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Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102236
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Results in Engineering
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Influence of BIM and Lean on mitigating delay factors in building projects

Yeimi Pérez , Jeffer Ávila , Omar Sánchez *
Department of Civil Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Building projects are affected by various phenomena that can affect their success and continuity and, in the worst
Building projects cases, can lead to project abandonment. The delay has been identified as one of the phenomena with the most
Residential projects significant impact and recurrence; therefore, mitigation actions are required. BIM and Lean Construction are two
Delay factors
approaches with great potential to mitigate delay-generating factors. However, more studies need to be con
Schedule deviations
Building information modeling (BIM)
ducted to analyze their influence on mitigating schedule delays. Considering this gap, this paper focuses on
Lean construction analyzing the influence of Lean Construction tools, and BIM uses that favor mitigating the main factors that
generate variations in the construction schedules of residential buildings. The research method was divided into
five main stages: (1) delay factors identification; (2) BIM uses identification; (3) Lean tools identification; (4)
questionnaire design, validation, and application; and (5) influence quantitative analysis. A total of 20 delay
factors, eight BIM uses, and eight Lean tools were selected. Next, a consultation was conducted with 50 building
project managers and two residential building projects were analyzed. The findings show that implementing BIM
and Lean tools greatly influences mitigating delay factors such as errors and deficiencies in design documents,
inefficient project planning and scheduling, and poor communication and coordination with designers. BIM uses
that have a strong influence on reducing delays include 4D construction planning and 4D construction analysis
and optimization. In the Lean domain, the Last Planner System (LPS) and collaborative meetings have a high
influence on mitigating delays. This study provides valuable insights for construction project managers to
improve overall project efficiency by optimizing the implementation of BIM uses and Lean tools.
1. Introduction this phenomenon. For instance, Battaineh [13] found that in Jordan,
infrastructure projects have delays of 160.5 %, while residential projects
Residential construction projects are unique, as each project has have delays of 120.3 %. Similarly, Assaf and Al-Hejji [14] observed that
distinct characteristics that set it apart from others [1–3]. These differ projects in Saudi Arabia have an extension in execution time of between
ences in characteristics cause variations in the project life cycle’s 10 % and 30 %, with 70 % of all construction projects experiencing
development stages, making it challenging for construction managers to delays. In Malaysia, public projects face delays of 17.3 % [3]. In
deliver projects according to their planned schedule, budget, and scope. Colombia, statistics suggest that building projects experience delays of
As a result, projects are exposed to several risks that can lead to unde approximately 50 % [15], with 70 % of projects affected in their delivery
sirable scenarios during execution, such as delays, cost overruns, losses, times [16].
claims, and disputes [4–6]. Schedule deviation is a most common and Delay mitigation involves understanding the leading root causes that
severe phenomenon affecting residential projects in developed and induce project phenomena. Aligned with this, different studies have
developing countries [7–11]. Accumulating deviations in various ac shown that delay is a complex phenomenon related to several project
tivities can lead to a modification in the project’s delivery dates, variables. For example, a study conducted in Jordan on 130 public
resulting in delays. Thus, a delay occurs when a project contractor must residential projects identified several critical factors that significantly
request additional time for project delivery. affect scheduling, including inappropriate design, changes made by the
Delays in schedules are a critical challenge in managing construction owner, weather conditions, and economic dynamics [17]. Similarly,
projects [12]. This issue has been studied extensively by experts and research conducted in Denmark has highlighted the importance of
researchers who aim to understand the magnitudes and causes behind artistry, materials, design, and interdisciplinary coordination in
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y. Pérez), [email protected] (J. Ávila), [email protected] (O. Sánchez).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102236
Received 6 November 2023; Received in revised form 12 March 2024; Accepted 6 May 2024
Available online 10 May 2024
2590-1230/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
Y. Pérez et al. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102236
ensuring effective project delivery [3,18,19]. Zidane and Andersen [20] delivery date when it becomes apparent that the project cannot be
conducted an integrative effort to synthesize global findings. They completed as originally planned. Such delays can lead to cost overruns,
identified ten main universal factors that cause delays, ranging from disputes, litigation, and other negative impacts [35]. The prevalence of
design variations to financial challenges and specialized skills gaps. delays in the global construction industry reflects the complexities and
Research conducted in Colombia has pointed to insufficient planning, difficulties faced in the planning and management of these projects. The
lack of prior land study, and lack of control as reasons for project delays main challenge is the high uncertainty that accompanies construction
[21]. Additionally, surveys with experts have revealed concerns such as management [36,37].
unethical behavior and owner-driven dynamics [16]. Combining these To ensure the successful completion of a project, managers must
findings emphasizes the need to strengthen and adapt project manage navigate a maze of interrelated variables, ensuring that they stay within
ment practices by implementing emerging methodologies and the stipulated budget, schedule, and scope. This intricate set of factors
technologies. can complicate the prediction and management of project outcomes
Despite implementing emergent techniques to enhance project [38]. Interdependent activities with complex precedence relationships
management, construction projects still face schedule delays that persist characterize building projects. A delay in a single activity can propagate
as a significant challenge. Building Information Modeling (BIM) is one of throughout the entire project, threatening its timely delivery [39]. In the
the methodologies that has shown exceptional benefits in mitigating residential sector, delivery delays can translate into additional costs for
delays in building projects [22]. BIM is a well-known methodology that owners, such as unanticipated rents. From the construction company’s
has revolutionized project management by facilitating automated perspective, these delays can involve financial risks [40], leading to debt
quantifications, digital simulations of construction processes, and overhangs that threaten the financial soundness of the project. Addi
interdisciplinary collision detection, among others [23]. By creating an tionally, delays can result in lost revenue from the operation of the
accurate digital representation of the project, the BIM methodology has completed building.
