El-Saftawy et al.

BMC Medical Education (2024) 24:1034 BMC Medical Education

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05979-x

RESEARCH Open Access

Influence of applying VARK learning styles

on enhancing teaching skills: application
of learning theories
Enas El-Saftawy1,2, Ahmed A. Abdel Latif3, Asmaa M. ShamsEldeen4, Mansour A. Alghamdi5, Amal M. Mahfoz6* and
Basma Emad Aboulhoda7

Abstract
Background Social media in our networks have been exploited as dynamic learning tools and free platforms.
Aims The main objective of this study is to determine the impact of VARK learning styles (visual (V), aural (A), read/
write (R), and kinesthetic (K)) in enhancing parasitological laboratory skills using social media and various learning
theories.
Methods A research sample of 100 chemists working in Mega Alfa labs underwent online learning of laboratory
parasitology skills via Facebook posts and WhatsApp dictated messages for an average of 7 weeks. All posts served
various VARK learning styles and were designed based on Zeigarnik’s effect (conducting information with tactical
breaks), memory storage and retrieval strength theories (repetition of information). Trainees were classified according
to their VARK learning style preferences and were evaluated through pre/post-tests. Data on VARK learning styles
were summarized using frequency (count) and relative frequency (percentage). Data of pre-test and post-test scores
were summarized using mean and standard deviation. T-test was used to compare pre-test and post-test scores.
The difference between the pre-test results, the post-test results and the preferred learning style was analyzed using
ANOVA with Tukey’s post-hoc testing. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.
Results In a total of 100 trainees, tri-modal and multimodal learning styles were preferred by 40% and 30% of the
trainees respectively; on the contrary, the unimodal and bimodal learning styles were the least preferred. In the
trimodal and multimodal groups, the post-test results showed significant increase when compared with the pre-test
results. Also, using the ANOVA test and a Tukey’s post-hoc comparison, the assemblage of multiple learning styles
(tri-modal and multimodal) appeared to significantly improve the learning performance in the post-test results when
compared with the unimodal and bimodal groups.
Conclusion The tri-modal and multimodal learning styles were found to influence the acquirement of the laboratory
parasitology skills much better than the unimodal and bimodal learning styles. Kinesthetic learning should have a
special emphasis in training.
Keywords Facebook, WhatsApp, VARK model, Zeigarnik’s effect, Memory storage, Retrieval strength

*Correspondence:
Amal M. Mahfoz
[email protected]
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

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El-Saftawy et al. BMC Medical Education (2024) 24:1034 Page 2 of 9

