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sciences
Article
Implementation of a Playful Microproject Based on Traditional
Games for Working on Mathematical and Scientific Content
Alicia Fernández-Oliveras 1, * , María José Espigares-Gámez 2 and María Luisa Oliveras 3

1 Departamento de Didáctica de las Ciencias Experimentales, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación,


Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
2 Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; [email protected]
3 Departamento de Didáctica de la Matemática, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Granada,
18071 Granada, Spain; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: According to previous research, we consider it necessary to extend the use of games,
as mediating elements, in the learning of STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and
Mathematics) contents rejected by many students. For this, we have carried out an educational
research project on games, with an ethnomathematical approach, since games are an important
cultural sign with mathematical and scientific potentialities. We have prepared an anthropological
study and an analytical one, generating a catalogue of games from different cultures. Thus, we
 have verified that, starting with culture, we can get to the game, but we posed the query as to

whether, starting from certain games, we could achieve enculturation, by activating mathematical
Citation: Fernández-Oliveras, A.; and scientific content in the players. To answer this query, we have created a curricular design called
Espigares-Gámez, M.J.; Oliveras, M.L. “playful microproject” with three traditional games from different cultures and geographical contexts.
Implementation of a Playful
The microproject was implemented with 32 participants, from 8 to 12 years old. To analyse the results
Microproject Based on Traditional
of the microproject, a case study was carried out using qualitative methodology. As part of the playful
Games for Working on Mathematical
microproject, the necessary materials for each game were made by hand, and the games were then
and Scientific Content. Educ. Sci. 2021,
played. Both the realization of the games and the act of playing showed evidence of mathematical
11, 624. https://doi.org/10.3390/
educsci11100624
and scientific content, although more in the act of playing. The results revealed that: (1) the three
games mobilized 21 categories of analysis, made up of scientific-mathematical content; (2) the three
Academic Editors: José Carlos Piñero games proved to be equivalent in strong didactic potential; (3) that the microproject provides a
Charlo, María Teresa Costado Dios, valuable intercultural educational approach. The contents evidenced constitute a fundamental
Enrique Carmona Medeiro and part of the Primary Education curriculum: classify, organize, measure, and quantify items, as well
Fernando Lloret as formulate hypotheses, draw conclusions, place oneself in space, and design strategies, among
others. It is concluded that these games can promote scientific-mathematical enculturation in a
Received: 16 July 2021 contextualized way.
Accepted: 7 October 2021
Published: 11 October 2021
Keywords: game-based learning; traditional games; ethnomathematics; steam; intercultural educa-
tion; primary education
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Huizinga considered humans to be Homo Ludens or “man who plays” [1]. For this
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
author, play is a cultural phenomenon, a social impulse that extends to all civilizations,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
as an essential element of each culture that subjects create and use throughout the whole
This article is an open access article
of their lives [2,3]. We assume his vision and value the importance of play as a cultural
distributed under the terms and sign that characterizes each social group and belongs to all humanity, as it originates with
conditions of the Creative Commons the development of society itself and leads the person towards integration into a social
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// group [4].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Regarding the repercussions of play in each subject, its educational influence is un-
4.0/). deniable. Play, however, is the ideal scenario for acquiring a great deal of learning. For

Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11100624 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/education


Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27

Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 2 of 24

example, some games help in the structuring of language [5], and others favours develop-
ment of thinking [6]. According to Garaigordobil [7], there are a number of studies that
example, some games help in the structuring of language [5], and others favours develop-
demonstrate how play is a key part in the development of learning in children and adults.
ment of thinking [6]. According to Garaigordobil [7], there are a number of studies that
In accordance with this idea, there is currently a complete line of international research
demonstrate how play is a key part in the development of learning in children and adults.
onInplayful
accordance learning, which
with this idea,includes
there isgame-based learning,line
currently a complete on of
which our study
international focuses,
research on
centred on the educational use of traditional games.
playful learning, which includes game-based learning, on which our study focuses, centred
We educational
on the consider play useasofa traditional
key element in the development of the person, taking, as ref-
games.
erence,We theconsider
ideas of play
Piagetas[8], where he
a key element interprets play as the means
in the development of thebyperson,
which the childas
taking,
comes into contact with and develops in the environment, thereby learning
reference, the ideas of Piaget [8], where he interprets play as the means by which the child to understand
reality.
comesThisinto is somewhat
contact with related to the proposal
and develops of Vigotsky,
in the environment, who affirmed
thereby learningthat the game
to understand
isreality.
a socialThis
activity [9]. In consideration of these ideas, it becomes necessary
is somewhat related to the proposal of Vigotsky, who affirmed that the game to highlight
that,
is a despite their importance
social activity in current and
[9]. In consideration future
of these society,
ideas, the skillsnecessary
it becomes associated towith sci-
highlight
entific thinking are often not developed in the classroom and, therefore,
that, despite their importance in current and future society, the skills associated with need to be pro-
moted through
scientific educational
thinking are often andnotcultural tools,insuch
developed the as games [10].
classroom and,Totherefore,
the pointneed
of taking
to be
itpromoted
as a reference for aneducational
through educationaland research project
cultural tools,that hasas
such been taking
games shape
[10]. for apoint
To the num-of
ber of years,
taking it as aand which for
reference has,anaseducational
its precedents, various
research studies
project that on
hasplay,
been its classifications
taking shape for a
and potential
number for working
of years, and whichonhas, mathematical
as its precedents,and scientific content
various studies on[11–13]. This project
play, its classifications
comprises
and potentialfour components:
for working on anthropological
mathematicalstudy, analytical
and scientific study,[11–13].
content educational
This study,
project
and field research (Figure 1). A summary of the first two stages
comprises four components: anthropological study, analytical study, educational (anthropological andstudy,
an-
alytical study)
and field can be(Figure
research consulted 1). in
Aasummary
previous publication
of the first [14], and the(anthropological
two stages final two stages are and
presented
analyticalhere.study) can be consulted in a previous publication [14], and the final two stages
are presented here.

Figure 1. Project components and their relationship to the case study.


Figure 1. Project components and their relationship to the case study.
The four studies are consecutive and linked, metaphorically configuring a continuous
TheThe
curve. fourresults
studiesof are consecutive
the first generated andthelinked,
research metaphorically
questions of the configuring
second, anda continu-
from this
ous curve. The results of the first generated the research questions
arises the third, focusing the attention on three paradigmatic games united in an MPLof the second, and fromthat
this arises the third, focusing the attention on three paradigmatic games united
is implemented, constituting “a case”; the fourth study takes, as an object of investigation, in an MPL
that
theiscase
implemented,
generated in constituting
the third. “a case”;
First, the anthropological
in the fourth study takes, as an
study, weobject of investi-
investigated the
gation,
culture,theconfirming
case generatedthat in
thethe third.isFirst,
game one of in its
theidiosyncratic
anthropological study,We
values. wedid
investigated
this in the
the culture,
case confirming
of Jamaican that compiling
culture, the game isitsone mostof its idiosyncratic
popular games values. We did this
and discovering in the
scientific-
mathematical
case of Jamaicanand socialcompiling
culture, aspects ofits a dozen games rooted
most popular gamesin andJamaica. Then,scientific-
discovering through a
second analytical
mathematical study,
and social we studied
aspects a sample
of a dozen gamesofrooted
40 multicultural games,
in Jamaica. Then, developing
through a sec- a
catalogue with detailed characteristics of these games. In the final
ond analytical study, we studied a sample of 40 multicultural games, developing a cata- stage, we selected, from
this catalogue,
logue with detailed3 popular games that
characteristics share
of these a common
games. In theorigin: the game
final stage, of checkers.
we selected, With
from this
these games,
catalogue, we conducted
3 popular games that a third
shareeducational
a common origin:and a fourth
the gameresearch studies.
of checkers. WithWe these
found
that these
games, games arisea from
we conducted third broadly different
educational and asocio-geographical
fourth research studies.contexts
Weandfoundancestral
that
cultures, but they are currently connected by emigration and tourism.
these games arise from broadly different socio-geographical contexts and ancestral cul- Next, we developed
a didactic
tures, proposal
but they in the form
are currently of an Interdisciplinary
connected by emigration and Playful Microproject
tourism. Next, we with the three
developed a
selected games, and finally, we carried out a “Case Study” on the MPL,
didactic proposal in the form of an Interdisciplinary Playful Microproject with the three showing scientific-
mathematical
selected games,content and forms
and finally, of learning
we carried that can
out a “Case be promoted
Study” through
on the MPL, games.
showing The first
scientific-
two studies lead from culture to games, as a circumference arc, and the two studies that
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 3 of 24