optimized planning and allowed planners to anticipate and address
potential critical situations efficiently during construction [24]. This 2.2. Delay factors in construction projects
proactive approach helps to mitigate factors that traditionally lead to
schedule deviations [25,26]. However, despite its potential to signifi Delays in construction projects can be caused by many factors at
cantly reduce delays in construction projects, more research needs to be various stages and by different participants in the project [39]. These
focused on identifying and analyzing the specific uses of BIM that in delays can be costly due to their impact on the project’s schedule and
fluence delay prevention. budget. Researchers and industry professionals have studied these cau
BIM has emerged as a highly effective solution for combating delays ses to understand better how to prevent future delays. In a study con
in building project schedules [27]. However, exploring its interaction ducted by Al Mo-mani [41], 130 construction projects carried out in
with other emerging methodologies is essential to maximize its poten Jordan between 1990 and 1997 were analyzed to identify the causes of
tial. In this context, Lean Construction stands out for its proven effec delays. The study used regression models to establish the relationship
tiveness in reducing delays [28]. This methodology adapts Lean between actual and planned project duration. The results showed that
Manufacturing principles to construction processes, focusing on identi the main factors responsible for delays in construction projects are
fying and eliminating procedures that generate waste or do not add changes in user demand, design modifications, adverse weather condi
value to the project [29]. The toolset provided by Lean Construction, tions, economic fluctuations, and conditions at the construction site.
including the Last Planner System, Visual Management, and poka-yoke Odeh and Battaineh [42] identified the predominant factors for con
systems, among others, can be significantly amplified with BIM [30]. struction project delays in Saudi Arabia. These include owner interfer
This synergy enhances each tool individually and enables automation to ence, lack of contractor experience, delays in contractor payments, poor
generate vital information for Lean processes. By attacking the root labor productivity, slow decision-making, inadequate planning, and
causes of delays in building project schedules, this integration can help incompetent subcontractors.
streamline construction project management [31]. However, despite the Frimpong et al. [43] conducted a study to identify and assess the
advances and benefits observed, more research still needs to be done to significance of delay causes in construction projects in Ghana. For this
discern which Lean tools significantly influence delay prevention when purpose, industry professionals were surveyed through a questionnaire
integrated with BIM. Further exploring this intersection may reveal even that addressed 26 delay-related factors. The results revealed that the
more effective strategies for efficiently managing building projects. leading causes of delays are difficulties in monthly payment by
Proper schedule management in residential construction projects is responsible entities, poor management by contractors, procurement of
essential, especially when delays continue to occur despite technological materials, poor technical performance, and rising prices of materials.
and methodological advances. Although adopting BIM and Lean Con Koushki et al. [44] conducted research in Kuwait, evaluating the causes
struction methodologies has shown the potential to counteract the of cost overruns and delays in construction projects. For this purpose,
causes of such delays, further analysis is still required. In particular, surveys were sent to 450 randomly selected owners and builders. The
there needs to be more literature about which specific Lean tools and results indicated that the leading causes of delays include changes in
BIM uses are most effective in mitigating the main delay-causing factors work orders, owners’ financial constraints, and lack of experience.
in building projects. Therefore, this study estimates the influence of Lean Lindhard et al. [45] studied the main factors influencing the delay of
tools and BIM uses in mitigating the main delay-causing factors in res construction projects in Denmark. Their analysis identified that the most
idential projects. frequent causes of construction project delays include changes in work
schedules, labor shortages, external conditions, and construction design.
2. Literature background Based on a literature review, Zidane et al. [46] identified ten significant
factors that cause delays in construction projects. These factors include
2.1. Delay in construction design changes during construction [47], delays in contractor payments,
poor planning and scheduling, poor on-site management and supervi
Ensuring the timely delivery of construction projects is vital to sion, incomplete or inadequate design, contractor experience, inade
maintain customer satisfaction and avoid financial and legal re quate construction approaches and methods, contractor and project
percussions [32]. Construction project delays occur when there is a owner financial difficulties, resource shortages and low labor produc
percentage discrepancy between a construction process’s planned and tivity, and lack of specialized skills.
actual duration or when it exceeds a contractually established comple Delays in construction projects are a global concern, as shown by
tion date [33,34]. Often, delays in construction projects occur near the research conducted in various countries and contexts. These delays not
2
only affect the schedule but also have significant financial repercussions. improving coordination among project stakeholders, monitoring con
Several studies have identified multiple factors contributing to schedule struction progress, and more. While the positive impact of BIM on
delays, ranging from changes in user demand and design modifications construction project management and execution is undeniable, more
to owner financial difficulties and contractor inexperience. Despite the research needs to be focused on analyzing the influence of BIM uses in
differences in location and context of each study, it is clear that the mitigating the primary factors that cause delays in residential projects.
construction industry faces common issues. Thus, it is essential to
implement new methodologies and technologies in different stages of 2.4. Lean and delay mitigation
the life cycle of construction projects.
