Education 11 00624
Education 11 00624
Education 11 00624
sciences
Article
Implementation of a Playful Microproject Based on Traditional
Games for Working on Mathematical and Scientific Content
Alicia Fernández-Oliveras 1, * , María José Espigares-Gámez 2 and María Luisa Oliveras 3
Abstract: According to previous research, we consider it necessary to extend the use of games,
as mediating elements, in the learning of STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and
Mathematics) contents rejected by many students. For this, we have carried out an educational
research project on games, with an ethnomathematical approach, since games are an important
cultural sign with mathematical and scientific potentialities. We have prepared an anthropological
study and an analytical one, generating a catalogue of games from different cultures. Thus, we
have verified that, starting with culture, we can get to the game, but we posed the query as to
whether, starting from certain games, we could achieve enculturation, by activating mathematical
Citation: Fernández-Oliveras, A.; and scientific content in the players. To answer this query, we have created a curricular design called
Espigares-Gámez, M.J.; Oliveras, M.L. “playful microproject” with three traditional games from different cultures and geographical contexts.
Implementation of a Playful
The microproject was implemented with 32 participants, from 8 to 12 years old. To analyse the results
Microproject Based on Traditional
of the microproject, a case study was carried out using qualitative methodology. As part of the playful
Games for Working on Mathematical
microproject, the necessary materials for each game were made by hand, and the games were then
and Scientific Content. Educ. Sci. 2021,
played. Both the realization of the games and the act of playing showed evidence of mathematical
11, 624. https://doi.org/10.3390/
educsci11100624
and scientific content, although more in the act of playing. The results revealed that: (1) the three
games mobilized 21 categories of analysis, made up of scientific-mathematical content; (2) the three
Academic Editors: José Carlos Piñero games proved to be equivalent in strong didactic potential; (3) that the microproject provides a
Charlo, María Teresa Costado Dios, valuable intercultural educational approach. The contents evidenced constitute a fundamental
Enrique Carmona Medeiro and part of the Primary Education curriculum: classify, organize, measure, and quantify items, as well
Fernando Lloret as formulate hypotheses, draw conclusions, place oneself in space, and design strategies, among
others. It is concluded that these games can promote scientific-mathematical enculturation in a
Received: 16 July 2021 contextualized way.
Accepted: 7 October 2021
Published: 11 October 2021
Keywords: game-based learning; traditional games; ethnomathematics; steam; intercultural educa-
tion; primary education
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Huizinga considered humans to be Homo Ludens or “man who plays” [1]. For this
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
author, play is a cultural phenomenon, a social impulse that extends to all civilizations,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
as an essential element of each culture that subjects create and use throughout the whole
This article is an open access article
of their lives [2,3]. We assume his vision and value the importance of play as a cultural
distributed under the terms and sign that characterizes each social group and belongs to all humanity, as it originates with
conditions of the Creative Commons the development of society itself and leads the person towards integration into a social
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// group [4].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Regarding the repercussions of play in each subject, its educational influence is un-
4.0/). deniable. Play, however, is the ideal scenario for acquiring a great deal of learning. For
example, some games help in the structuring of language [5], and others favours develop-
ment of thinking [6]. According to Garaigordobil [7], there are a number of studies that
example, some games help in the structuring of language [5], and others favours develop-
demonstrate how play is a key part in the development of learning in children and adults.
ment of thinking [6]. According to Garaigordobil [7], there are a number of studies that
In accordance with this idea, there is currently a complete line of international research
demonstrate how play is a key part in the development of learning in children and adults.
onInplayful
accordance learning, which
with this idea,includes
there isgame-based learning,line
currently a complete on of
which our study
international focuses,
research on
centred on the educational use of traditional games.
playful learning, which includes game-based learning, on which our study focuses, centred
We educational
on the consider play useasofa traditional
key element in the development of the person, taking, as ref-
games.
erence,We theconsider
ideas of play
Piagetas[8], where he
a key element interprets play as the means
in the development of thebyperson,
which the childas
taking,
comes into contact with and develops in the environment, thereby learning
reference, the ideas of Piaget [8], where he interprets play as the means by which the child to understand
reality.
comesThisinto is somewhat
contact with related to the proposal
and develops of Vigotsky,
in the environment, who affirmed
thereby learningthat the game
to understand
isreality.