we present here fit into the base of that arc and build the arc backwards: from games to
culture. This leads to enculturation in mathematics and science, implicit in games, and to
current interculturality based on ancestral heritage.
In the phase corresponding to the anthropological study, the first element is culture
associated with play. Bishop [15] indicated that there are six types of activities carried out
by all social groups. Playing is one of them. Focusing on this idea, the anthropological
study of our project is pertinent, due to the nature of play, and fundamental, because our
work is grounded on the research programme denominated Ethnomathematics [16–19],
which investigates the relationships between mathematics and different cultures, making
the existence of mathematics visible in all of them. From this focus, mathematics can
be defined as a three-dimensional creation constructed by: formal science, a mode of
individual thought, and social interaction [20,21]. Ethnomathematics includes these three
components and is defined by several authors as follows: “Mathematics practiced between
cultural groups identifiable as national tribal societies, guilds, children of a certain age,
and professional classes” [22]; “A cultural product that has been developed as a result
of several activities” [23]; Mathematics implicit in each practice [24], which emerge in
all cultures; “modes and techniques (tics) of comprehension, grasp, and explanation of
the natural and cultural setting (mathema) in different cultural systems (ethno) [25]. The
literature on Ethnomathematics is currently extensive, with notable references for the
present work [26–33].
Rosa & Orey [34] relate mathematics to other areas of cognition, such as language
or meanings—something tremendously related to culture and its dissemination. At this
point, one of the ethnomathematical principles of Gerdes [24] is noteworthy, where the
importance of emphasizing the implication of sociocultural factors (game) in education,
learning, and development of mathematics is addressed. That is the aim we focus our
mathematical and scientific interest on, with games that offer cultural elements applicable
to mathematics teaching.
Ideas that were already raised by Alsina and Planas [35], where they make a com-
parative analysis of the procedures involved in the game and in mathematics, some of
them being: knowledge of the rules, acquiring familiarity by relating some pieces to others,
making comparisons and interactions of elements, explore the procedures used by other
players or discover interesting problems and solve them. Finally, mention of the reflection
by Miguel de Guzmán [36] relates to the game and the teaching of mathematics through
the following thought: “Mathematics has been/is art and this artistic component related to
play is consubstantial to mathematical activity”. That is to say, in all mathematics, there is
a game, and in every game, there is mathematics.
Once the concepts of play and ethnomathematics have been identified, it is necessary
to address what the analytical study consists in the classification and analysis of the games
selected, focusing mainly on their mathematical and scientific aspects [37,38]. The purpose
of this study is to obtain information on the potential of games for developing STEAM
(Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) learning, where the arts are
present in diverse forms, for example creativity, but where learning is also supported and
improved in cognitive, physical, language, social, and emotional domains [39]. The term
was coined by Yakman & Lee [40] as a framework for education via disciplines focused in
an integrated manner. In other words, it was a new paradigm that proposes the sciences
(including mathematics) and technology interpreted via engineering and the arts [41]. The
complete potential of STEAM goes beyond aesthetics and takes in arts related to language,
culture, history, and humanities [42]. The influence of STEAM education can be appreciated
in our proposal for playful microprojects based on traditional games [43,44]. It provides
a context for the learning of values that is appropriate for a project of this type, which is
something that Park & Ko [45] commented on when they indicated that STEAM education
should take into account integrative thinking systems, creativity, and values. Using the
areas of Mathematics and Science as a starting point, we carry out the educational study,
which involves the creation of the design and implementation of a playful microproject
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 4 of 24

centred around three traditional games, through activities inserted into an educational
model based on values of an intercultural type [46].
The field study is comprised of a case study involving the analysis of the implemen-
tation of the microproject, showing that it allows for work on scientific and mathemati-
cal content.

1.2. Game-Based Learning and STEAM Education


Recent years have seen a growing presence of creativity in education [47]. Skills
relating to creativity, intellectual curiosity, critical thinking, media literacy, intercultural
cooperation, and interaction are defined by experts as 21st century skills [48,49]. Teaching
creatively means adopting imaginative approaches to make learning more interesting,
exciting, and effective [50]. The incorporation of game-based learning strategies is a good
option for putting this type of creative teaching into practice [51].
One of the objectives of the use of games at school can be the comprehension of
concepts, improvement of techniques (knowledge games), or the acquisition of problem-
solving methods—strategy games [52,53]. A number of different studies draw attention
to the positive impact this type of learning has on reasoning capacity [54] and maths and
science performance [55] Games have a positive impact on learning mathematics and
attitudes toward this subject [56]. Analogous to our research, other works have proposed
to use games “as a potentially useful tool to introduce and teach specific material to
specific populations” [57], while another study has undertaken activities similar to our
microproject [58], proposing “praxis games” founded on the concept of situated praxis.
Situated praxis encourages the design and development of games that guide players
to discover knowledge inside a range of communities, domains, and experiences.
Others [11] highlight the development of skills associated with playful thinking, such
as proposal of objectives, analysis of problematic situations, divergence, or generation of
ideas, and convergence in practical solutions. The use of games is, therefore, a powerful tool
for working on innovative thinking and developing creativity [59]. Games encourage the
acquisition of basic abilities, such as those associated with learning self-regulation (learning
to learn) and autonomy (personal initiative), as they provide experiences according to
the demands of the player and set achievable goals that give the confidence to keep
learning [60]. This, and another study [61], relates to our microproject, given that it studies
the effects of the use of self-constructed materials.
Game-based learning promotes the development of social skills [62], motivation
to learn [63], improvement in attention, concentration, complex thinking, and strategic
planning [64].
Games even help to internalize multidisciplinary knowledge [65], foster logical and
critical thinking, and develop cognitive skills associated with problem solving [66] and
decision making [67].
All of the above infers the value of using games in STEAM education. However, play
is not simply a methodology for intellectual learning; it is also a tool for building contexts
in which students find themselves immersed, thus their integral nature and suitability for
putting STEAM education proposals into practice. In this regard, López-Fernández [68]
frames play in two types of spheres: socio-civic and aesthetic. The social-civic sphere
includes cooperative games, given that the interests of each individual are linked to
those of his or her colleagues and have a bearing on situations often ignored from an
educational perspective (conflict resolution, consensus). Regarding the aesthetic sphere,
taking advantage of the creativity that originates in play, it concerns developing creative
taste and capacity, and there is emphasis on games relating to construction, roles, and
drama. These games mobilize creativity because they suppose the completion of diverse
tasks and the solving of specific problems: building a house, making a suit, shopping
in a fictitious market, etc. Thus, a close relationship is formed between scientific and
mathematical domains and disciplines, such as design and entrepreneurship, which is an
ideal interaction for promoting STEAM education.
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 5 of 24

1.3. Learning Based on Traditional Games as an Intercultural Education Channel


Throughout history, play has been a constant presence in all cultures and societies,
even the most primitive. We are born, evolve, and live with play [69] (p. 32). From the
ethnomathematical standpoint, games have been studied, placing great importance on their
cultural representability and their educational applications, as in the case of Aroca studying
children’s games [70,71] and Palhares examining various educational levels [72–75].
When speaking about traditional games, we are referring to those passed down from
generation to generation, being part of the cultural background created by society. These
games “constitute authentic cultural heritage. They are an expression of a way of living,
acting, entering into contact with the medium and of being able to communicate with
others” [76] (p. 30). That is, traditional games, and those that derive from them, fulfil
a function of enculturation, conserve and transmit deep popular culture values, favour
and facilitate social relationships, and help to conserve the heritage of play. They hold
great value in themselves, as they comprise past, present, and future cultural tradition
that education should foster [77]. Further, knowledge of other cultures’ manifestations of
play holds special relevance now because it facilitates a more open attitude from students
towards contributions of colleagues from other places of origin [78]. The putting into prac-
tice of learning strategies based on traditional games directly contributes to appreciation,
understanding, and value on the part of students of different cultural manifestations, a
key idea for intercultural education, so closely linked to ethnomathematics [46]. The use
of traditional games is ideal for promoting social and intercultural values, as “traditional
games reproduce the changing social values in each era given that they are the reflection
of the society in which they are immersed” [79] (p. 54). Traditional games emphasize the
social component of play, strengthening social skills and cultural values [46].