Implementing Lean methodology in construction projects can
2.3. BIM and delay mitigation significantly reduce delays [56]. This positive correlation is primarily
based on the fundamental principles of Lean Construction, which aim to
The BIM methodology effectively reduces delays in construction eliminate waste, enhance efficiency, and promote effective collabora
projects by facilitating seamless coordination and communication be tion [30]. By addressing critical issues such as overproduction, waiting
tween all parties involved. With BIM, a digital model is created to times, and unnecessary movements, this methodology optimizes work
integrate all the project data and elements, making it easier to detect flow and reduces the factors that cause delays. Furthermore, assertive
potential design conflicts or problems early on. This results in more communication among team members plays a crucial role in Lean
accurate and detailed planning, which helps to avoid delays in executing methodology. It fosters continuous improvement, agile coordination,
tasks [48]. The BIM model can also support monitoring construction and effective decision-making, which are essential to prevent deviations
performance, mitigating the risk of schedule delays [49]. Therefore, in construction project schedules [29]. Several studies have shown that
implementing the BIM methodology to mitigate delay factors in con Lean Construction principles can help mitigate construction project
struction projects has become an area of interest for the scientific delays. For instance, Asim et al. [57] developed an approach that
community, as evidenced in some studies. Assafi et al. [50] proposed a identifies the root cause of project delays by collecting and analyzing the
methodology based on 4D BIM to systematize processes and minimize causes and establishing preventive and corrective measures for the
the impact of human error. They found that by applying this method associated problems. The study demonstrates that a thorough under
ology, it was possible to reduce design errors and make more effective standing of these causes and their responsibility for schedule disruption
planning in the project planning stage to mitigate delays since the status can be effectively complemented by the principles of the Lean Con
of the project before and after using the methodology was compared in struction philosophy. This combined approach provides robust tools to
real time. Jang and Lee [51] studied how organizational factors affect improve schedule management efficiency and minimize delays.
delays in BIM-based coordination for mechanical, electrical, and De la Cruz et al. [58] identified that errors in material quantities,
hydrosanitary systems from a decision-making perspective. They stock-outs, overstocking, and poor stock maintenance often cause de
investigated three factors of complexity contributing to delays: the livery delays in the construction industry. To solve this problem, the
number of people involved, the level of decision-makers, and the di authors recommend using Lean techniques such as Heijunka, Kanban,
versity of participants. A building was analyzed to see how these factors 5S, and JIT to eliminate waste and improve delivery times. They suggest
affect coordination time. The results showed that coordination time using a Heijunka board to balance order requirements, plan process
increases as each factor increases, with the number of participants inputs, and control times in each activity. This helps identify delays and
having the most significant influence. take preventive measures. Mohammadi et al. [59,60]developed a
Honnappa and Padala [52] studied the impact of design and plan decision-making model incorporating Lean principles into project
ning changes on the schedule and budget of construction projects. The planning and scheduling. This model identifies activities that do not add
study revealed that to minimize delays and save costs, it is essential to value and seeks to reduce them. When applied in a building, it was found
use tools such as BIM and traditional methods like Time Impact Analysis that reducing non-value-adding activities reduced the variability in the
(TIA) and Critical Path Method (CPM). These tools facilitate effective timing of the proposed chronograms. This resulted in reduced operating
implementation and proper allocation of resources, resulting in costs, reduced variability in lead times, and reduced operational
improved efficiency and cost savings. Zhang and Wang [53] presented a complexity and risk of delay.
probabilistic methodology that uses real-time monitoring systems and Patel et al. [61] utilized Value Stream Mapping (VSM) to identify and
progress data to evaluate the progress of construction projects. This minimize waste in construction processes. They visited construction
methodology quantifies the risk of schedule delays and provides a more sites to gather information on the production process, information,
accurate and flexible assessment of project success than other methods. material flows and created a map of the current state. The results show
The authors also proposed a progress management system that combines that VSM can potentially diagnose and mitigate inefficiencies and delays
BIM technology and reliability theory. This system provides reference in construction processes. Issa [62] introduced an evaluative method to
values for duration estimation and visualizes the analysis results, mak determine the impact of incorporating lean principles into construction
ing it easier to interpret and understand the criticality of the data. projects in Egypt. The findings demonstrate that applying lean tools,
A study by Muhannad et al. [54] aimed to investigate the relation especially the Last Planner System (LPS), improves the execution of
ship between using BIM applications and the occurrence of cost overruns industrial projects in Egypt, optimizing their completion by minimizing
and delays in construction projects. Contractors in the sector were sur risk factors associated with delays. Similarly, Quiroz et al. [63] incor
veyed, and Pearson’s correlation was used to analyze the data. The study porated a Lean operational management model to enhance project de
revealed a direct correlation between using BIM applications and livery efficiency in the construction sector. After applying Lean
reducing cost overruns and delays in construction project management. principles and tools in a specific case, they achieved an 8 % reduction in
Another study by Barqawi et al. [55] examined the underlying causes of delays and a 5 % decrease in interruptions caused by rework. Previous
delays in various construction projects attributed to employers. The studies have shown that incorporating Lean principles and innovative
study found that the main contributing factors to delays were poor technologies can improve the construction industry’s efficiency, quality,
communication between the parties involved and disruption of work by and profitability by reducing delays. However, further research is
the employer. The study also identified BIM-related success factors and required to estimate how much of an impact the Lean tool can have in
barriers that could influence the relationship between employer-caused mitigating the primary delay factors in residential building projects.
delay factors and overall project success.