Introduction educational levels are more inclined to manipulate the

The representations of education may understate vital kinetic style of learning rather than the read/write learn-
facets in the real life of working in a lab [1]. Sumin et al. ing modal. Khanal et al. (2019) [11] speculated that
(2018) deduced the importance of knowledge applica- undergraduate students are different in their preferred
tion to gain effective learning [2]. Parasitology has been learning styles, yet, most students are multimodal. Simi-
regarded as a basic science in the faculty of science grad- lar results were declared by Inam and Haq (2022) [12]
uating chemists. Nevertheless, a gap is always present who conducted their study on final-year MBBS students.
between the faculty theoretical education and so far, the The Russian Psychologist Dr. Bluma Zeigarnik intro-
laboratory practical application of knowledge. Of impor- duced the theory known as the Zeigarnik effect to
tance, Egypt is an endemic region for neglected tropical enhance knowledge acquisition [13]. The theory deduces
parasites due to its climatic and environmental condi- that people tend to memorize incomplete missions bet-
tions. Hence, it is necessary to be concerned with learn- ter than finished ones. When a job remains incomplete,
ing laboratory skills in parasitology to renovate human it generates a kind of pressure, annoyance, suspense, sus-
power into a productive and expert output, enhance the picion, and concern about the consequences; therefore,
practical skills in diagnosis of infections, and improve it becomes hard to forget. In this context, interruption
public health [3]. of the learning process has been exhibited as a valuable
Application of the different VARK variants including learning policy and a good technique for increasing the
the visual (V), audio (A), read/write (R), and kinesthetic conception and preservation of information. Jean, 2019
(K) learning styles is of special importance in the practi- [14] stated that Zeigarnik’s effect attracts psychological
cal activities related to the laboratory parasitology skills. attention to the real goals.
It is noteworthy that the laboratory work of parasitology Besides, the theory of memory storage and retrieval
determines a wide aspect of skills e.g., proper sampling recovery relies on the repetition and reinforcement of
acquisition, preparation and assessment of the biological information to guarantee profound storage. Such a strat-
samples (stool sample, urine sample, vaginal swab, Scotch egy emphasizes thinking and application of informa-
adhesive tape swab), special stains, identification of hel- tion especially in learning new vocabulary, metaphors,
minthes and protozoa both macroscopically and micro- themes, and Fig. [15].
scopically, immunological tests, molecular techniques Social media enable people to get close, find career
for parasitic infections and detection of the diagnostic opportunities, and connect with communities across the
stages of the parasites (depending on definitive criteria of earth with similar interests. There are different applica-
the organisms, pattern and nature of the parasite motil- tions that serve social media. For example, Facebook
ity (jerky movement, progressive movement) which all and WhatsApp. Interestingly, social media have been
necessitate combination of the visual (V), auditory (A), considered a training platform. However, the success of
(R) read/write and kinesthetic (K) learning styles [4]. conducting a training program is related to the ability of
Innovating those training skills into brain-based VARK the trainers to engage trainees in the program content,
learning styles enhances learning achievement by under- achieve proficient organization, and make clear intended
standing memory and inspiration for practical applica- learning objectives that are closely-related to practice
tion of the theoretical knowledge [5]. improvement [16–19].
The VARK scale is one of the most famous learning This study aims to gain a deeper understanding of how
style models that was introduced by Neil Fleming in 2006 online virtual social media platforms such as WhatsApp
and was assessed by the University of Florida. Previous and Facebook can be incorporated into different learn-
inventories of models for the VARK brain-based learn- ing styles (VARK) in a way enhanced by different learning
ing styles revealed that the candidates showed variations theories (Zeigarnik effect, memory storage and retrieval
in their intellectual styles [6–9]. The visual style almost recovery). Moreover, the preferences and effects of the
manipulates arrows, drawings, and models, that sym- different learning styles among trainees were assessed
bolize printed information. Audi learners (A) deliver through pre/post-test.
attention to lyrics brought by their teachers and mp3 Our study is the first, to the best of our knowledge, to
recordings to get detailed notes, read/write learners (R) investigate the learning style preferences on the chemist
keepsake to the printed detailed lectures and textbooks trainees, while examining the effects of the learning style
to obtain information, and kinesthetic learners (K) prefer preference on the proficiency of the lab skills in the con-
practical sessions and application to obtain real-life expe- text of the differences in the pre/post-test results. While
rience [10]. previous studies have investigated the VARK learning
Several previous studies have explored the learning style preference in medicine [20], pharmacy [21], engi-
styles and performance of trainees. For example, Tonka- neering [22], nursing [23], and dental specialties [24], yet,
boni et al. [9] demonstrated that students with increased no previous study has examined the real-life implication
El-Saftawy et al. BMC Medical Education (2024) 24:1034 Page 3 of 9