1.4. Objectives
The educational study and the field study have their own goals but are interrelated.
The educational objectives consist of designing, creating, and implementing activities
based on the traditional games selected, constituting a playful microproject, with the
ultimate aim of mobilizing mathematical and scientific content in the players.
In the sense of qualitative case studies, hypotheses are proposed here as research
questions. Thus our research hypothesis, in the case study that brings together the two
educational and field studies, is the following:
“The three traditional games selected have proven mathematical and scientific po-
tential, so they can trigger thoughts and communication that bring together mathemati-
cal and scientific content, if they are implemented through an appropriate and efficient
didactic design”.
This is not properly a “hypothesis” but rather the nucleus of a group of research
questions that we have classified as “how”, “what”, and “how many” concerning the
possibility of achieving the educational and research objectives.
How?
How is it possible to demonstrate manifestations of mathematical-scientific content
through the creation and implementation of a playful microproject of an ethnomathematical
nature? If the games used are able to stimulate mathematical and scientific thinking in the
players, in game activities and in the construction of game materials, will we be able to
capture meaningful evidence of these activations by observing the players?
If the participants who play interact in pairs, how can we better capture the reasoning
of the pairs (on videotape or through observation)? Can this be done by observing their
actions, listening to their conversations, asking them questions, answering their questions,
or analysing their productions?
What?
What are the elements of mathematical and scientific concepts or procedures that are
activated by these games? Are they only conceptualization or also reasoning? Are they
related to the curricular goals of primary education? Are they related to each game, or are
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 6 of 24

they common to the entire playful microproject? Can the existence of activation episodes
related to the didactic design be affirmed?
How many?
To what extent can we affirm something more than sporadic manifestations? Can
we quantify the evidences in the playful microproject? Play activities and making play
materials are carried out. Do these two situations have a similar educational potential,
proven by quantifying evidence of both types?

2. Materials and Methods


2.1. Educational Methodology. Playful Microproject
Microprojects are interdisciplinary teaching proposals that have the objective of devel-
oping skills from a social constructivist perspective, creating activities based on relevant
signs from one or more cultures [44,80]. In this work, the signs are traditional games and
the activities are focused on play, to which we have designed a “playful microproject”. We
selected three traditionally inspired board games related to different cultures, taking into
account the results of prior anthropological and analytical studies.
The games selected are: The Dog and the Goats (Africa: Canary Islands, Guanche
culture), The Towers of the Alhambra (Southern Europe: Spain, Nasrid culture), and
Mijnlieff (Northern Europe: Scandinavia, Viking culture).
The game “The Dog and the Goats” is a variation of “Checkers”, specific to the Canary
Islands, highly established amongst the peoples of a fundamentally pastoral culture [81].
This traditional game was made popular by the “Guanche” people, of Berber origin, who
inhabited the Canary Islands before the Spanish conquest in the 15th century [82]. Due to
the geological formations of the zone, the islanders made their game boards on flat, smooth
stones, which are conserved today (Figure 2). As far as the pieces are concerned, they
probably used small stones, seeds, or shells. As regards the rules, these have varied little
over the centuries [83]. The game simulates the actions of a dog responsible for helping the
shepherd herd the goats, which are feeding freely in the countryside. The goats don’t want
to enter the pen and, between them, try to stop the dog by grouping around it. The board
is made up of 16 (4 × 4) square or rectangular spaces, whose corners indicate the places to
be occupied by the pieces or checkers. There are two types of pieces: 12 white pieces that
represent the goats and a single black piece that represents the dog. The objective of the
game is to be the first to completely stop the movements of the other player. In other words,
the player with the goats will win if he or she manages to immobilise the dog, surrounding
it without leaving any spaces. The dog will win if it manages to capture enough goats to
avoid being surrounded, jumping over them as in the game “Checkers”. The dog always
starts the game, moving from the centre vertex towards any other empty neighbouring
vertex. It can move forwards or backwards but only one space at a time, except if it can
jump over a goat, capturing it, or by doing successive capture jumps in a row. The goats
also move one space at a time, always sideways or forwards and, unlike the dog, never
backwards. They cannot capture the dog by jumping over it, either.
The game “The Towers of the Alhambra” was created by Francisco López Martin
in 2012 [84], set in the emblematic monument of the Andalusian city of Granada: The
Alhambra. This genuine fortress of the Nasrid culture was built before the 15th century
and includes 35 towers connected by walls, palaces, Arab baths, houses, and gardens,
constituting the most important architectural ensemble of Muslim origin in Europe. The
game is from the Halma (jump in Greek) family, a concept devised by George Howard
Monk in 1883 [85]. In these games, pieces jump over each other to fill the opposite squares.
The board, in the form of a checkerboard, is the lid of a box made out of wood and decorated
with the traditional ornamental technique known as “marquetry” (Figure 3). This craft is
still practiced in Granada and consists of covering a wooden object with small geometric
pieces of wood, mother of pearl, or bone such as with a puzzle. There are five pieces for
each player. The pieces are small metal sculptures that represent the most striking of the
towers of the north wall (bronze) and the south wall (copper) of the Alhambra. The aim
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 7 of 24

Figure 2. The Dog and the Goats game board with pieces at start position [83].
of the game is to be the first to move all pieces to the opponent’s starting area, so that the
opponent wall is“The
The game “conquered”.
Towers ofTo thedo so, it is necessary
Alhambra” to move
was created all of the pieces
by Francisco López forwards
Martin in
crossways (never diagonally) to adjacent squares. It is possible to make
2012 [84], set in the emblematic monument of the Andalusian city of Granada: simple or multiple
The Al-
jumps over
hambra. your
This own pieces,
genuine butofnot
fortress theover yourculture
Nasrid opponent’s,
was withbefore
built the exception
the 15thof the tallest
century and
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 27
tower (guide
includes tower)connected
35 towers which canby jump over
walls, the opponent’s
palaces, Arab baths,pieces and and
houses, is the only one
gardens, that
consti-
can move
tuting thebackwards, if no other
most important move isensemble
architectural possible. of Muslim origin in Europe. The game
is from the Halma (jump in Greek) family, a concept devised by George Howard Monk in
1883 [85]. In these games, pieces jump over each other to fill the opposite squares. The
board, in the form of a checkerboard, is the lid of a box made out of wood and decorated
with the traditional ornamental technique known as “marquetry” (Figure 3). This craft is
still practiced in Granada and consists of covering a wooden object with small geometric
pieces of wood, mother of pearl, or bone such as with a puzzle. There are five pieces for
each player. The pieces are small metal sculptures that represent the most striking of the
towers of the north wall (bronze) and the south wall (copper) of the Alhambra. The aim
of the game is to be the first to move all pieces to the opponent’s starting area, so that the
opponent wall is “conquered”. To do so, it is necessary to move all of the pieces forwards
crossways (never diagonally) to adjacent squares. It is possible to make simple or multiple
jumps over your own pieces, but not over your opponent’s, with the exception of the tall-
est tower (guide tower) which can jump over the opponent’s pieces and is the only one
Figure
that
Figure 2.2.The
can TheDog
moveDog andthe
theGoats
Goats
backwards,
and game
if no board
other
game move
board with pieces
ispieces
with atatstart
possible. startposition
position[83].
[83].

The game “The Towers of the Alhambra” was created by Francisco López Martin in
2012 [84], set in the emblematic monument of the Andalusian city of Granada: The Al-
hambra. This genuine fortress of the Nasrid culture was built before the 15th century and
includes 35 towers connected by walls, palaces, Arab baths, houses, and gardens, consti-
tuting the most important architectural ensemble of Muslim origin in Europe. The game
is from the Halma (jump in Greek) family, a concept devised by George Howard Monk in
1883 [85]. In these games, pieces jump over each other to fill the opposite squares. The
board, in the form of a checkerboard, is the lid of a box made out of wood and decorated
with the traditional ornamental technique known as “marquetry” (Figure 3). This craft is
still practiced in Granada and consists of covering a wooden object with small geometric
pieces of wood, mother of pearl, or bone such as with a puzzle. There are five pieces for
each player. The pieces are small metal sculptures that represent the most striking of the
towers of the north wall (bronze) and the south wall (copper) of the Alhambra. The aim
of the game is to be the first to move all pieces to the opponent’s starting area, so that the
opponent wall is “conquered”. To do so, it is necessary to move all of the pieces forwards
crossways (never diagonally) to adjacent squares. It is possible to make simple or multiple
jumps over your own pieces, but not over your opponent’s, with the exception of the tall-
est tower (guide tower) which can jump over the opponent’s pieces and is the only one
that can move backwards, if no other move is possible.
Figure 3. Board and pieces for the Towers of the Alhambra game, separate and with the initial
starting point of the pieces (top). Towers of the Alhambra walls and Granada marquetry objects
(bottom). (Source: own creation).