BIM implementation has become essential in developing methods to
minimize project delays and cost overruns by preventing human errors,
3
2.5. Operationalization between BIM uses, Lean tools, and delay factors 3.1. Delay factors identification
This study examines how the adoption of BIM uses and Lean tools can Identifying factors causing delays in building projects was conducted
help mitigate schedule deviations in construction projects [23,25]. The through a systematic review methodology, which involved selecting and
implementation of these tools and methodologies in residential building analyzing relevant scientific documents [72,73]. The process was car
projects aims to optimize the efficiency of construction activities, ried out in five main stages: (1) formulation of the research question that
focusing on reducing time discrepancies that arise during the con will guide the review; (2) search for relevant documents; (3) selection of
struction process [29]. BIM plays a crucial role in the digitization of documents; (4) collection, analysis, and synthesis of evidence; and (5)
projects, significantly improving collaboration and understanding report of results [74]. The process started with the definition of the
among all participants, resulting in greater accuracy in planning and research question and keywords (see Table 1).
estimation of required resources derived from a detailed work break
down structure [64]. This, in turn, reduces uncertainty in the develop • Research question: What are the main factors causing delays in
ment of construction schedules. The creation of a digital replica of the building projects?
project allows for an exhaustive analysis of designs before their physical
execution, which facilitates the identification and mitigation of poten A search equation was obtained from the keywords and Boolean
tial deviations in the construction schedule. To fully understand the Operators used in the Scopus search engine and the databases: American
impact of BIM in reducing delays in construction projects, it’s essential Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), ELSEVIER, Taylor and Francis,
to analyze the different BIM uses, highlighting their influence in the Springer, and Emerald Insight. An initial sample of 128 documents was
stages of the project life cycle. Relevant BIM Uses include collision obtained from the document search. The documents were selected based
analysis for project integration management, 4D construction planning on three criteria, which were used to include or exclude them: (1) The
for time management, and 5D cost analysis for financial management document addresses the topic of delays in construction projects; (2) the
[65]. document addresses the topic of delays in building projects; (3) the
Lean Construction is a project management approach that aims to document reports delay factors. After applying the first criterion, 46
reduce waste and maximize value throughout the entire lifecycle of a documents were excluded, and 82 were accepted. Then, the second
construction project [29,66]. This philosophy focuses on improving ef criterion was applied, which excluded 22 documents that were classified
ficiency and quality by implementing various tools such as the Last as background information. After using the third criterion, seven doc
Planner System for production planning and control, value stream uments were classified as background information, and 53 documents
mapping (VSM) to identify and eliminate waste, and production systems were classified as evidence.
that rely on continuous improvement through the PDCA (Plan-Do- After reviewing the documents classified as evidence, 179 delay
Check-Act) cycle to optimize processes and reduce delays [31,67,68]. factors were identified for building projects. However, due to the au
Although BIM and Lean can be applied separately, research has shown thors using various terms to describe the same factor, a grouping was
that combining the two approaches can lead to even greater benefits made based on the affinity of terms, resulting in a set of 70 factors. The
than either one alone. By integrating BIM and Lean, construction teams grouping was based on the analysis of three researchers with experience
can use the information generated by BIM as a basis for applying Lean in building construction. For instance, factors such as inefficient project
tools more effectively, which can help mitigate the main delay factors in planning, inadequate construction planning, inadequate project plan
residential construction [29]. As a result, the integration of Lean and ning, poor project planning, and failures in project scheduling were
BIM can lead to more effective collaboration, improved planning, and grouped under inefficient project planning and scheduling. The 20 most
more agile execution of construction projects. frequently reported delay factors in the literature were selected to
The implementation of BIM and Lean methodologies in residential analyze the impact of BIM uses and Lean tools.
building projects is crucial for preventing schedule delays. To success
fully implement these methodologies, it is important to identify the 3.2. BIM uses identification
factors that contribute to the schedule deviations. Construction delays
can have significant impacts, and researchers have identified errors in The identification of BIM uses was based on a literature review. The
design documentation, deficiencies in planning and scheduling, and review started with the 25 BIM uses reported in the BIM Project Execution
poor communication and coordination between teams as the most Planning Guide, Version 3.0 [75], to which 8 BIM uses identified in the
common causes [39,69,70]. Once the factors contributing to schedule literature review were added. Thus, 34 BIM uses were obtained, which
deviations have been identified, the appropriate BIM and Lean tools can were classified into four categories according to the stages of the project
be selected and adapted to address each specific issue. This involves life cycle: planning, design, construction, and operation (see Appendix
collecting and analyzing quantitative and qualitative data to assess the A). Finally, eight BIM uses were selected (see Table 2) based on the
impact of the chosen tools effectively. The practical application of BIM influence index of the groups of BIM uses reported by Sánchez [76]. This
and Lean in construction requires a systematic approach that includes author consulted with 123 construction industry professionals from 13
team training, modifying work processes to integrate Lean tools and different countries to estimate the influence of BIM use groups on
BIM, and continuous evaluation to identify opportunities for improve mitigating delays and cost overrun factors in construction projects. The
ment [71]. To successfully implement these methodologies, it is essen most influential set of BIM uses was selected to analyze their impact on
tial to adopt a cultural shift towards collaboration, transparency, and mitigating the delay factors in building projects identified in Step 1 (see
commitment to continuous improvement. Therefore, knowing the in Section 3.1).
fluence of BIM and Lean tools on reducing schedule deviations in
building projects is crucial. 3.3. Lean tools identification
3. Research method The identification of Lean tools was based on the Lean tools reported
by Tezel et al. [77]. A total of 22 Lean tools were identified, of which
The research method was carried out in five main stages: (1) delay eight were selected considering the influence indexes of each tool in the
factors identification; (2) BIM uses identification; (3) Lean tools identi mitigation of delays and cost overruns in construction projects, which
fication; (4) questionnaire design, validation, and application; and (5) were estimated by Sánchez [76]. Similar to the BIM uses, selecting the
influence quantitative analysis. Fig. 1 shows the objectives, methods, most influential set of Lean tools was made to analyze their impact on
tools, and analysis for each research method stage. mitigating the delay factors in building projects identified in Step 1 (see
4
Fig. 1. Research method stages.
5
Table 1
Keyword and Boolean Operators used to locate relevant studies.