a socialThis
activity [9]. In consideration of these ideas, it becomes necessary
is somewhat related to the proposal of Vigotsky, who affirmed that the game to highlight
that,
is a despite their importance
social activity in current and
[9]. In consideration future
of these society,
ideas, the skillsnecessary
it becomes associated towith sci-
highlight
entific thinking are often not developed in the classroom and, therefore,
that, despite their importance in current and future society, the skills associated with need to be pro-
moted through
scientific educational
thinking are often andnotcultural tools,insuch
developed the as games [10].
classroom and,Totherefore,
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of taking
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itpromoted
as a reference for aneducational
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cultural tools,that hasas
such been taking
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[10]. for apoint
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ber of years,
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reference has,anaseducational
its precedents, various
research studies
project that on
hasplay,
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taking shape for a
and potential
number for working
of years, and whichonhas, mathematical
as its precedents,and scientific content
various studies on[11–13]. This project
play, its classifications
comprises
and potentialfour components:
for working on anthropological
mathematicalstudy, analytical
and scientific study,[11–13].
content educational
This study,
project
and field research (Figure 1). A summary of the first two stages
comprises four components: anthropological study, analytical study, educational (anthropological andstudy,
an-
alytical study)
and field can be(Figure
research consulted 1). in
Aasummary
previous publication
of the first [14], and the(anthropological
two stages final two stages are and
presented
analyticalhere.study) can be consulted in a previous publication [14], and the final two stages
are presented here.
we present here fit into the base of that arc and build the arc backwards: from games to
culture. This leads to enculturation in mathematics and science, implicit in games, and to
current interculturality based on ancestral heritage.
In the phase corresponding to the anthropological study, the first element is culture
associated with play. Bishop [15] indicated that there are six types of activities carried out
by all social groups. Playing is one of them. Focusing on this idea, the anthropological
study of our project is pertinent, due to the nature of play, and fundamental, because our
work is grounded on the research programme denominated Ethnomathematics [16–19],
which investigates the relationships between mathematics and different cultures, making
the existence of mathematics visible in all of them. From this focus, mathematics can
be defined as a three-dimensional creation constructed by: formal science, a mode of
individual thought, and social interaction [20,21]. Ethnomathematics includes these three
components and is defined by several authors as follows: “Mathematics practiced between
cultural groups identifiable as national tribal societies, guilds, children of a certain age,
and professional classes” [22]; “A cultural product that has been developed as a result
of several activities” [23]; Mathematics implicit in each practice [24], which emerge in
all cultures; “modes and techniques (tics) of comprehension, grasp, and explanation of
the natural and cultural setting (mathema) in different cultural systems (ethno) [25]. The
literature on Ethnomathematics is currently extensive, with notable references for the
present work [26–33].
Rosa & Orey [34] relate mathematics to other areas of cognition, such as language
or meanings—something tremendously related to culture and its dissemination. At this
point, one of the ethnomathematical principles of Gerdes [24] is noteworthy, where the
importance of emphasizing the implication of sociocultural factors (game) in education,
learning, and development of mathematics is addressed. That is the aim we focus our
mathematical and scientific interest on, with games that offer cultural elements applicable
to mathematics teaching.
Ideas that were already raised by Alsina and Planas [35], where they make a com-
parative analysis of the procedures involved in the game and in mathematics, some of
them being: knowledge of the rules, acquiring familiarity by relating some pieces to others,
making comparisons and interactions of elements, explore the procedures used by other
players or discover interesting problems and solve them. Finally, mention of the reflection
by Miguel de Guzmán [36] relates to the game and the teaching of mathematics through
the following thought: “Mathematics has been/is art and this artistic component related to
play is consubstantial to mathematical activity”. That is to say, in all mathematics, there is
a game, and in every game, there is mathematics.