of this learning style preference on the proficiency of the supplied with narrated commentary, and discussions on
laboratory skills. the most commonly asked questions. The material was
subdivided into three consecutive courses.
Methodology
Study setting The online platform
The current study was carried out with the cooperation
of the training units related to the Mega Alfa labs starting a) A WhatsApp group Data were executed in the
from October 2018 to December 2021. form of dictated messages. Each course was for
consecutive 50 ± 5 days (i.e. average of 7 weeks).
Study population b) A Facebook page Exploiting the habit of scrolling
A cross-sectional study was conducted on a total of 100 through daily posts a Facebook page was constructed
chemists, 61 were male and 39 females, aged between with the hyperlink https://www.facebook.com/
22 years to 25 years old. A pre-post design study was Parasitology-for-All-112721744195736.
conducted. Thirteen OSPE stations were constructed to
simulate multiple tasks and to assess certain intended The authors have chosen social media as an e-learning
learning objectives (ILOs) [25]. Inclusion criteria: platform to deliver the training material in visual, audi-
recently graduated chemists who are receiving training tory and kinesthetic modalities for a variety of reasons
to be hired. Exclusion criteria: chemists who are already including the modern behavioral patterns in frequently
hired in the workplace and graduated for more than 1 navigating to the social media, preference of network
year. The sample size is calculated using the following technology for transfer of information and interest of the
formula: n = 2 (Za + Z1–β) 2σ2, Δ2 where n = 100 [26]. trainees in the online teaching approach rather than the
traditional education. The social media is also cost-effec-
Ethical consideration tive being a feasible tool in the hands of every partici-
The aim of the study was described to the trainees, and pant. The social media platforms also offered the trainees
written consent was obtained before conducting the schedule flexibility, easy interaction and simple achieve-
VARK questionnaire. Chemists were free to accept ment orientation. Investigating how the trainees learn-
or refuse the filling of the questionnaire by the end ing styles affect the quality of post-test performance is
of the training course. Also, they were free not to con- also better achieved through the social media. The social
tinue training at any time. The study was approved by media also represented a suitable platform for delivering
the Institutional Review Board and Ethical Commit- the different VARK learning style variables that engage
tee of 6th October University (approval number PRC- the participants’ kinesthetic, auditory, visual, and read-
Me-2311008). Before enrolment, written informed write senses through different multimedia forms (Videos,
consent was obtained from all the participants, wherein text, photographs, audios, graphics and interactive mate-
they were informed that they could freely withdraw from rial etc.). This endeavor would yield a more accurate illus-
the study. There would be no negative consequences tration of the learning style preferences of the laboratory
from opting not to participate in the study. All methods trainees and the effect of incorporation of these learning
were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines styles on the real-life practical proficiency in the lab field.
and regulations, including the Code of Practice for the
Care and Use of Human Subjects for Scientific Purposes Core features of the training courses
according to the Declaration of Helsinki (2013).
a) Scripts Scripts were manipulated to distribute the
Pretest and post-test assessment information among chemists irrespective of their
Pre-tests and post-tests were conducted at the start and levels of expertise. Overall, the author used a simple
end of the three training courses consecutively to test display of information to encourage engagement and
the acquisition of the trainees to the training course’s interactivity [27, 28].
intended learning objectives (ILOs). Each test was com- b) The applied theories The educational material was
posed of thirteen questions (3 case studies, 4 MCQ published and shared regularly, repeatedly, and in
questions, and 6 microscopic identifications), and each pieces applying the theory of memory storage and
question scored one mark, i.e. 13 is the maximum score. retrieval recovery strengths and Zeigarnik’s effect;
additionally, all material was designed to serve two
The learning material or more components of the VARK learning styles.
The current study introduced medical contexts for para- Visual in the form of labeled images in mini-
sitic diseases, various laboratory skills “safety, quality, videos and posts; auditory in the form of audio
…”, labeled mini-videos (40 ± 10 s.) for microscopic fields commentary in the mini-videos and explanations;
El-Saftawy et al. BMC Medical Education (2024) 24:1034 Page 4 of 9

reading/writing in the form of textual reviews and styles scoring equal records, bi-, tri-, or multi-modal
discussions; and kinesthetic through encouraging learning styles are determined, respectively. The
the trainees for the digital sharing of images and questionnaire followed formerly validated scoring
videos captured during their real work life. Posts guidelines [10] (Fig. 2).
involved figures that were labeled by the author
as in Fig. 1. Chemists were grouped according to
their VARK preferences and underwent post-test Statistical analysis and operational definitions
assessment by the end of the training course. Data were coded and entered using the statistical pack-
c) Repetitive publication of the videos and photos was age for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 28 (IBM Corp.,
done to increase interaction and involvement by the Armonk, NY, USA). Data on VARK learning styles were
trainees through their comments. The trainees were summarized using frequency (count) and relative fre-
provoked to ask the trainer on the WhatsApp group quency (percentage). Data of pre-test and post-test scores
to accomplish the previous incompletely explained were summarized using mean and standard deviation.
slide to achieve the information and discriminate The T-test was used to compare pre-test and post-test
different parasites microscopically; thus, attaining scores. The difference between the pre-test results, the
interaction by the trainees using the Zeigarnik effect post-test results and the preferred learning style was ana-
and memory storage and retrieval recovery theories. lyzed using ANOVA with Tukey’s post-hoc testing. P-val-
ues less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Assessment of VARK style Results

