
high level of skilled operation. Inhibition of digestion needs to be considered due to the inconsistent
nature of FS, and also detergents and heavy metals should be addressed at the household level. A
constraint of anaerobic digestion as a technology for FS treatment is that, despite the vast amount
of knowledge on anaerobic digestion, it has not yet been proven for FS alone in semi-centralised to
centralised treatment in urban areas

5.4.3 Sludge incineration

Incineration of sludge is a form of disposal which involves the burning of sludge at temperatures between
850-900°C. It does not typically take advantage of the potential for resource recovery, however,
energy can be captured from the incineration of sludge, for example in cement kilns (see Chapter 10
– Murray Muspratt et al., 2014). The ash that is produced from incineration could potentially be used,
for example as a cover material for urine diversion dry toilets or in construction, or it can be disposed of
in landfi ll sites. Depending on the source of sludge, the ash may contain high concentrations of heavy
metals (Hall, 1999).
Sludge needs to be dewatered prior to combustion, but stabilisation treatment is not necessary as it
decreases the volatile content of the sludge (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). Commonly used incineration
systems are multiple-hearth incineration, fl uidised-bed incineration and co-incineration with
municipal solid waste.
Potential advantages and constraints of sludge incineration
Disadvantages include: the potential emission of pollutants; the need for highly skilled operating
and maintenance staff, high capital and O&M costs; and residual ashes (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).
Advantages are that the sludge volume is substantially reduced and all pathogens are removed.

Vermicomposting Technology for stabilizing the sewage sludge from rural waste water
treatment plants
Author- Lina Cardoso V et.al. 2008
A vermicomposting system that uses earthworms of the species Eisenia foetida, which
stabilise sludge and reduce its harmful effects, has been recommended by the Mexican
Institute of Water Technology as one of the low-cost technologies that should be
developed.

(Strande et al., 2014)

Vermicomposting
is not a reliable method to ensure adequate pathogen removal. However, when carried out under
proper conditions the technology of vermicomposting can lead to a complete removal of coliforms.
Rodriguez-Canche et al. (2010) found helminth egg removal in experiments with vermicomposting on septic
tank FS. Permissible levels for reuse in agriculture were achieved after 60 days, starting from
the initial earthworm inoculation, faecal coliforms, Salmonella spp., and helminth ova were reduced to
<1000 MPN/g, <3 MPN/g, and <1 viable ova/g on a dry weight basis, respectively.

Potential advantages and constraints of vermicomposting

In general, the advantages and constraints for vermicomposting are similar to the points for cocomposting.
However, vermicomposting cannot be carried out at the thermophilic temperatures of
co-composting. Therefore if adequate pathogen reduction is not achieved during treatment, further
treatment steps are required. Constraints are that the technology is still in development; the worms can
be quite susceptible to toxic components (or higher concentrations in general), and the time span until
matured compost is reached can be longer than for thermal composting. The production of worms can
be benefi cial provided there is a market for them.

5.5.2 Black Soldier fl ies

The Black Soldier fl y (Hermetia illucens) originated in America, but is commonly found in temperate
and warm climates. The fl y larvae feed on decaying organic material, such as vegetables and fruits, or
manure. The Black Soldier fl y (BSF) larvae have been investigated for the degradation of organic wastes
such as municipal solid wastes, animal manure, and FS (Diener et al., 2009; Diener et al., 2011; Qing et
al., 2011). This process relies on the natural growing cycle of BSF which need to feed only during the
larval stage, then migrate for pupation, and do not feed anymore, even during the adult stage. Therefore,
the risks of the BSF being a vector for disease transmission is very low, as it is not attracted by decaying
organic matter when it can fl y (Sheppard et al., 1994). During their larval stage, BSF larvae achieve a
rapid reduction of organic waste volumes of up to 75%, together with the removal of nutrients such
as nitrogen and phosphorus (Diener et al., 2009). This growth stage can vary from two weeks to four
months depending on the availability of food, and thus allows for the treatment of wastes even when
waste is not produced continuously.
BSF larvae have been shown to grow well solely on FS; however, Diener et al. (2009) observed that
a mixture of FS and municipal solid waste can achieve higher and faster larvae mass production. This
can be advantageous for the selling of the larvae as animal feeding to farmers (see Chapter 10). The FS
residue remaining after the BSF larvae feed need to be further composted or anaerobically digested to
produce a soil conditioner.
Figure

Potential advantages and constraints of Black Soldier fl ies

The advantage of using BSF for treatment of FS is that it can be achieved with or without mixing with
other organic wastes, and on a small scale. It allows revenue generation for small entrepreneurs with
minimal investment. However, information on upscaling experience in low- and middle-income
countries is not yet available, and therefore precise recommendations on the design and operation of
this technology cannot be given for FS treatment (Diener et al., 2011).