Once the concepts of play and ethnomathematics have been identified, it is necessary
to address what the analytical study consists in the classification and analysis of the games
selected, focusing mainly on their mathematical and scientific aspects [37,38]. The purpose
of this study is to obtain information on the potential of games for developing STEAM
(Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) learning, where the arts are
present in diverse forms, for example creativity, but where learning is also supported and
improved in cognitive, physical, language, social, and emotional domains [39]. The term
was coined by Yakman & Lee [40] as a framework for education via disciplines focused in
an integrated manner. In other words, it was a new paradigm that proposes the sciences
(including mathematics) and technology interpreted via engineering and the arts [41]. The
complete potential of STEAM goes beyond aesthetics and takes in arts related to language,
culture, history, and humanities [42]. The influence of STEAM education can be appreciated
in our proposal for playful microprojects based on traditional games [43,44]. It provides
a context for the learning of values that is appropriate for a project of this type, which is
something that Park & Ko [45] commented on when they indicated that STEAM education
should take into account integrative thinking systems, creativity, and values. Using the
areas of Mathematics and Science as a starting point, we carry out the educational study,
which involves the creation of the design and implementation of a playful microproject
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 4 of 24
centred around three traditional games, through activities inserted into an educational
model based on values of an intercultural type [46].
The field study is comprised of a case study involving the analysis of the implemen-
tation of the microproject, showing that it allows for work on scientific and mathemati-
cal content.
1.4. Objectives
The educational study and the field study have their own goals but are interrelated.
The educational objectives consist of designing, creating, and implementing activities
based on the traditional games selected, constituting a playful microproject, with the
ultimate aim of mobilizing mathematical and scientific content in the players.
In the sense of qualitative case studies, hypotheses are proposed here as research
questions. Thus our research hypothesis, in the case study that brings together the two
educational and field studies, is the following:
“The three traditional games selected have proven mathematical and scientific po-
tential, so they can trigger thoughts and communication that bring together mathemati-
cal and scientific content, if they are implemented through an appropriate and efficient
didactic design”.
This is not properly a “hypothesis” but rather the nucleus of a group of research
questions that we have classified as “how”, “what”, and “how many” concerning the
possibility of achieving the educational and research objectives.
How?
How is it possible to demonstrate manifestations of mathematical-scientific content
through the creation and implementation of a playful microproject of an ethnomathematical
nature? If the games used are able to stimulate mathematical and scientific thinking in the
players, in game activities and in the construction of game materials, will we be able to
capture meaningful evidence of these activations by observing the players?
If the participants who play interact in pairs, how can we better capture the reasoning
of the pairs (on videotape or through observation)? Can this be done by observing their
actions, listening to their conversations, asking them questions, answering their questions,
or analysing their productions?
What?
What are the elements of mathematical and scientific concepts or procedures that are
activated by these games? Are they only conceptualization or also reasoning? Are they
related to the curricular goals of primary education? Are they related to each game, or are
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 6 of 24
they common to the entire playful microproject? Can the existence of activation episodes
related to the didactic design be affirmed?
How many?
To what extent can we affirm something more than sporadic manifestations? Can
we quantify the evidences in the playful microproject? Play activities and making play
materials are carried out. Do these two situations have a similar educational potential,
proven by quantifying evidence of both types?
Figure 2. The Dog and the Goats game board with pieces at start position [83].
of the game is to be the first to move all pieces to the opponent’s starting area, so that the
opponent wall is“The
The game “conquered”.
Towers ofTo thedo so, it is necessary
Alhambra” to move
was created all of the pieces
by Francisco López forwards
Martin in
crossways (never diagonally) to adjacent squares. It is possible to make
2012 [84], set in the emblematic monument of the Andalusian city of Granada: simple or multiple
The Al-
jumps over
hambra. your
This own pieces,
genuine butofnot
fortress theover yourculture
Nasrid opponent’s,
was withbefore
built the exception
the 15thof the tallest
century and
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 27
tower (guide
includes tower)connected
35 towers which canby jump over
walls, the opponent’s
palaces, Arab baths,pieces and and
houses, is the only one
gardens, that
consti-
can move
tuting thebackwards, if no other
most important move isensemble
architectural possible. of Muslim origin in Europe. The game
is from the Halma (jump in Greek) family, a concept devised by George Howard Monk in
1883 [85]. In these games, pieces jump over each other to fill the opposite squares. The
board, in the form of a checkerboard, is the lid of a box made out of wood and decorated
with the traditional ornamental technique known as “marquetry” (Figure 3). This craft is
still practiced in Granada and consists of covering a wooden object with small geometric
pieces of wood, mother of pearl, or bone such as with a puzzle. There are five pieces for
each player. The pieces are small metal sculptures that represent the most striking of the
towers of the north wall (bronze) and the south wall (copper) of the Alhambra. The aim
of the game is to be the first to move all pieces to the opponent’s starting area, so that the
opponent wall is “conquered”. To do so, it is necessary to move all of the pieces forwards
crossways (never diagonally) to adjacent squares. It is possible to make simple or multiple
jumps over your own pieces, but not over your opponent’s, with the exception of the tall-
est tower (guide tower) which can jump over the opponent’s pieces and is the only one
Figure
that
Figure 2.2.The
can TheDog
moveDog andthe
theGoats
Goats
backwards,
and game
if no board
other
game move
board with pieces
ispieces
with atatstart
possible. startposition
position[83].