The game “Minjlieff” was created in 2010 by Andy Hopwood, inspired by ancient
Talf type games [86]. It was named best abstract game in the 2010 UK Games Expo, the
most relevant board games convention in Britain. The launch of the Android version
has made it popular, as it can be played online. Talf are old Germanic board games that
were played on a square board, simulating two armies, and they imitated the military
successes of Viking attacks. They spread wherever the Vikings passed through, including
Iceland, Britain, Ireland, and Lapland [87]. The playing of board games fits into the cultural
habits of these Nordic groups, given that winter lasted for months and Viking families
stayed inside their homes, which were spaces for feasts, conceiving projects, preparing
expeditions, and relaxing with board games. Viking culture is hugely attractive in modern
society, with its influence being appreciated in music, literature, cinema, and games [88,89].
made it popular, as it can be played online. Talf are old Germanic board games that were
played on a square board, simulating two armies, and they imitated the military successes
of Viking attacks. They spread wherever the Vikings passed through, including Iceland,
Britain, Ireland, and Lapland [87]. The playing of board games fits into the cultural habits
of these Nordic groups, given that winter lasted for months and Viking families stayed
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 8 of 24
inside their homes, which were spaces for feasts, conceiving projects, preparing expedi-
tions, and relaxing with board games. Viking culture is hugely attractive in modern soci-
ety, with its influence being appreciated in music, literature, cinema, and games [88,89]. It
Itisis
a game
a game forfor
two players;
two players; each with
each different
with coloured
different coloured pieces moved
pieces one square
moved at a time.
one square at a
There are four signs that characterize the four types of existing
time. There are four signs that characterize the four types of existing pieces and indicatepieces and indicate the
moves
the movesthatthat
thethe
opponent
opponent cancan
make:
make: towards,
towards,away,
away, neighbouring
neighbouring squares, or or
squares, squares
squares on
a common
on a common vertex.
vertex.TheThe board
boardisisvery
veryoriginal,
original,asasititisisformed
formed in in different ways
ways with
withfour
four
squareboards
square boardscontaining
containing22×× 2 squares
squares (Figure
(Figure 4).
4). The
The symbols
symbols on on the
the pieces
piecesare
areinspired
inspired
by runes, signs that made up part of the Viking alphabet and that
by runes, signs that made up part of the Viking alphabet and that were typically engraved were typically engraved
onstones
on stones(Figure
(Figure4). 4). Each
Eachplayer
player has
haseight
eightpieces,
pieces,twotwoof ofeach
eachsymbol.
symbol. During
During play,
play,each
each
piecedetermines
piece determinesthe thesquares
squareswhere
wherethe theopponent
opponentcan canplayplayhis
hisororher
hernext
nextpiece.
piece.IfIfaaplayer
player
isisunable
unabletotodo dowhat
whatthethepiece
pieceindicates,
indicates,he heloses
loseshis
histurn
turnandandthetheopponent
opponentputs putsanother
another
one where
one wherehe hewants.
wants. TheThe objective
objective of of the
the game
game isisto toget
getthe
thehighest
highestpossible
possiblescore,
score,with
with
each
eachpoint
pointobtained
obtainedby byplacing
placingthree
threepieces
piecesofofthe same
the same colour
colourin in
a row
a row(vertical, horizontal,
(vertical, horizon-
or
tal,diagonal), as inas
or diagonal), theingame “Three
the game in a row”.
“Three The game
in a row”. The gameendsendswhenwhenno more pieces
no more can
pieces
be
canplayed.
be played.

Figure4.4. Boards
Figure Boards and
and pieces
pieces from
from the
the game
gameMinjlieff
Minjlieff(top
(topand
andbottom
bottomleft).
left).Viking
Vikingrunes and
runes box
and box
engraved with the Viking Valknut symbol (bottom right) [90–93].
engraved with the Viking Valknut symbol (bottom right) [90–93].

In order to design the playful microproject activities, special attention has been paid
to mathematical and scientific content, but aspects relating to technology, engineering, and
art that can be worked with in the games have also been taken into account, exploiting
their potential for developing STEAM learning.

2.2. Research Methodology: Case Study


The research methodology followed for the development of the case study is qualita-
tive, descriptive, and interpretative.
The data-gathering techniques employed were direct, observations of the participants
were recorded in a field notebook, and the video recording of the microproject was under-
taken during the implementation sessions. At all times, a camera was placed on a tripod or
held by the researcher, providing video and audio recording of all the evidence, behaviours,
and conversations of the students for later analysis. In addition, the researcher in charge of
the implementation manually wrote down in a notebook any action that might be relevant
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 9 of 24

to the investigation, resulting in approximately 20 pages of annotations on the sessions


conducted. The notes were also analysed.
To interpret the information, we carried out a content analysis [94], with the aim of
finding situations that involve mathematical and scientific processes or concepts, activated
in the players during the construction and use of the selected games.
Given that we found no precedent techniques contextualized in games, we generated
them as part of the study [95], from the results of the analytical study, in which mathemat-
ical and scientific content was shown that can be worked on with the traditional games
selected. An instrument has been created that combines this mathematical and scientific
content [96] associated with the games with the essential components of culture established
by Huxley [97]: artefacts, mentifacts, and sociofacts.
Looking in detail at these components for the specific case of a game, we can under-
stand artefacts (material technology of a social group) as being the game materials, that is,
board and pieces, mentifacts (abstract elements via which the culture of a group is guided)
as the objectives and challenges in the game, and sociofacts (laws that are related with
links between individuals and the group [98]), as being the organization rules of the game.
The categories are thus obtained a priori, and grouped into three types, for the games
implementation analysis (Table 1).
Based on this instrument, a check-list (Appendix A, Table A1) was created and applied
to each player, collecting the data of evidence of the categories activated in the players
by the game, captured on the recorded video or through observation. The evidences of
each category were obtained through this check-list, applying the content analysis and
its interpretation to the quotes of the players obtained in the recorded video and to the
annotations collected in the field notebook.

Table 1. Data analysis instrument. Categories corresponding to mathematical and scientific content associated with artefacts,
mentifacts, and sociofacts of each traditional board game of the playful microproject.

Meaning Contextualized in the


Area Type Category
Microproject Activities
1 Identifying flat shapes and Distinguishing regular polygons and
Game materials

three-dimensional bodies polyhedrons and assigning them their name


Artefacts:

Distinguishing different positions with


2 Situating oneself on plane and space regards to some references (sides of the
playing board and the outside)
Sequencing elements spatially or temporally
3 Making relationships of order
and/or numbering them with ordinals
Grouping objects that share one or more
Game objectives
and challenges

4 Making classifications properties, separating them from those that


Mentifacts:

lack them, forming subgroups or classes


Mathematics

Considering the discreet quantitative aspect


5 Making counts of a group, assigning it a natural number
(can be game pieces or phases)
6 Recognizing regularities Appreciating that patterns are repeated
Making measurements of magnitude with
7 Giving exact and approximate
units already established or conceived by
measurements
Game rules

the players
Sociofacts:

Quantifying aspects that require


8 Posing numerical questions communication, with the aid of numbers for
explaining them
Posing questions on spatial situations
9 Ascertaining geometric aspects
and shapes
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 10 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

Meaning Contextualized in the


Area Type Category
Microproject Activities
Understanding the linear distance between
Game materials
10 Recognising length
two points (a dimension of the board)
Artefacts:
Differentiating between two and three
11 Recognizing the surface area and
dimensions (flat board and
volume of a body
pieces, respectively)
Intuitively understanding approximate
12 Identifying properties of materials values of physical properties of materials
(handled for making game board and pieces)
Paying attention (visually and though
Game objectives and challenges

13 Exercising observation
hearing, without speaking simultaneously)
Thinking about something that could be
14 Proposing hypotheses
done and stating it
Realizing that you can do something
Mentifacts:

15 Recognizing alternatives different to that already thought about


Sciences

or done
Ordering ideas with a cause-effect criterion
16 Demonstrating logical reasoning
(coming to relate moves made in the game)
Thinking about and expressing ways of
17 Designing strategies
acting (to win the game)
Making tests before acting or doing various
18 Experimenting
things to see their effects
Observing something that happened and
Game rules
Sociofacts:

19 Evaluating results
making an assessment of it
Making inferences or other logical reasoning
20 Drawing conclusions
with a view to guidelines for the future
Anticipating something (that could occur in
21 Predicting
the game)

3. Results
3.1. Results of the Educational Study. Implementation of the Microproject
The playful microproject was implemented, with a total of 32 participants (16 girls
and 16 boys) between 7 and 12 years old (Primary Education). Participating players were
recruited: 16 in a non-formal education centre in the city of Granada (Spain), 12 in a
non-formal education centre in Maracena, a city in the province of Granada, (Spain), and 4
in a group of children of neighbours of one of the researchers, in the city of Granada. The
players participating were randomly selected by the heads of each non-formal education
centre. The intention was not to have a homogeneous group of students, but to form play
groups with students of various types and abilities. After receiving an explanation of the
experiment, they volunteered to participate.
Each participant was assigned a code (Appendix A, Table A2).
The implementation was extended over four months, involving three 60-min sessions
for each game, organized as follows:
Initial session: The players were grouped into pairs. Each pair was assigned a board
game that was the exclusive basis for all activities. The Dog and the Goats was assigned to
six pairs (12 participants), the Towers of the Alhambra to another six (12 participants), and
Minjlieff to four (eight participants). The traditional board game assigned was presented
along with its origin and elements of the culture it is related to, employing different
materials (a ppt presentation, drawings, flash cards, and elements that can be handled). A
story of our own creation was told, “The tale of Guanche”, which involved the story of a
shepherd from the Canary Islands passionate about board games whose wish was to create
his own game, to which he travelled all around the world discovering different cultures and
learning the games they played. After finding discovering the cultural origin of the game,
the players dressed up as characters from the culture in the past, they themselves creating
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 11 of 24

the costume with fabric, plastic, and card. To do so they made hats, shields, and other dress
elements, taking measurements, drawing, and cutting out. Now in their costumes, the
participants assumed the role of locals entrusted with making the game board and pieces.
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
They used recycled materials (boxes, caps, and cartons) and decorated the board to12taste of 27
with figures from the culture in question (Figure 5).