Sixty-two videos for laboratory skills and microscopic
1. A printed form of the VARK questionnaire was identification, a collection stock of 254 high-resolution
manipulated that entailed 16 MCQ questions parasite photos, and 64 reviews were conducted by the
with 4 choices for each and was distributed to trainer and trainees using their work equipment.
the participants at the end of the training course.
Each choice relates to the preference for a precise Descriptive analysis of the preferences of the VARK
sensory modality. Therefore, the modality that got learning styles
the maximum marks was the favorite sensory style. Results of the trainees’ questionnaire revealed that out
Since trainees were allowed to choose more than one of 100 chemists, the tri-modal style of learning was pre-
option, multiple styles of varying patterns could be dominantly preferred (n = 40, 40% of the trainees) fol-
achieved. In the case of two, three, or four learning lowed by the multimodal style of learning (n = 30, 30% of

Fig. 1 Conduction of educational material. (A), (B) A model for the dictated data in the WhatsApp group with labelled figures for different parasites.
(C) The whole procedure of the online training. ZE: Zeigarnik’s effect; MS&RS: memory storage and retrieval strengths theory; R: receive posts; S: send
anonymous microscopic structures and inquiries
El-Saftawy et al. BMC Medical Education (2024) 24:1034 Page 5 of 9

Fig. 2 VARK questionnaire and the manner of interpretation

Fig. 3 VARK assessment. A Distribution of VARK within the unimodal (single preference). B and C Distribution of the bi, tri, and multimodal learning styles

Table 1 Pre- and post-scores in the different groups of the VARK learning styles
Unimodal Bimodal Trimodal Multimodal
Mean Standard deviation Mean Standard deviation Mean Standard deviation Mean Standard deviation
Pre-test scores 1.30 0.82 1.30 0.80 2.65 1.00 2.80 1.10
Post-test scores 1.40 0.52 1.40 0.50 12.33 1.25 12.37 1.38
P-value 0.678 0.541 < 0.001 < 0.001

the trainees). Notably, in the trimodal style of learning, Pre- and post-scores in the different groups of the VARK
kinesthetic (active) learning provided with other learn- learning styles
ing styles had the highest records. Nevertheless, the uni- The mean values of post-test results were (1.530 ± 0.376,
modal and bimodal styles had lower scores (10% and 20%, 1.530 ± 0.278, 12.278 ± 0.184, and 12.299 ± 0.215) in the
respectively). The results also revealed that a definite sin- unimodal, bimodal, trimodal, and multi-modal styles,
gle preference was noticed in only 10% of the chemists, respectively. Using the T-test, the pre-test and post-
where the predominantly preferred learning style was the test scores in both the trimodal and multimodal groups
kinesthetic followed by the visual style (Fig. 3). revealed significant differences (Table 1).
El-Saftawy et al. BMC Medical Education (2024) 24:1034 Page 6 of 9