[83].
The game “The Towers of the Alhambra” was created by Francisco López Martin in
2012 [84], set in the emblematic monument of the Andalusian city of Granada: The Al-
hambra. This genuine fortress of the Nasrid culture was built before the 15th century and
includes 35 towers connected by walls, palaces, Arab baths, houses, and gardens, consti-
tuting the most important architectural ensemble of Muslim origin in Europe. The game
is from the Halma (jump in Greek) family, a concept devised by George Howard Monk in
1883 [85]. In these games, pieces jump over each other to fill the opposite squares. The
board, in the form of a checkerboard, is the lid of a box made out of wood and decorated
with the traditional ornamental technique known as “marquetry” (Figure 3). This craft is
still practiced in Granada and consists of covering a wooden object with small geometric
pieces of wood, mother of pearl, or bone such as with a puzzle. There are five pieces for
each player. The pieces are small metal sculptures that represent the most striking of the
towers of the north wall (bronze) and the south wall (copper) of the Alhambra. The aim
of the game is to be the first to move all pieces to the opponent’s starting area, so that the
opponent wall is “conquered”. To do so, it is necessary to move all of the pieces forwards
crossways (never diagonally) to adjacent squares. It is possible to make simple or multiple
jumps over your own pieces, but not over your opponent’s, with the exception of the tall-
est tower (guide tower) which can jump over the opponent’s pieces and is the only one
that can move backwards, if no other move is possible.
Figure 3. Board and pieces for the Towers of the Alhambra game, separate and with the initial
starting point of the pieces (top). Towers of the Alhambra walls and Granada marquetry objects
(bottom). (Source: own creation).
The game “Minjlieff” was created in 2010 by Andy Hopwood, inspired by ancient
Talf type games [86]. It was named best abstract game in the 2010 UK Games Expo, the
most relevant board games convention in Britain. The launch of the Android version
has made it popular, as it can be played online. Talf are old Germanic board games that
were played on a square board, simulating two armies, and they imitated the military
successes of Viking attacks. They spread wherever the Vikings passed through, including
Iceland, Britain, Ireland, and Lapland [87]. The playing of board games fits into the cultural
habits of these Nordic groups, given that winter lasted for months and Viking families
stayed inside their homes, which were spaces for feasts, conceiving projects, preparing
expeditions, and relaxing with board games. Viking culture is hugely attractive in modern
society, with its influence being appreciated in music, literature, cinema, and games [88,89].
made it popular, as it can be played online. Talf are old Germanic board games that were
played on a square board, simulating two armies, and they imitated the military successes
of Viking attacks. They spread wherever the Vikings passed through, including Iceland,
Britain, Ireland, and Lapland [87]. The playing of board games fits into the cultural habits
of these Nordic groups, given that winter lasted for months and Viking families stayed
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 8 of 24
inside their homes, which were spaces for feasts, conceiving projects, preparing expedi-
tions, and relaxing with board games. Viking culture is hugely attractive in modern soci-
ety, with its influence being appreciated in music, literature, cinema, and games [88,89]. It
Itisis
a game
a game forfor
two players;
two players; each with
each different
with coloured
different coloured pieces moved
pieces one square
moved at a time.
one square at a
There are four signs that characterize the four types of existing
time. There are four signs that characterize the four types of existing pieces and indicatepieces and indicate the
moves
the movesthatthat
thethe
opponent
opponent cancan
make:
make: towards,
towards,away,
away, neighbouring
neighbouring squares, or or
squares, squares
squares on
a common
on a common vertex.
vertex.TheThe board
boardisisvery
veryoriginal,
original,asasititisisformed
formed in in different ways
ways with
withfour
four
squareboards
square boardscontaining
containing22×× 2 squares
squares (Figure
(Figure 4).