Figure5.5. Construction
Figure Construction of
of game
game materials
materials for
forthe
thetraditional
traditionalgames
gamesselected.
selected.Top toto
Top bottom:
bottom:The
The
Dogand
Dog and thethe Goats
Goats (top),
(top), The
The Towers
Towersofofthe
theAlhambra
Alhambra(centre),
(centre),and
andMijnlieff (bottom).
Mijnlieff (Source:
(bottom). (Source:
Own creation).
Own creation).

3.2. Research
DevelopmentResults. Evidence
session: Theof Activation
participants of Mathematical
again entered andinto
Scientific Content
role play with the con-
Thematerial
structed details (board
of eachand player wereThe
pieces). taken,
rulesduring
for theirinteraction with partner
assigned games or with the
were explained to
them, they familiarized
researcher, themselves
via video recording andwith
field the games and played them a number of times
notes.
with help.
Even while being aware that a category can be repeated in the same player various
Closing
times, for thesession: The participants
data analysis, if a playeroncestated again went through
a category, the role
subsequent play process
posterior evidence andof
played the board
that category wasgames in pairs,
no longer but this
counted. Thistime without
is done help,tomaking
in order specifytheir own decisions.
the content analysis,
reducing it to a maximum of 672 pieces of data (32 players by 21 categories). We under-
3.2. Research
stand Results.
“evidence of aEvidence
category”of Activation
as being of anMathematical
action or verbaland Scientific
expressionContent
from the player
The details of each player were taken, during interaction
(comment, response, or question), in which the content associated to the category with partner or withmani-
the
researcher,
fests itself.via video recording
Examples of evidence andoffield
eachnotes.
category for each game are shown in Tables 2–4.
BothEven while being
observations andaware that a category
the transcription can be expressed
of words repeated inbythe same
the player various
participants are in-
times,
cluded.forThe
the players
data analysis, if a player
who showed stated athe
evidence, category, subsequent
situation in which posterior evidence
the category of
was evi-
that category was no longer counted. This is done
denced, and examples of evidence for each category are tabulated.in order to specify the content analysis,
reducing it to a maximum of 672 pieces of data (32 players by 21 categories). We understand
“evidence
Table 2. Codes of the players of a category”
who showed evidence, as being an
evidence action or
situations, andverbal expression
examples from of
of evidences thecategories
player (comment,
in the
response,
game “The dog and the goats”. or question), in which the content associated to the category manifests itself.
Examples of evidence of each category for each game are shown in Tables 2–4. Both
Category Player Code/Evidence
observations Situationof words expressed by theExample
and the transcription participants are included.
1. Identifying flat shapes The players who showed evidence, the situation in which the category was evidenced, and
All players show evidence of this category. It is observed that they all recognise square
and three-dimensional examples of evidence for each category are tabulated.
Making the game board and pieces and rectangle shapes when making the board.
bodies
Players showing evidence of this category: Establish a numerical order when placing the
3. Making relationships 1A9, 3A9, 4O12, 8A8, 9A9, 10A8, 11A9, 12O12. tiles while playing (1,2,3…). A player states
of order Making the game board and pieces and Play- the number of steps followed for making the
ing board (12O12)
When looking for objects to make the pieces,
All players show evidence of this category.
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 12 of 24

Table 2. Codes of the players who showed evidence, evidence situations, and examples of evidences of categories in the
game “The dog and the goats”.

Category Player Code/Evidence Situation Example


It is observed that they all recognise
1. Identifying flat shapes and All players show evidence of this category.
square and rectangle shapes when
three-dimensional bodies Making the game board and pieces
making the board.
Players showing evidence of this category: Establish a numerical order when placing
1A9, 3A9, 4O12, 8A8, 9A9, 10A8, 11A9, 12O12. the tiles while playing (1,2,3 . . . ). A
3. Making relationships of order Making the game board and pieces and player states the number of steps
Playing followed for making the board (12O12)
When looking for objects to make the
pieces, they classify them by colour,
All players show evidence of this category.
4. Making classifications creating the white and the black types.
Making the game board and pieces
A player sort the chips by shape, quantity
and colour (1A9)
Players showing evidence of this category:
5. Making counts 1A9, 2A8, 3A9, 4O12, 5O7, 7A7, 8A8, 9A9, They count the white pieces
10A8, 11A9, 12O12.
Making the game board and pieces
Players showing evidence of this category: “I’ve taken 2 pieces in a row, then one
2A8, 3A9, 4O12, 5O7, 8A8, 9A9, 10A8, 11A9, and now another 2” Decorate the box, in
6. Recognizing regularities 12O12. which to keep the game, drawing a red
Making the game board and pieces and flower, followed by a rose, repeating this
playing pattern regularly (4O12).
Players showing evidence of this category: A player realises that the width of the
7. Giving exact and approximate 1A9, 2A8, 3A9, 4O12, 5O7, board corresponds to a succession of
measurements 6O8, 8A8, 9A9, 10A8, 11A9, 12O12.
Making the board. various pieces in a row (12O12)
Players showing evidence of this category: “I’ve lost 5 pieces, only 3 of the ones I’ve
1A9, 2A8, 3A9, 4O12, 5O7, 7A7, 8A8, 9A9, got left can’t be taken by the dog”
8. Posing numerical questions
10A8, 11A9, 12O12. “You’d take more pieces if you moved 2
Playing rows forward”
All players show evidence of this category They estimate distances between points
10. Recognizing length
Playing during their turns playing
When constructing the game materials,
11. Recognizing the surface area and All players show evidence of this category
they distinguish flat figures (board) from
volume of a body Making the game board and pieces
three-dimensional bodies (pieces)
Players showing evidence of this category: They identify hardness when selecting
12. Identifying properties of materials 2A8, 3A9, 4O12, 9A9, 12O12.
Making the game board and pieces materials to make the board and pieces
All players except one (4O12) show evidence
They watch the game closely in order to
13. Exercising observation of this category.
know what to do while play
Playing
Players showing evidence of this category: “I don’t think I’ll win because wherever I
14. Proposing hypotheses 1A9, 2A8, 3A9, 10A8, 11A9, 12O12. move he can take me”
Playing
Players showing evidence of this category: “It’s better to keep this piece for the end
15. Recognizing alternatives 1A9, 12O12.
Playing of the game”
Players showing evidence of this category:
16. Demonstrating logical reasoning 1A9, 2A8, 3A9, 4O12, “If I move them all together I’ll trap it”
Playing
Players showing evidence of this category: “When there are fewer goats left, I’ll
17. Designing strategies 9A9, 11A9, 12O12
Playing move the ones in the corners”
Players showing evidence of this category: Only moves 2 pieces in order to avoid the
18. Experimenting 1A9, 12O12.
Playing rest being taken
Players showing evidence of this category:
19. Evaluating results 1A9, 9A9, 11A9, 12O12. “I played terribly”
Playing
20. Drawing conclusions Players showing evidence of this category: “I should have moved another piece that
1A9, 3A9, 9A9, 11A9, 12O12.
Playing wasn’t so close to the dog”
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 13 of 24

Table 3. Codes of the players who showed evidence, evidence situations, and examples of evidences of categories in the
game “The towers of the Alhambra”.