Post-test results in the different groups of the VARK The current model showed that the kinesthetic style
learning styles was almost preferred either solely (unimodal) or in com-
Comparison between the effect of the VARK learning bination with other learning styles (bimodal, trimodal,
style on the post-test results using ANOVA test with and multimodal) followed by the visual style. This was
Tukey’s post-hoc test showed that the tri-modal and reflected by improved performance of the trainees in the
multimodal learning styles had better performance with techniques of biological sample preparation and identifi-
statistically significant difference (p-value < 0.001) when cation of pathogens. A plausible explanation to the kines-
compared with the unimodal and bimodal learning styles thetic preference among the participants is the practical
as shown in Table 2. nature of the laboratory field and the importance of accu-
rate manipulation of the techniques in the trainees’ pro-
Based on estimated marginal means fessional development. The trainees endorsed increased
interest and reliance on shifting to practical and labora-
Discussion tory training rather than the academic didactic-focused
The current study has been designed to investigate the teaching in the faculty of science graduating chemists.
learning style preferences of the chemist trainees, while This preference also highlights the critical need for incor-
examining the effects of those learning styles on the pro- porating in-depth practical training for the newly-gradu-
ficiency of the lab skills in the context of the differences ated chemist candidates before receiving an occupation
of the pre/post-test results. in a diagnostic laboratory. This helps in interpretation of
Knowledge about learning styles is crucial for the prog- the assimilated theoretical knowledge into real-life labo-
ress of medical education, especially in the health-related ratory skills that serve the future career.
disciplines [29]. In the current study, about 70% of the Previous studies have reported variable learning style
trainees showed a trimodal and multimodal learning preferences in different studied fields. For example in the
preference, which is consistent with the previous learn- field of nursing, visual learning was the most preferred
ing style preference recorded on investigations of medi- style, followed by the kinesthetic and auditory styles
cal [20] and pharmacy [21] students denoting the role of [35]. Also, dental students prefered visual learning to the
multimodal learning on enhancing brain perception and kinesthetic style [36]. A plausible explanation of the dis-
achievement of learning goals [30]. Our results are also crepancy between our results and the aforementioned is
in agreement with the results of a questionnaire-based that the learning style preference appears to be tailored
study supporting the effects of VARK-dependent learn- according to the needs of the trainees to proficiently fill
ing in physician assistant [31] and management pro- their deficiencies. It also differs according to the field of
grams [32]. Ghobain and Zughaibi [33] speculated that study and the ILOs required from the training.
multimodal education is a considerable chance for bet- Assemblage of multiple learning styles (tri-modal
ter education. Previous neuroscience research has also and multimodal) appeared to significantly improve the
revealed that multiple representations of content using post-test results when compared with the unimodal and
multimedia improved learning outcomes across the dif- bimodal groups. This result reflects the advantageous
ferent learning styles [34]. Taken together, those results effect of training using various learning styles to enhance
highlight the necessity of integrating the different learn- knowledge recognition and practical proficiencies which
ing styles to fit the multiple training needs. gives the multimodal learning trainees an advantage over
other peers.
Table 2 Post-test assessment using the hoc pairwise Integration of the sensory and motor inputs appeared
comparison test between groups to affect the perception and processing of information,
Group P value thereby helping in the practical training process. Com-
Unimodal learning style Bimodal learning style 1.000 parable results have been reported by Tabatabei (2018)
Trimodal learning style < 0.001 [31] who confirmed the crucial role of manipulating vari-
Multimodal learning style < 0.001 ous senses with the VARK learning styles in enhancing
Bimodal learning style Unimodal learning style 1.000 deep learning. Similarly, Liu (2021) [37] has highlighted
Trimodal learning style < 0.001 the importance of implementing multiple sensory inputs
Multimodal learning style < 0.001 in the success of the training process. Dantas and Cunha
Trimodal learning style Unimodal learning style < 0.001 (2020) [38] speculated that a successful learning process
Bimodal learning style < 0.001 achieved through integration of different learning styles
Multimodal learning style 0.936 leads to neuronal interconnections in the cerebral cortex.
Multimodal learning style Unimodal learning style < 0.001 This might reflect the provoking effects of the learning
Bimodal learning style < 0.001 styles on the interpersonal attitude toward sharing and
Trimodal learning style 0.936
El-Saftawy et al. BMC Medical Education (2024) 24:1034 Page 7 of 9