4). The
The symbols
symbols on on the
the pieces
piecesare
areinspired
inspired
by runes, signs that made up part of the Viking alphabet and that
by runes, signs that made up part of the Viking alphabet and that were typically engraved were typically engraved
onstones
on stones(Figure
(Figure4). 4). Each
Eachplayer
player has
haseight
eightpieces,
pieces,twotwoof ofeach
eachsymbol.
symbol. During
During play,
play,each
each
piecedetermines
piece determinesthe thesquares
squareswhere
wherethe theopponent
opponentcan canplayplayhis
hisororher
hernext
nextpiece.
piece.IfIfaaplayer
player
isisunable
unabletotodo dowhat
whatthethepiece
pieceindicates,
indicates,he heloses
loseshis
histurn
turnandandthetheopponent
opponentputs putsanother
another
one where
one wherehe hewants.
wants. TheThe objective
objective of of the
the game
game isisto toget
getthe
thehighest
highestpossible
possiblescore,
score,with
with
each
eachpoint
pointobtained
obtainedby byplacing
placingthree
threepieces
piecesofofthe same
the same colour
colourin in
a row
a row(vertical, horizontal,
(vertical, horizon-
or
tal,diagonal), as inas
or diagonal), theingame “Three
the game in a row”.
“Three The game
in a row”. The gameendsendswhenwhenno more pieces
no more can
pieces
be
canplayed.
be played.
Figure4.4. Boards
Figure Boards and
and pieces
pieces from
from the
the game
gameMinjlieff
Minjlieff(top
(topand
andbottom
bottomleft).
left).Viking
Vikingrunes and
runes box
and box
engraved with the Viking Valknut symbol (bottom right) [90–93].
engraved with the Viking Valknut symbol (bottom right) [90–93].
In order to design the playful microproject activities, special attention has been paid
to mathematical and scientific content, but aspects relating to technology, engineering, and
art that can be worked with in the games have also been taken into account, exploiting
their potential for developing STEAM learning.
Table 1. Data analysis instrument. Categories corresponding to mathematical and scientific content associated with artefacts,
mentifacts, and sociofacts of each traditional board game of the playful microproject.
the players
Sociofacts:
Table 1. Cont.
13 Exercising observation
hearing, without speaking simultaneously)
Thinking about something that could be
14 Proposing hypotheses
done and stating it
Realizing that you can do something
Mentifacts:
or done
Ordering ideas with a cause-effect criterion
16 Demonstrating logical reasoning
(coming to relate moves made in the game)
Thinking about and expressing ways of
17 Designing strategies
acting (to win the game)
Making tests before acting or doing various
18 Experimenting
things to see their effects
Observing something that happened and
Game rules
Sociofacts:
19 Evaluating results
making an assessment of it
Making inferences or other logical reasoning
20 Drawing conclusions
with a view to guidelines for the future
Anticipating something (that could occur in
21 Predicting
the game)
3. Results
3.1. Results of the Educational Study. Implementation of the Microproject
The playful microproject was implemented, with a total of 32 participants (16 girls
and 16 boys) between 7 and 12 years old (Primary Education). Participating players were
recruited: 16 in a non-formal education centre in the city of Granada (Spain), 12 in a
non-formal education centre in Maracena, a city in the province of Granada, (Spain), and 4
in a group of children of neighbours of one of the researchers, in the city of Granada. The
players participating were randomly selected by the heads of each non-formal education
centre. The intention was not to have a homogeneous group of students, but to form play
groups with students of various types and abilities. After receiving an explanation of the
experiment, they volunteered to participate.
Each participant was assigned a code (Appendix A, Table A2).
The implementation was extended over four months, involving three 60-min sessions
for each game, organized as follows:
Initial session: The players were grouped into pairs. Each pair was assigned a board
game that was the exclusive basis for all activities. The Dog and the Goats was assigned to
six pairs (12 participants), the Towers of the Alhambra to another six (12 participants), and
Minjlieff to four (eight participants). The traditional board game assigned was presented
along with its origin and elements of the culture it is related to, employing different
materials (a ppt presentation, drawings, flash cards, and elements that can be handled). A
story of our own creation was told, “The tale of Guanche”, which involved the story of a
shepherd from the Canary Islands passionate about board games whose wish was to create
his own game, to which he travelled all around the world discovering different cultures and
learning the games they played. After finding discovering the cultural origin of the game,
the players dressed up as characters from the culture in the past, they themselves creating
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 11 of 24
the costume with fabric, plastic, and card. To do so they made hats, shields, and other dress
elements, taking measurements, drawing, and cutting out. Now in their costumes, the
participants assumed the role of locals entrusted with making the game board and pieces.