Category Player Code/Evidence Situation Example


They find the irregular shape of the board
1. Identifying flat shapes and All players show evidence of this category. strange: “It looks like a rectangle with a
three-dimensional bodies Making the game board and pieces square inside”
(25O9).
2. Situating oneself on plane and Players showing evidence of this category: 13A7, They begin on the initial starting squares
space 14O8, 21O9, 23A10. and must move to adjacent squares, not
Playing diagonally and they do it correctly
They order temporally: they indicate that,
All players show evidence of this category.
3. Making relationships of order firstly, you have to make the board and
Making the game board and pieces and Playing
pieces and then, play
All players show evidence of this category. They classify the pieces by their colour or
4. Making classifications
Making the game board and pieces and Playing design
They count how many pieces there are per
All players show evidence of this category. player and in total. A player counts the
5. Making counts
Making the game board and pieces tower battlements and how many towers
have windows (23A10)
They establish a pattern of various colours
when decorating the board simulating
marquetry. When cutting out the
All players show evidence of this category.
6. Recognizing regularities battlements, a player indicates that “you
Making the game board and pieces
have to cut one then not cut the other”
(18A11), along with colouring the board with
two colours.
They measure with a ruler. A player
7. Giving exact and approximate A player show evidence of this category: 20O12.
measurements Making the game board and pieces calculates the measurements of the board
counting the squares (20O12).
Players showing evidence of this category: 15O8,
“If I move 2 pieces I can block you”. “You’re
8. Posing numerical questions 16O9, 17A10, 18A11, 19O11, 20O12, 23A10, 24A9. on square 4, you can’t jump over me on 7”
Playing
Players showing evidence of this category: 13A7, “If I squash the tower flat, it will look like
9. Ascertaining geometric aspects 15O8, 16O9, 17A10, 18A11, 19O11, 20O12, 23A10, another square”. “I’m moving along the
24A9. corners of the board, let’s see what
Playing happens”.
All players show evidence of this category. They estimate distances between points
10. Recognizing length
Playing during their turns playing
They differentiate flat shapes on a surface of
11. Recognizing the surface area and All players show evidence of this category. three-dimensional bodies, as the pieces are
volume of a body Making the game board and pieces parallelepiped towers. When they make
them they ask questions and speak about it
Players showing evidence of this category: 13A7, They identify hardness in the board material
12. Identifying properties of 15O8, 16O9, 17A10, 18A11, 19O11, 20O12, 22O9,
(box lid) and flexibility in the cartons they
materials 23A10, 24A9.
Making the game board and pieces cut out to make the pieces
All players show evidence of this category.
13. Exercising observation They watch the games carefully
Playing
Players showing evidence of this category: 14O8, “If you pass the middle of the board you’ve
14. Proposing hypotheses 15O8, 16O9, 17A10, 18A11, 19O11,20O12, 21O9, won, because it’s easier to move forward”.
22O9, 23A10, 24A9. “If I move this piece, you can’t move yours
Playing and I win on the next move”.
Players showing evidence of this category: 18A11, A player moves the piece he or she has
15. Recognizing alternatives 19O11, 20O12, 21O9 moved incorrectly back, before ending the
Playing move (18A11).
“If I jump over 3, I win”. “If I go far enough
Players showing evidence of this category:15O8, past you, I win, because you’re not going to
16O9, 17A10, 18A11, 19O11, 20O12, 21O9, 22O9,
16. Demonstrating logical reasoning 23A10, 24A9. get me moving one by one”. “I move my
Playing towers together to make a barrier”. “You
can’t draw”
A player tries to leave a space to take two at
Players showing evidence of this category: 16O9, a time. Another only moves the forward
17A10, 18A11, 19O11, 20O12, 21O9, 22O9, 23A10, pieces. Another doesn’t start from the initial
17. Designing strategies
24A9. squares, saying it’s to prevent the opponent
Playing from getting there. Another player moves
the pieces together.
“I’m not going to do that anymore”. “I’m not
Players showing evidence of this category:7A10, going to start anymore”. “I should’ve moved
19. Evaluating results 18A11, 19O11, 20O12, 21O9, 23A10.
Playing another one”. “I don’t start first, that’s why
you always get there before”.
“I’m going to think more in the next one”.
Players showing evidence of this category: 18A11, “I’ll move them all together in the next one”.
20. Drawing conclusions 19O11, 20O12, 21O9.
Playing “I’m not going to do that anymore”. “I’m not
going to start anymore”.
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 14 of 24

Table 4. Codes of the players who showed evidence, evidence situations, and examples of evidences of categories in the
game “Mijnlieff”.

Category Player Code/Situations Example


All players show evidence of this category.
1. Identifying flat shapes and They recognise circle, rectangle and square in
Making the game board and pieces and
three-dimensional bodies the pieces and board
playing.
All players show evidence of this category. When playing, they understand spatial
2. Situating oneself on plane and space situations represented by the symbols of the
Playing. pieces
All players show evidence of this category.
They classify the pieces by the different
4. Making classifications Making the game board and pieces and
symbols and colours while they make them.
playing
All players show evidence of this category. They count the total pieces in the game and the
5. Making counts
Making the game board and pieces number of different symbols
Players showing evidence of this category: They recognise the repetition of patterns in the
27O11, 28O12, 31A10, 32A9 designs of the pieces and different figures
6. Recognizing regularities Making the game board and pieces when drawing on the box (one player draws a
mandala: 27O11)
They measure well with the ruler. Only one
7. Giving exact and approximate All players show evidence of this category. player tries another measuring system, placing
measurements Making the game board and pieces the pieces in a row to measure the width of the
box (28O12)
One player establishes a number for each piece.
Another calculates how many pieces the
Players showing evidence of this category: opponent has left after each move. Another
25A11, 26A11, 27O11, 28O12, 30O9, 31A10, player mentally divides the pieces when
8. Posing numerical questions 32-A-9. distributing them Another adds up the empty
Playing. spaces to know how many moves he has left
and to calculate whether he has enough pieces
to win
A player creates a mandala combining shapes
Players showing evidence of this category: (27O11). Another uses the pieces as a means
9. Ascertaining geometric aspects 25A11, 27O11, 28O12, 31A10, 32A9. for calculating the sizes of the squares that
Playing. make up the board. Another player relates the
shape of the pieces to the squares.
All players show evidence of this category. They take the measurements of the length of
10. Recognizing length
Making the game board and pieces the board and the pieces, comparing them
Players showing evidence of this category: They differentiate flat figures (pieces and
11. Recognizing the surface area and 25A11, 26A11, 27O11, 28O12, 30O9, 31A10,
volume of a body 32-A-9. board) and three-dimensional bodies, with
Making the game board and pieces volume (the box)
They closely observe the preparation of the
All students show evidence of this category.
13. Exercising observation materials by the other pairs and then their way
Creating the board and pieces and playing
of playing.
“I’m going to play this piece, because with this
Player showing evidence of this category: other one X can’t move to this square anymore
14. Proposing hypotheses 30O9 and so I can move there afterwards”
Playing. “If I place this piece first it’s better, because it
makes it difficult for X to be able to play hers”
“If you put the first piece in the centre it’s more
difficult for you to win because the other
Players showing evidence of this category: player has more space to put his pieces”,
16. Demonstrating logical reasoning 25A11, 26A11, 27O11, 28O12, “I’m not moving this piece because X only has
Playing one left and if I do he beats me”,
“If I play this piece, X wins because then I’m
not going to be able to play the one I have left”
“I’ve done a good move because X hasn’t been
able block me”,
Players showing evidence of this category: “If I move this piece, it’s not good for my
17. Designing strategies 25A11, 26A11, 27O11, 28O12, 30O9, 31A10. opponent”.
Playing “I’m going to play this piece, because with this
other one X can’t move to this square anymore
and so I can move there afterwards”
All students show evidence of this category. They try out materials and designs on the
18. Experimenting
Making the board and pieces construction of the pieces and the board.
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 15 of 24

Table 4. Cont.

Category Player Code/Situations Example


“This game really helps you to concentrate”,
“This game is more complicated than Three in
a Row because it has symbols”
All students show evidence of this category.
19. Evaluating results “At the beginning I found it hard to
Making the board and pieces and Playing
understand it because I got confused with the
symbols, but then it was easy because the
picture looked like what you had to do”.
“I shouldn’t have put that piece there”, “I have
20. Drawing conclusions All students show evidence of this category. to practice more”,
Creating the board and pieces and Playing “I have good strategies which is why I always
win”
Player showing evidence of this category:
21. Predicting 28O12. “The next game, I’ll keep this piece for the end”
Playing

With “The dog and the goats” the players show great interest in Guanche culture, they
ask why they played with stones, what games they played, and if it still exists. There has
been observation of identifications of elemental flat shapes that intervene in the boards:
square, rectangle, and triangle. Regarding relationships of order, various players initially
placed their pieces following an order they named. Then, when playing, a player moves
the pieces following the order of placement and not by game strategy.
They state their game strategies: “If I move along the corners it’s more difficult for
them to take me”, and justify their actions, although they don’t constitute a strategy: “I’m
slow because if I think, I play better”. Experimenting is interpreted by one as cheating
when another tries to take two at a time as an experiment. They self-assess, trying to find
the reasons for their mistakes, recognizing they have moved without thinking or have
made a mistake when moving: “I should have made another more correct move”, and
conclude with ideas for improving. “Next time I’ll wait to take” or “I need to pay more
attention”. All of the above shows that the participants have played in a conscious manner.
A pair wanted to keep playing when time was up and said they would ask for the game
when they returned to the playroom, and a player even said he would use it to teach his
sister how to count, inventing a didactic application for this game.
In the game “The Towers of the Alhambra” it is observed that, in the construction of
the board, the players recognize a rectangle and a square, making reference to its particular
shape. In the pieces, which are clearly three-dimensional, they differentiate cube and
straight prism. They make mistakes in the placement of the pieces, tending to move them
diagonally along the square, as it is the direction that the starting squares go, when the
rules require moving to adjacent squares. This makes them focus on directions on the plane
that form straight angles. They design strategies trying to gain advantages (one moves
all the towers together, another only when the opponent jumps over a piece), although
other actions don’t make sense (a player retreats from the opposing towers when they get
near). Evaluating results at the end of the game is an exercise of reflection that they do
quite competently. “I made a mistake because I moved too quickly”, “I didn’t play well”,
and from which they draw conclusions: “I’ll pay more attention next time”, “I need to
listen more to your advice” or “I’m not going to start anymore”.
It can be seen how the player of this game connected with the monument that it is
inspired by. Some indicated that the real towers are harder than these, another made a
reference to the towers of the monument as a defensive element, comparing it with its
mode of play, another player explained she was Arabic and didn’t know the Alhambra and
another said: “Thanks to the game, when I go to the Alhambra I’m going to know what
the towers are”. Some parents present showed an interest in the game, as it was based on
the monument in their city, expressing that it was very beautiful. This all favours social
awareness and cultural knowledge.
With the game “Mijnlieff” there is a manifestation of the category of making classifi-
cations suggested by the pieces, which the players classify with two criteria: colour and
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 16 of 24