Keyword B.O.a Keyword B.O.a Keyword B.O.a Keyword
Building “AND” Delay “AND” Causes “AND” Construction

Residential “OR” Time extensions “OR” Factors “OR” Design
Housing Time deviation Reasons Maintenance
Schedule deviation
a
Boolean operators.
implemented to validate and calibrate the questionnaire. In the first

Table 2
stage, draft versions of the questionnaire were sent to five professionals
BIM uses with high influence on delay mitigation.
with experience in the construction industry to obtain a thorough review
Id BIM uses Planning Design Construction Operation of the content. The objective was to ensure that the questionnaire’s
U1 Collision analysis ✔ content was understandable, concise, and relevant to the professionals
U2 Design review ✔ ✔ selected for the study. Additionally, this step served to verify the correct
U3 Engineering design and ✔
registration of the answers in the platform. After receiving the com
analysis
U4 4D construction ✔
ments, the questionnaire was adjusted according to the suggestions. As a
planning first adjustment, the visualization of the questionnaire on mobile devices
U5 3D modeling of existing ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ was improved. Subsequently, adjustments were made to both the
conditions wording and visualization based on the comments received, resulting in
U6 4D construction
a second version of the questionnaire.
✔ ✔
analysis and
optimization The second version of the questionnaire was then distributed to a
U7 5D cost analysis ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ different group of five professionals in the field. They were asked to
U8 Constructability ✔ complete the questionnaire to assess its reliability and effectiveness as a
analysis research instrument. The responses collected from these professionals
were used to calculate Cronach’s Alpha α, a measure of reliability, for
both the frequency and severity dimensions, as indicated in Equation
Table 3 (1).
Lean tools with high influence on delay mitigation. ⃒ ⃒
K ⃒⃒ ΣVi2 ⃒⃒
Id Lean tools Planning Design Construction Operation α= 1 − (1)
K− 1⃒ v2x ⃒
T1 Last Planner System ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
(LPS)
Where: K is the number of delay factors analyzed (K = 20); Vi represents
T2 ICT to support lean ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
implementation the variance of the weights assigned for both the frequency and severity
T3 Visual management ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ of each delay factor; vx represents the total variance of the frequency and
T4 5S: Sorting, organizing, ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ severity weights of each delay factor. The Cronbach’s alpha values for
cleaning,
frequency and severity were 0.887 and 0.854, respectively. Therefore,
standardization,
discipline considering the ranges presented by Fashina et al. [19] an excellent
T5 Value Stream Map ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ internal consistency of the instrument was found.
(VSM) The final version of the questionnaire was distributed via e-mail to a
T6 PDCA cycle: plan, do, ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ select group of 72 Colombian professionals. This selection was made
review, act
based on their significant experience in the execution of residential
T7 Collaborative meetings ✔ ✔ ✔
T8 Error proofing system ✔ ✔ construction projects. Of the 72 questionnaires sent, 53 responses were
(Poka Yoke) obtained, resulting in a response rate of 73.6 %. After a detailed review
of the responses received, 50 questionnaires were validated as suitable
for further analysis. The three remaining questionnaires were discarded
Table 3). from the sample due to incompleteness. The data analysis in the first
section of the questionnaire showed that 84 % of the professionals sur
3.4. Questionnaire design, validation, and application veyed have more than five years of professional experience, predomi
nantly related to building projects (see Table 4). As for the function they
Based on the 20 delay factors selected in Stage 1, a questionnaire was perform within the construction industry, the data indicated that 6 % of
designed to discern the perceived frequency and severity of these factors the respondents play the designer role, a significant 72 % act as con
among a group of Colombian professionals with experience in the con tractors, and 22 % work as consultants (see Table 5).
struction of building projects. The questionnaire was structured into
three sections: (1) informed consent; (2) information about the partici
pant’s professional profile such as years of experience, profession,
highest level of education, and their role in the construction industry; (3)
assessment of the frequency and severity of the selected delay factors.
The frequency assessment focused on categorizing each factor’s recur Table 4
rence level in delays in building projects. The severity assessment was Experience of the professionals consulted.
focused on evaluating the level of impact of each of the factors on the Experience Number of professionals Percentage
project schedule. Both frequency and severity were assessed using a five- Less than five years 8 16 %
point Likert scale: 1 (very low) to 5 (very high). From 6 to 10 years 18 36 %
The questionnaire was designed and administered through the Sur From 11 to 15 years 12 24 %
veyMonkey digital platform, which was selected to send the question More than 15 years 12 24 %
Total 50 100 %
naire to the professionals by e-mail. A two-stage process was
6
Table 5 identified delay factors.

Role of the professionals consulted. ∑
winfluence
Role Number of professionals Percentage RII = (5)
wmax × N
Designer 3 6%
Contractor 36 72 % Where: winfluence is the weight assigned to the level of influence of the
Consultant 11 22 % BIM uses or Lean tools in the mitigation of the delay factor; wmax is the
Total 50 100 %
maximum weight given to the level of influence (wmax=50); N is the total
number of experts who participated in the workshop (N=12). Table 6
3.5. Influence quantitative analysis shows the profiles of experts who evaluated the influence of BIM uses
and Lean tools in mitigating delay factors. The experts were selected
The quantitative evaluation of the impact of BIM uses and Lean tools considering they had at least five years of building experience and
on the mitigation of delay factors was broken down into three main expertise in BIM and Lean methodologies.