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
They used recycled materials (boxes, caps, and cartons) and decorated the board to12taste of 27
with figures from the culture in question (Figure 5).
Figure5.5. Construction
Figure Construction of
of game
game materials
materials for
forthe
thetraditional
traditionalgames
gamesselected.
selected.Top toto
Top bottom:
bottom:The
The
Dogand
Dog and thethe Goats
Goats (top),
(top), The
The Towers
Towersofofthe
theAlhambra
Alhambra(centre),
(centre),and
andMijnlieff (bottom).
Mijnlieff (Source:
(bottom). (Source:
Own creation).
Own creation).
3.2. Research
DevelopmentResults. Evidence
session: Theof Activation
participants of Mathematical
again entered andinto
Scientific Content
role play with the con-
Thematerial
structed details (board
of eachand player wereThe
pieces). taken,
rulesduring
for theirinteraction with partner
assigned games or with the
were explained to
them, they familiarized
researcher, themselves
via video recording andwith
field the games and played them a number of times
notes.
with help.
Even while being aware that a category can be repeated in the same player various
Closing
times, for thesession: The participants
data analysis, if a playeroncestated again went through
a category, the role
subsequent play process
posterior evidence andof
played the board
that category wasgames in pairs,
no longer but this
counted. Thistime without
is done help,tomaking
in order specifytheir own decisions.
the content analysis,
reducing it to a maximum of 672 pieces of data (32 players by 21 categories). We under-
3.2. Research
stand Results.
“evidence of aEvidence
category”of Activation
as being of anMathematical
action or verbaland Scientific
expressionContent
from the player
The details of each player were taken, during interaction
(comment, response, or question), in which the content associated to the category with partner or withmani-
the
researcher,
fests itself.via video recording
Examples of evidence andoffield
eachnotes.
category for each game are shown in Tables 2–4.
BothEven while being
observations andaware that a category
the transcription can be expressed
of words repeated inbythe same
the player various
participants are in-
times,
cluded.forThe
the players
data analysis, if a player
who showed stated athe
evidence, category, subsequent
situation in which posterior evidence
the category of
was evi-
that category was no longer counted. This is done
denced, and examples of evidence for each category are tabulated.in order to specify the content analysis,
reducing it to a maximum of 672 pieces of data (32 players by 21 categories). We understand
“evidence
Table 2. Codes of the players of a category”
who showed evidence, as being an
evidence action or
situations, andverbal expression
examples from of
of evidences thecategories
player (comment,
in the
response,
game “The dog and the goats”. or question), in which the content associated to the category manifests itself.
Examples of evidence of each category for each game are shown in Tables 2–4. Both
Category Player Code/Evidence
observations Situationof words expressed by theExample
and the transcription participants are included.
1. Identifying flat shapes The players who showed evidence, the situation in which the category was evidenced, and
All players show evidence of this category. It is observed that they all recognise square
and three-dimensional examples of evidence for each category are tabulated.
Making the game board and pieces and rectangle shapes when making the board.
bodies
Players showing evidence of this category: Establish a numerical order when placing the
3. Making relationships 1A9, 3A9, 4O12, 8A8, 9A9, 10A8, 11A9, 12O12. tiles while playing (1,2,3…). A player states
of order Making the game board and pieces and Play- the number of steps followed for making the
ing board (12O12)
When looking for objects to make the pieces,
All players show evidence of this category.
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 12 of 24
Table 2. Codes of the players who showed evidence, evidence situations, and examples of evidences of categories in the
game “The dog and the goats”.
Table 3. Codes of the players who showed evidence, evidence situations, and examples of evidences of categories in the
game “The towers of the Alhambra”.
Table 4. Codes of the players who showed evidence, evidence situations, and examples of evidences of categories in the
game “Mijnlieff”.
Table 4. Cont.
With “The dog and the goats” the players show great interest in Guanche culture, they
ask why they played with stones, what games they played, and if it still exists. There has
been observation of identifications of elemental flat shapes that intervene in the boards:
square, rectangle, and triangle. Regarding relationships of order, various players initially
placed their pieces following an order they named. Then, when playing, a player moves
the pieces following the order of placement and not by game strategy.