symbol shapes. Counting is manifested when counting the total pieces and those for each
player, along with the board squares. A participant counts the drawings made on his or
her box, recognizing their regularity, and another draws a mandala, explaining what is
repeated on it.
Proposing hypotheses is evidenced with expressions such as: “If I play this piece
first its better”. When playing, statements of logical reasoning occur, such as: “Because
it makes it difficult for X to be able to play hers”, “If I move this piece, it’s not good for
my opponent” or “I’ve done a good move because X hasn’t been able block me”, even “I
can’t win because I’ve got pieces that I can’t play left”. An alternative referring to a future
play is demonstrated: “I’m going to play this piece, because with this other one, X can’t
move to this square anymore and so I can move there afterwards”. Designing strategies is
demonstrated with expressions such as: “If I put the pieces on the corners, I save 4 that
won’t be blocked”, which requires thinking about their own move and that of the opponent
at the same time. Experimenting has been evidenced in the making of the board and the
pieces. The strategy of a player who stated that he was leaving a piece for the end, because
this stopped the opponent from winning the game, stood out for its ingenuity. It is the
piece that requires another piece to be placed near to it. As the game is at an advanced
stage, this piece normally means that opponents cannot place their piece and lose their
turn and even the game.
Once the registered evidence was commented on qualitatively, we completed the
analysis with a quantitative analysis, providing the frequencies relative to the categories
regarding the total number of players who interacted with each game (Table 5). As already
indicated, the registry of the evidence has taken place considering each player, who has
been counted only once per category manifested. We also provided the relative overall
frequencies of the microproject, constituted by the three games as a whole, which have
been calculated using the weighted mean of the relative frequencies of the three games.

Table 5. Relative frequencies of each category, evidenced with regards to the total players involved in each game (N) and
overall relative frequencies in the microproject (weighted mean of the three games), expressed as a percentage.

Relative Frequency (%)


Category The Dog and the The Towers of the Playful Microproject
Mijnlieff (N = 8)
Goats (N = 12) Alhambra (N = 12) (N = 32)
1 100 100 100 100
2 0 33 100 37
3 67 100 0 63
4 100 100 100 100
5 88 100 100 96
6 75 100 50 89
7 92 8 100 63
8 50 66 88 88
9 0 74 63 43
10 100 0 100 63
11 100 100 88 97
12 38 84 0 49
13 92 100 100 97
14 50 92 13 56
15 16 33 0 19
16 33 83 50 56
17 25 75 75 56
18 16 0 95 30
19 33 50 100 56
20 42 33 100 53
21 0 0 13 3

The data from the microproject show that 15 categories have been evidenced with a
mean frequency of over 50%, with those most manifested by the players being: identifying
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 17 of 24

flat shapes and three-dimensional bodies, making classifications, recognizing the surface
area and volume of a body, and exercising observation, with mean frequencies of over 90%,
whereas the least evidenced, with 3%, is predicting, as only one player manifested it.
There is evidence of the three types of categories generated (artefacts, mentifacts, and
sociofacts). On taking the arithmetic mean of the frequencies of the different categories
included within each type we found that, in artefacts, the mean frequency is 65%, in
mentifacts, it is greater, 80%, dropping to 48% in sociofacts. This downturn is due to
the fact that some categories of this type have been evidenced in few participants. For
example, predicting, with 3%, and experimenting, with 30%, as overall frequencies in the
microproject. In contrast, there are categories grouped in the mentifacts with the maximum
overall frequencies of the microproject.

4. Discussion and Conclusions


The results of this study indicate that it has been possible to design, create, and imple-
ment activities based on traditional board games, providing evidence that mathematical
and scientific processes or concepts have been activated in the players via interaction with
the selected games. It has also been reflected that this is possible by taking these games for
the creation of a playful microproject of an ethnomathematical nature, in which such games
stimulate mathematical and scientific thinking in the players in two situations: playing
situation and situation of construction of materials of the game.
We have confirmed the power of these games for education, generally coinciding
with other works [37–51] in the context of mathematical and science processes, concepts,
and properties [35,36,52–60]. Likewise, less investigated STEAM aspects are examined,
observing that the construction of the game materials also puts these contents into action,
coinciding with another study [61].
We have confirmed the power of these games for education, coinciding in general with
other works [37–51] within the context of the processes, concepts, and properties math-
ematics and science [35,36,52–60]. We also examine less investigated matters, observing
that the construction of the materials of the games also brings these contents into action,
coinciding with another study [61].
Furthermore, these gaming materials are cultural components that are highly valued
in ethnomathematics as elements that manifest mathematical thought characteristic of a
group. Thus, we verified the importance of artefacts in the knowledge of a culture and in
the processes of mathematical and scientific enculturation [18–34].
We investigated games in two situations: from the perspective of their use as a
playful activity as well as from the ethnomathematical standpoint of the artisan that makes
them [98]. For this, the characteristics of the game must be understood, the materials
must be selected and shaped, and the aesthetic form appropriate to the game must be
applied. The merging of the two situations in the microproject activated the elements of
mathematical, scientific, and STEAM knowledge.
Tables 2–4 show confirmation of the activities in relation to these contents in both
situations of the experiment conducted by the players by examples of expressions and
deeds faced by the players. The manifestations of certain categories in the situation of
playing, and others in the crafts-engineering situation of making, proved more numerous.
It bears noting the categories that were manifested while playing more than while
making, or vice versa, and analysing this circumstance qualitatively and quantitatively, as
shown in Table 6.
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 18 of 24

Table 6. Frequencies of each category, evidenced in the situations of playing and/or making, in the three games.

Playing Making the Board and Pieces


Situations Total Evi- Total Evi-
dence/Category dence/Category
Games The Dog The Towers The Dog and The Towers
and the of the Mijnlieff of the Mijnlieff
Category the Goats
Goats Alhambra Alhambra
1. Identifying flat
shapes and three- X X 2 X X X 3
dimensional bodies
2. Situating oneself
X X 2 0
on plane and space
3. Making
relationships of X X 2 X X 2
order
4. Making
X 1 X 1
classifications
5. Making counts X X 2 X X X 3
6. Recognizing
0 X X X 3
regularities
7. Giving exact and
approximate X 1 X X X 3
measurements
8. Posing numerical 0 X X X 3
questions
9. Ascertaining X X X 3 0
geometric aspects
10. Recognizing
X X 2 0
length
11. Recognizing the
surface area and X X X 3 X 1
volume of a body
12. Identifying
properties of 0 X X 2
materials
13. Exercising
0 X X X 3
observation
14. Proposing
0 X X 2
hypotheses
15. Recognizing
X X 2 0
alternatives
16. Demonstrating
X X X 3 X 1
logical reasoning
17. Designing X X X 3 0
strategies
18. Experimen-ting X X 2 0
19. Evaluating
X X 2 0
results
20. Drawing
X X X 3 0
conclusions
21. Predicting X 1 X 1
Total 15 13 12 8 9 10
game/evidences

Quantitatively, 13 categories were found to be evidenced more in playing (62%),


7 (33%) were evidenced more in making, and 3 (14%) were evidenced equally in both
situations (Figure 6).
Qualitatively, the categories most evidenced were 1 (Identifying flat shapes and three-
dimensional bodies) and 5 (Making counts), which were evidenced in five options of the six
possible, and this occurred more in making situations. These were followed the 3 (Making
relationships of order) that proved equal in situations, 7 (Giving exact and approximate
measurements) more in making, 11 (Recognizing the surface area and volume of a body)
more in playing, and 16 (Demonstrating logical reasoning) more in playing. These data
X X 2 0
sults
20. Drawing con-
X X X 3 0
clusions
21. Predicting X 1 X 1
Educ.
Total Sci. 2021, 11, 624
game/evi- 19 of 24
15 13 12 8 9 10
dences

Quantitatively, 13 categories
reflect consistency amongwere found to and
the contents be evidenced
situationsmore in playing
in which (62%),
they were 7 (33%) the
manifested
weremost.
evidenced more in making, and 3 (14%) were evidenced equally in both situations
It should be highlighted that these most evidenced categories form an essential part
(Figure 6). contents and competences of the curriculum of mathematics and sciences of Primary
of the
Education in Spain.