steps: (1) estimating the importance of individual factors on the occur
rence of delays in building projects, (2) quantifying the influence of BIM 3.5.3. Building analysis
uses and Lean tools on the mitigation of the main delay factors, and (3) Two building projects were examined to compare the influence of
cross-checking the obtained results with empirical observations made in delay-generating factors obtained through the Important Index (II). The
two buildings. buildings were selected based on three main criteria: type of residential
building, availability of required information and permits, and adoption
3.5.1. Estimating the importance of Delay factors of BIM and Lean in planning and execution. The first building in Bogotá
The importance of the delay factors was estimated by calculating the D.C., Colombia, corresponds to a mixed-use residential and commercial
severity and frequency indexes [7] from the data collected in the 50 building project. This complex comprises two basements, 29 floors, 313
positively validated questionnaires; the Relative Frequency Index (RFI) apartments, four commercial spaces, and a walkable common-use
and Relative Severity Index (RSI) were calculated using Equations (2) terrace. The structure was built using a conventional system supported
and (3): by a pile foundation. The second building, located in Bogotá D.C.,
∑N Colombia, and still under construction at the time of analysis, represents
fi a similar mixed-use project. It has a basement, 15 floors, 197 apart
RFI = i=1 (2)
N x fmax ments, five commercial spaces, and a walkable terrace. As in the first
building, the structure was built using a conventional system, but in this
Where: fi is the weight for frequency assigned by the respondent i; N is case, the foundations were built using caissons. Additional and
the total number of valid questionnaires (N=50); and fmax is the comparative details of both cases can be found in Table 7.
maximum possible weight for frequency (fmax = 5). The case studies’ analysis began with identifying the delay-
∑N
si generating factors in the projects analyzed, classifying them into
RSI = i=1 (3) recoverable and non-recoverable delays. The analysis focused on
N x smax
determining the leading causes of delays based on the identified factors.
Where: si is the weight for severity assigned by the respondent i; N is the The quantification of delays in the case studies was carried out through a
total number of valid questionnaires (N=50); and smax is the maximum rigorous process of reviewing project monitoring documents, focusing
possible weight for severity (smax=5). For each of the 20 delay factors on performance and schedule compliance. This monitoring was carried
selected in the first stage, an Important Index (II) was calculated using out on a 15-day basis, constituting an integral part of project control.
Equation (4). The II integrates the RFI and RSI indices. Therefore, it can Through this review, it was possible to identify the factors causing the
be assumed as a comprehensive quantitative measure of the contribution delays and their magnitudes, aligning them with those identified in the
of each factor to delays in building projects. first stage. Once the delays were estimated, the influence of BIM and
Lean methodologies in mitigating the delay causal factors was analyzed.
II = RFI × RSI (4) The results were compared based on the rankings of Lean tools and BIM
uses, using the influence matrix based on the Relative Influence Index
3.5.2. Quantifying the influence of BIM uses and lean tools (RII). This methodology provided a structured approach to evaluate the
The quantitative evaluation of the influence of BIM and Lean tools on complex interaction between delay factors and mitigation strategies
delay mitigation was carried out for the ten delay factors with the based on adopting workflows supported by BIM-Lean integration.
highest Important Index (II). This analysis was performed in the context
of a workshop with the participation of eight experts specializing in
implementing BIM and Lean in building projects. The workshop started
with a theoretical presentation in which the ten delay factors with the
highest II and the BIM tools and uses selected for the study were pre-
presented. Subsequently, the experts were asked to assign a score to Table 6
the influence that the BIM uses and Lean tools can have on mitigating Profile details of experts consulted.
each of the selected delay factors. A five-point Likert scale was used, Id Profession (grade) Position Years of experience
with 1 representing meager influence and 5 representing very high in
E1 Civil Engineer, M.Sc., Ph.D. Researcher, Academic >11
fluence. For collecting this information, a format containing two influ E2 Civil Engineer, Spec. Contractor >15
ence matrices was provided: one for the uses of BIM and the other for E3 Civil Engineer Professional >6
Lean tools. The delay factors were listed in the rows in these matrices, E4 Civil Engineer, M.Sc. Researcher, Academic >6
while the uses of BIM and Lean tools were placed in the columns. E5 Civil Engineer, M.Sc., Ph.D. Researcher, Academic >10
E6 Civil Engineer Contractor
The corresponding values were collected for each intersection be
>5
E7 Civil Engineer, Spec. Designer >15
tween the delay factors and the BIM uses and Lean tools. From this data, E8 Civil Engineer, M.Sc., Ph.D. Contractor >11
the Relative Influence Index (RII) was calculated using Equation (5) E9 Civil Engineer, Spec. Contractor >15
[78]. This calculation was performed for each intersection, measuring E10 Architect, M.Sc., Ph.D. Contractor >15
E11 Civil Engineer, M.Sc. Designer
the relative influence of the different Lean tools and BIM uses on the >11
E12 Civil Engineer, M.Sc., Ph.D. Researcher, Academic >11
7
Table 7
Building characteristics.
Characteristic Building # 1 Building # 2
Status Finished In progress

Location Bogotá D.C., Colombia Bogotá D.C., Colombia
Area 11365 m2 20776 m2
Stages with BIM Planning, design, construction Planning, design, construction
adoption
Stages with Lean Planning, construction Planning, construction
adoption
Project scope The building project is mixed-use between housing and commerce; it has two The mixed-use building project between housing and commerce has one
basements, 15 floors, 197 apartments, five stores, a walkable terrace for basement, 29 floors, 313 apartments, four stores, a walkable terrace for
common use, and a roof. The structure of this building was made in the common use, and a roof; the structure of this building was made in the
conventional system, with deep caisson-type foundations. conventional system, with pile foundations.