They state their game strategies: “If I move along the corners it’s more difficult for
them to take me”, and justify their actions, although they don’t constitute a strategy: “I’m
slow because if I think, I play better”. Experimenting is interpreted by one as cheating
when another tries to take two at a time as an experiment. They self-assess, trying to find
the reasons for their mistakes, recognizing they have moved without thinking or have
made a mistake when moving: “I should have made another more correct move”, and
conclude with ideas for improving. “Next time I’ll wait to take” or “I need to pay more
attention”. All of the above shows that the participants have played in a conscious manner.
A pair wanted to keep playing when time was up and said they would ask for the game
when they returned to the playroom, and a player even said he would use it to teach his
sister how to count, inventing a didactic application for this game.
In the game “The Towers of the Alhambra” it is observed that, in the construction of
the board, the players recognize a rectangle and a square, making reference to its particular
shape. In the pieces, which are clearly three-dimensional, they differentiate cube and
straight prism. They make mistakes in the placement of the pieces, tending to move them
diagonally along the square, as it is the direction that the starting squares go, when the
rules require moving to adjacent squares. This makes them focus on directions on the plane
that form straight angles. They design strategies trying to gain advantages (one moves
all the towers together, another only when the opponent jumps over a piece), although
other actions don’t make sense (a player retreats from the opposing towers when they get
near). Evaluating results at the end of the game is an exercise of reflection that they do
quite competently. “I made a mistake because I moved too quickly”, “I didn’t play well”,
and from which they draw conclusions: “I’ll pay more attention next time”, “I need to
listen more to your advice” or “I’m not going to start anymore”.
It can be seen how the player of this game connected with the monument that it is
inspired by. Some indicated that the real towers are harder than these, another made a
reference to the towers of the monument as a defensive element, comparing it with its
mode of play, another player explained she was Arabic and didn’t know the Alhambra and
another said: “Thanks to the game, when I go to the Alhambra I’m going to know what
the towers are”. Some parents present showed an interest in the game, as it was based on
the monument in their city, expressing that it was very beautiful. This all favours social
awareness and cultural knowledge.
With the game “Mijnlieff” there is a manifestation of the category of making classifi-
cations suggested by the pieces, which the players classify with two criteria: colour and
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 16 of 24
symbol shapes. Counting is manifested when counting the total pieces and those for each
player, along with the board squares. A participant counts the drawings made on his or
her box, recognizing their regularity, and another draws a mandala, explaining what is
repeated on it.
Proposing hypotheses is evidenced with expressions such as: “If I play this piece
first its better”. When playing, statements of logical reasoning occur, such as: “Because
it makes it difficult for X to be able to play hers”, “If I move this piece, it’s not good for
my opponent” or “I’ve done a good move because X hasn’t been able block me”, even “I
can’t win because I’ve got pieces that I can’t play left”. An alternative referring to a future
play is demonstrated: “I’m going to play this piece, because with this other one, X can’t
move to this square anymore and so I can move there afterwards”. Designing strategies is
demonstrated with expressions such as: “If I put the pieces on the corners, I save 4 that
won’t be blocked”, which requires thinking about their own move and that of the opponent
at the same time. Experimenting has been evidenced in the making of the board and the
pieces. The strategy of a player who stated that he was leaving a piece for the end, because
this stopped the opponent from winning the game, stood out for its ingenuity. It is the
piece that requires another piece to be placed near to it. As the game is at an advanced
stage, this piece normally means that opponents cannot place their piece and lose their
turn and even the game.
Once the registered evidence was commented on qualitatively, we completed the
analysis with a quantitative analysis, providing the frequencies relative to the categories
regarding the total number of players who interacted with each game (Table 5). As already
indicated, the registry of the evidence has taken place considering each player, who has
been counted only once per category manifested. We also provided the relative overall
frequencies of the microproject, constituted by the three games as a whole, which have
been calculated using the weighted mean of the relative frequencies of the three games.
Table 5. Relative frequencies of each category, evidenced with regards to the total players involved in each game (N) and
overall relative frequencies in the microproject (weighted mean of the three games), expressed as a percentage.