Figure 6. Comparison of the situations in which analytical categories were evidenced.


Figure 6. Comparison
On the otherofhand,
the situations in which
the playful analyticalproved
microproject categories were
to be evidenced.didactic proposal
a successful
in terms of its objectives. Thus, the contribution of this study to the field of Education
Qualitatively,
is important becausethe categories
it shows most evidenced
that the wereimplemented
microproject 1 (Identifyingensures
flat shapes and
that activities
three-dimensional
in these gamesbodies)activateand
an 5essential
(Makingpart
counts),
of thewhich
core of were
the evidenced
curriculum, inwhich
five options
should be
of the six possible, and this occurred more in making
completed by the student between 7 and 12 years of age. situations. These were followed the
3 (MakingThe relationships of order) that proved equal in situations, 7 (Giving exact
three games involved are equivalent in their quantity of manifestations. All the and ap-
proximate measurements)
information gathered for more
eachingame
making, 11 (Recognizing
is another contribution thetosurface area
Cultural and volumeThis
Anthropology.
of a can
body) more in playing, and 16 (Demonstrating logical reasoning)
be used in play centres and workshops for non-formal education, orienting more in playing.
the users
These data reflect consistency among the contents and situations in which they
on the learning implicit in these games. Therefore, we provide valuable information for were man-
ifested the most.
cultural It should
knowledge andbeforhighlighted that these most
mathematical-scientific evidencedwithin
enculturation categories form
settings an
of formal,
essential part of the contents and competences of the curriculum of mathematics
as well as non-formal, education. Overall, a theoretic framework has been developed and sci-
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, xences
FOR PEER REVIEW Education in Spain.
ofethnomathematics
Primary 22 of 2
for as a research program, and the results can be applied to practical
On the other hand,
socio-educational the playful
efforts with an microproject provedThe
intercultural focus. to be a successful
contributions ofdidactic pro-work
the present
posalare
inpresented
terms of itsin objectives.
Figure 7. Thus, the contribution of this study to the field of Educa-
tion is important because it shows that the microproject implemented ensures that activi-
ties in these games activate an essential part of the core of the curriculum, which should
be completed by the student between 7 and 12 years of age.
The three games involved are equivalent in their quantity of manifestations. All the
information gathered for each game is another contribution to Cultural Anthropology.
This can be used in play centres and workshops for non-formal education, orienting the
users on the learning implicit in these games. Therefore, we provide valuable information
for cultural knowledge and for mathematical-scientific enculturation within settings of
formal, as well as non-formal, education. Overall, a theoretic framework has been devel-
oped for ethnomathematics as a research program, and the results can be applied to prac-
tical socio-educational efforts with an intercultural focus. The contributions of the present
work are presented in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Contributions to cultural and educational fields with an ethnomathematical focus.


Figure 7. Contributions to cultural and educational fields with an ethnomathematical focus.
The limitations of the present study involve the setting and the interactions with
the players since
Thethe making and
limitations usepresent
of the of these games
study couldthe
involve notsetting
be experienced in student with th
and the interactions
surroundings of formal education due to the restrictions of the use of materials
players since the making and use of these games could not be experienced and relations
in student sur
with other people from outside the schools, due to the existing COVID-19 pandemic.
roundings of formal education due to the restrictions of the use of materials and relation
Therefore,with
interviews could from
other people not beoutside
made with playersdue
the schools, aftertothe
theimplementation
existing COVID-19of thepandemic
microproject. Both aspects, i.e., experimentation in a broader sample that includes schools
Therefore, interviews could not be made with players after the implementation of the mi
croproject. Both aspects, i.e., experimentation in a broader sample that includes school
(formal education) and interviews with the players included in the microproject to delv
into the cognitive aspects, constitute perspectives for future investigation in this line.
Overall, the three traditional selected games have favoured the activation of mathe
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 20 of 24

(formal education) and interviews with the players included in the microproject to delve
into the cognitive aspects, constitute perspectives for future investigation in this line.
Overall, the three traditional selected games have favoured the activation of math-
ematical and scientific content in a STEAM context, being appropriate as cultural signs
for creating a playful microproject. When making their gaming materials and playing
with them, 21 categories established a priori have been revealed. These categories were
related to the concepts of artefacts, mentifacts, and sociofacts that characterize culture [97],
forming three typologies. Evidence of these three types of categories was found, by means
of a checklist [99] developed and applied to the players, with the mentifacts being the
most evidenced.
They are important in mathematical and scientific learning; content related to the
nature of scientific and mathematical thinking, such as the formulation of hypotheses,
recognition of regularities, the establishment of relationships of order, strategy design,
logical reasoning, and the evaluation of situations, with categories evidenced with mean
percentages exceeding 56% of players.
In the playful setting and STEAM context in which the activities of the microproject
have been developed, other mathematical content has been activated, such as: counting
and putting forward numerical questions particular to arithmetic (mean frequencies over
85%), together with identifying the flat shapes and three-dimensional bodies particular to
geometry (mean frequency of 100%). Scientific content has also been activated, such as:
recognizing length, surface, and volume of a body (mean frequencies higher than 63%),
giving exact and approximate measurements (mean frequencies over 56%) and identifying
properties of materials (mean frequency of 49%). This all stimulates us to propose this
games-based microproject for learning mathematics and science in a STEAM context, for
non-formal and formal settings alike.
In addition, the implementation of the playful microproject has meant that attention
has been drawn to traditional games of diverse origins, favouring respect and understand-
ing towards all cultures, thus promoting key values of intercultural education.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.F.-O. and M.L.O.; Data curation, M.J.E.-G. and M.L.O.;
Formal analysis, A.F.-O., M.J.E.-G. and M.L.O.; Methodology, A.F.-O. and M.L.O.; Resources, A.F.-O.
and M.L.O.; Supervision, A.F.-O. and M.L.O.; Visualization, A.F.-O.; Writing—original draft, A.F.-
O., M.J.E.-G. and M.L.O.; Writing—review & editing, A.F.-O. and M.L.O. Project administration,
A.F.-O. Funding acquisition, A.F.-O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by University of Granada, grant numbers PPJI2018-06 and
PID 18-363.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the
Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by Ethics Committee of University of Granada (protocol code
1704/CEIH/2020 and date of approval 30 September 2020).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Check-list to collect evidences of the categories activated in each player by the game.

Player Code
(N◦ , Boy: O/Girl: A, Years. Evidence Captured with Evidence Gathered by Situation: Situation:
Example: 1A9 = 1◦ , Girl, 9 Recorded Video. Quote Direct Observation and Playing (put X if Making the Board and
Year Old) Player Phrases or Written in the Field applicable) the Pieces (put X if
Gestures (Sessions 1–3) Notebook (Sessions 1–3) applicable)
Category (from 1 to 21)
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 21 of 24

Table A2. Codification table of the players.

Game Pairs Player Code Gaming Place Game Played


1-A-9 ALFA play centre
Pair 1
2-A-8 ALFA play centre
3-O-9 ALFA play centre
Pair 2
4-O-12 ALFA play centre
5-O-7 Neighbourhood community room
Pair 3
6-O-8 Neighbourhood community room The dog and the goats
7-A-7 Neighbourhood community room
Pair 4
8-A-8 Neighbourhood community room
9-A-8 Maracena play centre
Pair 5
10-A-8 Maracena play centre
11-A-8 Maracena play centre
Pair 6
12-O-7 Maracena play centre
13-A-7 ALFA play centre
Pair 7
14-O-8 ALFA play centre
15-O-8 ALFA play centre
Pair 8
16-O-9 ALFA play centre
17-A-10 ALFA play centre
Pair 9
18-A-11 ALFA play centre
Torres de la Alhambra
19-O-11 ALFA play centre
Pair 10
20-O-12 ALFA play centre
21-O-9 Maracena play centre
Pair 11
22-O-9 Maracena play centre
23-A-10 Maracena play centre
Pair 12
24-A-9 Maracena play centre
25-A-11 ALFA play centre
Pair 13
26-A-11 ALFA play centre
27-O-11 ALFA play centre
Pair 14
28-O-12 ALFA play centre
Mijnlieff
29-O-9 Maracena play centre
Pair 15
30-O-9 Maracena play centre
31-A-10 Maracena play centre
Pair 16
32-A-9 Maracena play centre

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