BIM model
4. Results and discussion building projects. The construction of such projects involves a dynamic
exchange and interaction between professionals from different disci
4.1. Delay factors in building projects plines, each contributing their unique knowledge and assuming partic
ular responsibilities. This multidisciplinary scenario can lead to
Through the systematic review methodology, 53 relevant documents inconsistencies between documents generated at different design stages
were analyzed, and the 20 most frequently reported factors causing during the initial phases. Such discrepancies often go unnoticed until the
delays in building projects were selected (refer to Table 8). It is impor beginning of the construction process, at which point project managers
tant to note that the frequencies of these selected factors range from must address and manage the necessary design modifications. This
30.2 % to 60.0 %. This range suggests that according to the authors process of adjustment and correction involves waiting periods that can
consulted and the samples analyzed; these factors represent the leading turn into significant delays. These delays, in turn, can directly affect
causes associated with the delay in building projects on a global scale. scheduled delivery dates, disrupting the planning and efficiency of res
The diversity of reasons identified implies that the delay in building idential construction projects.
projects results from several variables interconnected with various ac The second most influential delay factor is inefficient project plan
tivities and individuals involved in the building project cycle. The top ning and scheduling (F2). Shortcomings in planning and scheduling
five factors most frequently reported in the literature are (1) design usually occur for various reasons. Predominantly, it has been observed
changes made by the owner or designers during execution, (2) ineffec that the lack of experience and knowledge of the team in charge of
tive project planning and scheduling, (3) difficulties in financing the planning and scheduling has a high impact on project schedules. It is
project by contractors, (4) insufficient experience of the contractor, and expected that, in some projects, the personnel in charge of preparing
(5) shortage of materials on site. budgets and schedules need to gain essential knowledge about con
struction processes, resulting in an insufficient consideration of the
characteristics and sequences of construction activities. Lack of experi
4.2. Delay factors influence
ence can lead to inaccuracies in determining production rates, material
delivery schedules, machinery availability, and personnel and
Table 9 shows the severity, frequency, and influence indexes of the
contractor hiring times, among other critical aspects. Such inaccuracies
literature’s 20 most frequently reported factors. Based on the Relative
can prolong construction activities beyond estimates, leading to delays
Frequency Index (RFI), it is observed that the five factors that occur most
that may be irrecoverable for project progress.
often in Colombian building projects are(1) inefficient project planning
The factor errors and deficiencies in design documents (F10) ranks
and scheduling, (2) design changes by owner or designers during
third among the most influential factors. Such inaccuracies can lead to
execution, (3) difficulties in financing the project by contractors, (4)
disruptions in the construction process due to unclear requirements,
inadequate experience of the contractor, and (5) poor management of
inconsistencies in design specifications, omission of essential data, and
the contractor. Based on the Relative Severity Index (RSI), the five fac
lack of coordination between design teams. When an error is detected,
tors with the highest severity in Colombian building projects are (1)
the contractor must request clarification from the designer, which could
design changes by owner or designers during execution, (2) inefficient
take considerable time, interrupting and potentially delaying the pro
project planning and scheduling, (3) difficulties in financing the project
ject’s progress. Therefore, efficient synergy between design disciplines is
by contractors, (4) delayed payments in process, (5) inadequate expe
essential for effective planning and delay mitigation.
rience of the contractor. Therefore, the factors with the most significant
Slow decision-making (F13) is the fourth predominant factor that
influence on the occurrence of delays in Colombian building projects are
affects construction projects. The main stakeholders, like owners,
(1) design changes by owner or designers during execution, (2) ineffi
builders, designers, and supervisors, make decisions. Effective decision-
cient project planning and scheduling, (3) difficulties in financing the
making requires strong and well-structured leadership within the team.
project by contractors, (4) inadequate experience of the contractor, and
Lack of such leadership often leads to indecisiveness and delays in
(5) shortage of materials on site.
problem-solving. Sometimes, the situation worsens due to the need for
The factor design changes by the owner or designers during execu
more accurate information. Since a construction project involves various
tion (F1) emerges as the most influential in inducing delays in residential
8
Table 8 Table 8 (continued )

Delay factors in building projects. Id Factors References Frequency Relative
Id Factors References Frequency Relative (n = 53) frequency
(n = 53) frequency
F18 Unexpected [19,84,91–93,96, 17 32.1 %
F1 Design changes by the [79–113] 35 66.0 % geotechnical 97,100,101,106,
owner or designers conditions during 113,114,126,128,
during execution construction 130–132]
F2 Inefficient project [19,44,79–81, 34 64.2 % F19 Equipment [44,51,79–82,84, 16 30.2 %
planning and 83–86,90,91,93, breakdowns and 86,87,92,107,112,
scheduling 95–98,100–103, maintenance 114,119,128,130]
107,109,111–122] problems
F3 Difficulties in [79–83,85–87,91, 33 62.3 % F20 Late contract award/ [44,80,83,86,91, 16 30.2 %
financing the project 93–95,97,99, poor contract 95–97,99,108,113,
by contractors 101–105,107,109, management 117,119,120,127,
110,112,114–116, 129]
119,120,123–126]
F4 Inadequate [19,44,51,79–84, 30 56.6 %
experience of the 86,87,91,93,97,98,
contractor 100–102,107, Table 9
115–119,121,123, Ranking of delay factors according to influence index.