searching for knowledge, internal motivation, behavior, more comprehensive way, which, in turn, leads to opti-
and practice [39]. mal practical performance, enhanced motivation and
According to Felder [40] each learning style has its improved employee engagement.
potencies and flaws if manipulated individually. For
example, addressing distant blended multimodal learning Recommendations
styles requires good online learning experiences [41], but Future large multicenter studies testing the implemen-
it has, on the other hand, immense promises for improv- tation of the multimodal learning styles in the different
ing the efficiency of distance learning and empowering practical laboratory sub-fields (microbiology, biochem-
deeper understanding of the subject matter [31, 36]. istry, hematology, biotechnology, computational analy-
Recent studies have also illustrated the crucial role of sis, etc.) are recommended to build an encompassing
enhancing the learning approaches using modern meth- framework for identifying the ideal educational design
ods such as the tree machine learning model for optimiz- for accommodating the diverse learning preferences and
ing the practice in the dental field [42], the mixed reality develop the best ways of optimizing the required skills in
technologies to enhance in the surgical skills [43] and the a personalized learning approach according to the spe-
educational video resources to improve teaching of clini- cific laboratory specialties.
cal examination [44].
Author contributions
E. S. contributed to study conception, writing original draft, methodology
Conclusion and collection of data, A. A. designed the research and wrote the manuscript.
This study is the first to illustrate the learning style pref- Verification, validation, resources were done by A.S. and M. (A) A. M. oversight
the project, validation, (B) A.: contributed to methodology, writing, reviewing
erences of chemist trainees and examine how such pref- and editing. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript.
erences affect lab skill competency in the light of the All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.
variations in pre- and post-OSCE test outcomes.
Funding
The study represents a promising training model None.
for bridging the gap between the traditional theoreti- Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation
cal faculty education and the hands-on laboratory skills Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank
(EKB).
required for practicing applied parasitology through
implementation of the different components of the VARK Data availability
learning styles via investing in the technology in hands, The data used and analyzed during the current study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
(i.e. cell phones and social media applications).
Since different individuals have unique preferences for
Declarations
learning, thus understanding and applying the visual,
auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic models is a key Ethics approval and consent to participate
approach for fostering an inclusive learning style based The study was approved from the Institutional Review Board and Ethical
Committee of 6th October University (approval number PRC-Me-2311008).
on each individual preference. The study, thereby, has Before enrolment, written informed consent was obtained from all the
tailored the practical material of the parasitology train- participants, wherein they were informed that they could freely withdraw
ing to fit the various VARK learning styles. The Zeigar- from the study. There would be no negative consequences from opting not
to participate in the study. All methods were carried out in accordance with
nik approach (implemented through short videos and relevant guidelines and regulations, including the Code of Practice for the
petite didactic notes) and the retrieval recovery approach Care and Use of Human Subjects for Scientific Purposes according to the
(applied through repeated material publication) appeared Declaration of Helsinki (2013).

to enhance the model’s results and the memory storage of Consent for publication
knowledge. This was reflected on the trainees’ preference None.
of the tri-modal and multimodal strategies of the VARK
Competing interests
model. The trimodal and multimodal approaches were The authors declare no competing interests.
also related to the highest post-test achievements among
the trainees; which again elucidates the beneficial role of Author details
1
Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo
exposure to multiple sensory and motor inputs. University, Cairo, Egypt
While the different VARK learning strategies now 2
Department of Medical Parasitology, Armed Forces College of Medicine,
represent an area of extensive research in the practi- Cairo, Egypt
3
Department of Medical Parasitology, October 6th University, Healthcare
cal medical, paramedical and pharmaceutical fields, yet, Quality Excellence Diploma, Cairo, Egypt
application of the VARK educational design for the pur- 4
Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University,
pose of mastering the laboratory skills, could pave the Giza 11562, Egypt
5
Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, King Khalid University,
way to best personalize teaching not only to comprehend Abha 62529, Saudi Arabia
and retain information, but also to develop an engaging 6
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy,
and efficient learning experience in a deeper, faster, and Modern University for Technology and Information, Cairo, Egypt
El-Saftawy et al. BMC Medical Education (2024) 24:1034 Page 8 of 9

7
Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo 21. Wani Jailani NE, Suratman S, Maniam S, Ali AA. Assessment of Undergraduate
University, Cairo, Egypt Pharmacy Student Learning styles using the VARK Questionnaire. Malaysian J
Med Health Sci. 2023;19(12):7–14.
Received: 25 February 2024 / Accepted: 2 September 2024 22. Maidin S, Shahrum MA, Qian LY, Rajendran TK, Ismail S. Effective blended
learning model selection based on Student Learning style using Analytic
Hierarchy process for an Undergraduate Engineering Course. Int J Eng.
2023;36(12):2232–42.
23. Van Der Wege M, Kiel S. VARK: linking teaching strategies to Preferred Learn-
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44. Flatt E, Brewer P, Racy M, Mushtaq F, Ashworth R, Ali F, Tomlinson J. Can edu-
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