Thermal drying and pelletising

Thermal drying allows the removal of all types of liquids from FS (see Chapter 3). It has been applied
in the management of wastewater sludge for many years, and the technology has been taken up
and improved from its original application in other industries (e.g. paper industry). Several types of
technologies exist, all based on the ability of evaporating water with heat. The endproducts are stable
and in a granular form allowing easier storage or transport.
Direct or indirect thermal dryers are also referred to as convection or contact dryers, respectively (Lowe
et al., 2007). These systems require preliminary dewatering if used for sludge that is high in water
content. In direct thermal driers, the hot air or gases are mixed with the dewatered sludge, as they pass
through it, or are transported with it. In indirect thermal driers, a heat exchanger is used, which allows
the heat convection to the sludge. In this case, the heat carrying media is often steam or oil, and does not
come in direct contact with the sludge, which reduces the operational need to separate the sludge from
the heat carrier. In both cases, the vapor produced by the evaporated water needs to be collected and
transported out of the dryer. Gas treatment can be an issue depending on environmental requirements
and the odors produced. Indirect thermal dryers produce less contaminated vapor.
Potential advantages and constraints of sludge drying and pelletising
The main advantages of these technologies are that they are compact, mobile and robust. Moreover,
depending on which processes are used, the pellets are free from pathogens and therefore safe for
agricultural use. Pellets can also be used as a dry fuel in industrial combustion, regardless of the pathogen
content. However, in case of a breakdown of the system, costs and skilled knowledge requirements
may be high. Moreover, the main constraint of mechanical drying and pelletisiing is the dependency
on electrical power. The energy use, capital costs, and specialised knowledge required for maintenance
are other drawbacks.

Optimization of faecal sludge processing via vermifiltration

Author- Enrique Hernández et.al. 2017

Faecal sludge treatment by vermifiltration: proof of concept

Author- C. Furlong, 2015 et.al. 2017
This study has demonstrated that worms can turn faecal sludge into vermicompost and
that cocoons can hatch in its presence, even though it was not entirely convincing.
Technical and user evaluation of a novel worm-based, on-site sanitation system in rural
India
Author- C. FURLONG et.al. 2020

Anaerobic Digestion

Lahan: not a problem

Needs to be away from touristic area
Ada lahan punya pemerintah di Landfill
The levels of hormones and antibiotics are usually lower in faecal sludge than in
manure, while the variety of pharmaceutical residues is larger in faecal sludge
(Combalbert & Hernandez-Raquet, 2010; Winker et al., 2008).

For the urea, the dose was 1.5% by weight of the sludge and for the 22 lime, it was 10% by
weight.

Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Unsuitable for supernatant from septic

tank, as it is partially degraded, thus
resulting lower organic and less
 biogas produced, inefficient with the
operation and maintenance cost
(Singh et al., 2017)

(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2023)

In terms of CO2 equivalent, the global warming potential of CH 4 was 13.13 g CO2eq
m−2 d−1 and 15.02 g CO2eq m−2 d−1 in USDB and STRBs, respectively
(Cui et al., 2015)
 15.67 kg d.w/m2/y   306 g CO2eq/kg d.w. in USDB 350 g CO2eq/kg d.w. in
STRBs

Objective of faecal sludge treatment: The overall objective of faecal sludge management is to
ensure that the faecal material removed from on-site and decentralized sanitation facilities is
dealt with in a way that protects both public health and the environment and does not create a
local nuisance. The objective of treatment is to convert unpleasant and potentially harmful
faecal sludge and septage into inoffensive products that harm neither public health nor the
environment and are easy to handle. In sensitive environments, it may also be necessary to
reduce the nutrient content (for example, nitrogen and phosphorus) of any liquid effluent
discharged directly or indirectly to watercourses. (Tayler, 2018)