The data from the microproject show that 15 categories have been evidenced with a
mean frequency of over 50%, with those most manifested by the players being: identifying
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 17 of 24
flat shapes and three-dimensional bodies, making classifications, recognizing the surface
area and volume of a body, and exercising observation, with mean frequencies of over 90%,
whereas the least evidenced, with 3%, is predicting, as only one player manifested it.
There is evidence of the three types of categories generated (artefacts, mentifacts, and
sociofacts). On taking the arithmetic mean of the frequencies of the different categories
included within each type we found that, in artefacts, the mean frequency is 65%, in
mentifacts, it is greater, 80%, dropping to 48% in sociofacts. This downturn is due to
the fact that some categories of this type have been evidenced in few participants. For
example, predicting, with 3%, and experimenting, with 30%, as overall frequencies in the
microproject. In contrast, there are categories grouped in the mentifacts with the maximum
overall frequencies of the microproject.
Table 6. Frequencies of each category, evidenced in the situations of playing and/or making, in the three games.
Quantitatively, 13 categories
reflect consistency amongwere found to and
the contents be evidenced
situationsmore in playing
in which (62%),
they were 7 (33%) the
manifested
weremost.
evidenced more in making, and 3 (14%) were evidenced equally in both situations
It should be highlighted that these most evidenced categories form an essential part
(Figure 6). contents and competences of the curriculum of mathematics and sciences of Primary
of the
Education in Spain.
(formal education) and interviews with the players included in the microproject to delve
into the cognitive aspects, constitute perspectives for future investigation in this line.
Overall, the three traditional selected games have favoured the activation of math-
ematical and scientific content in a STEAM context, being appropriate as cultural signs
for creating a playful microproject. When making their gaming materials and playing
with them, 21 categories established a priori have been revealed. These categories were
related to the concepts of artefacts, mentifacts, and sociofacts that characterize culture [97],
forming three typologies. Evidence of these three types of categories was found, by means
of a checklist [99] developed and applied to the players, with the mentifacts being the
most evidenced.
They are important in mathematical and scientific learning; content related to the
nature of scientific and mathematical thinking, such as the formulation of hypotheses,
recognition of regularities, the establishment of relationships of order, strategy design,
logical reasoning, and the evaluation of situations, with categories evidenced with mean
percentages exceeding 56% of players.
In the playful setting and STEAM context in which the activities of the microproject
have been developed, other mathematical content has been activated, such as: counting
and putting forward numerical questions particular to arithmetic (mean frequencies over
85%), together with identifying the flat shapes and three-dimensional bodies particular to
geometry (mean frequency of 100%). Scientific content has also been activated, such as:
recognizing length, surface, and volume of a body (mean frequencies higher than 63%),
giving exact and approximate measurements (mean frequencies over 56%) and identifying
properties of materials (mean frequency of 49%). This all stimulates us to propose this
games-based microproject for learning mathematics and science in a STEAM context, for
non-formal and formal settings alike.
In addition, the implementation of the playful microproject has meant that attention
has been drawn to traditional games of diverse origins, favouring respect and understand-
ing towards all cultures, thus promoting key values of intercultural education.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.F.-O. and M.L.O.; Data curation, M.J.E.-G. and M.L.O.;
Formal analysis, A.F.-O., M.J.E.-G. and M.L.O.; Methodology, A.F.-O. and M.L.O.; Resources, A.F.-O.
and M.L.O.; Supervision, A.F.-O. and M.L.O.; Visualization, A.F.-O.; Writing—original draft, A.F.-
O., M.J.E.-G. and M.L.O.; Writing—review & editing, A.F.-O. and M.L.O. Project administration,
A.F.-O. Funding acquisition, A.F.-O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by University of Granada, grant numbers PPJI2018-06 and
PID 18-363.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the
Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by Ethics Committee of University of Granada (protocol code
1704/CEIH/2020 and date of approval 30 September 2020).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Table A1. Check-list to collect evidences of the categories activated in each player by the game.
Player Code
(N◦ , Boy: O/Girl: A, Years. Evidence Captured with Evidence Gathered by Situation: Situation:
Example: 1A9 = 1◦ , Girl, 9 Recorded Video. Quote Direct Observation and Playing (put X if Making the Board and
Year Old) Player Phrases or Written in the Field applicable) the Pieces (put X if
Gestures (Sessions 1–3) Notebook (Sessions 1–3) applicable)
Category (from 1 to 21)
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, 624 21 of 24
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