124,127–129]
Id Factors RFI1 Rk2 RSI3 Rk2 II4 Rk2
F5 Shortage of materials [79,80,82–85,87, 27 50.9 %
on-site 91,93,94,96,97,100, F1 Design changes by the 69.60 2 79.20 1 0.55 1
101,103,106,110, owner or designers % %
113,114,117,120, during execution
123,124,128–131] F2 Inefficient project 70.40 1 74.40 2 0.52 2
F6 Poor management of [79,81,83,84,86,89, 26 49.1 % planning and scheduling % %
the contractor 92,93,95,97,98,100, F10 Errors and deficiencies 66.40 3 74.40 3 0.49 3
102,104–107,110, in design documents % %
114,116,117,120, F13 Slow decision-making 65.60 4 73.20 5 0.48 4
122,123,130,131] % %
F7 Poor communication [3,8,79–81,83–86, 26 49.1 % F17 Delays in reviewing and 64.40 6 70.80 8 0.46 5
and coordination 88,89,91,93,95,100, preparing design % %
with designers 102,103,106,111, documents
114,117,121–123, F7 Poor communication 65.60 5 67.60 17 0.44 6
130,132] and coordination with % %
F8 Delayed payments in [3,79,81,84–87,91, 25 47.2 % designers
the process 92,95,97,99,101, F14 Delayed government 62.40 7 70.00 9 0.44 7
103,106,107,109, permits % %
110,112,114,115, F8 Delayed payments in the 58.40 10 73.60 4 0.43 8
124,126,130,132] process % %
F9 Shortage of labor [79–81,83,84,86, 25 47.2 % F3 Difficulties in financing 58.80 8 72.80 6 0.43 9
91–97,106–109, the project by % %
113,120,123,124, contractors
128–131] F9 Shortage of labor 58.80 9 72.40 7 0.43 10
F10 Errors and [79,80,83,84,86,87, 23 43.4 % % %
deficiencies in design 89,91,92,95,97, F4 Inadequate experience 57.60 11 68.80 10 0.40 11
documents 102–106,109,111, of the contractor % %
114,115,117,123, F6 Poor management of the 56.40 13 68.00 14 0.38 12
124] contractor % %
F11 Unexpected weather [79–83,85,86,93, 22 41.5 % F5 Shortage of materials on- 56.00 14 68.40 11 0.38 13
conditions 96,97,100,104–106, site % %
110,113,115,117, F20 Late contract award/ 55.60 15 68.40 12 0.38 14
130,132–134] poor contract % %
F12 Late delivery of [3,44,79,80,84,92, 20 37.7 % management
materials 93,95,102,114,117, F16 Low labor productivity 54.00 17 68.40 13 0.37 15
123,124,128,130, % %
132,133] F12 Late delivery of 54.00 18 68.00 15 0.37 16
F13 Slow decision-making [79–81,84–87, 20 37.7 % materials % %
91–93,97,98,100, F11 Unexpected weather 57.20 12 63.20 19 0.36 17
102,103,108,109, conditions % %
113,114,123] F15 Shortage of equipment 54.40 16 64.40 18 0.35 18
F14 Delayed government [80,81,84–86, 19 35.8 % % %
permits 91–93,97,100,102, F18 Unexpected 48.80 20 68.00 16 0.33 19
106,109,111,114, geotechnical conditions % %
117,125,130,132] during construction
F15 Shortage of [80,81,83,86, 18 34.0 % F19 Equipment breakdowns 51.60 19 62.00 20 0.32 20
equipment 91–93,95,96,106, and maintenance % %
113,117,120,123, problems
124,128,129,131]
F16 Low labor [19,79,85,86,91,92, 17 32.1 %
1: Relative Frequency Index; 2: Ranking; 3: Relative Severity Index; 4: Important
productivity 96,97,101,103,113, Index.
114,117,118,123,
124,130] activities and roles, it demands an agile and structured decision-making
F17 Delays in reviewing [79–81,86,87,89, 17 32.1 %
and preparing design 92,95,97,100–103,
process. To ensure efficiency and speed in decision-making, it is crucial
documents 106,114,124,132] to articulate each stage of the process and execute it effectively.
Delays in reviewing and preparing design documents (F17) are the
9
fifth most commonly reported factor affecting project timelines. Various the use of 4D construction planning (U4) and 4D construction analysis
reasons, such as poor prioritization of document review or the need for and optimization (U6) significantly influences the mitigation of the
additional changes, can cause these delays. The problem is often com factor of inefficient project planning and scheduling (F2). This factor is
pounded by inadequate communication between approval teams. closely related to schedule planning and management, which shows that
Owners or organizations may need more time to approve design docu BIM adoption can positively impact improving construction planning
ments or material samples. Such delays can result in the contractor’s processes.
inability to adhere to the established construction schedule. The findings indicate that BIM implementation does not significantly
Residential construction projects frequently face delays caused by impact the delayed government permits (F14) factor, which is mainly
multiple factors. Most notably, inadequate communication, coordina due to the bureaucratic nature of the process. Moreover, BIM has a
tion, and synergy among those involved in the construction process limited influence on the issues related to contractors and suppliers, such
emerge as a recurring cause of such delays. During construction as delayed payments in the process (F8) and difficulties in financing the
execution, it is essential to prevent design alterations, documentary in project by contractors (F3). However, using 5D cost analysis (U7) and 4D
consistencies, decision-making delays, and reviews and approvals. It is construction planning (U4) has a moderate impact on mitigating these
crucial to emphasize that many of these disruptive elements manifest problems. BIM accurately estimates quantities for materials and labor
themselves in the early stages of the project. Therefore, project man required for all project activities [135] and provides valuable informa
agers are urged to prioritize mitigation strategies to address potential tion to suppliers and contractors to prepare their proposals, minimizing
failures at the design and planning stages. the likelihood of any negative impact on contractors. Nevertheless, BIM
is limited in mitigating errors caused by inaccuracies in calculating unit
values and work yields or any unforeseen events that may compromise
4.3. BIM uses influence the contractor’s or owner’s ability to finance the construction process.
The BIM adoption can have a positive impact on various delay factors
Table 10 depicts the influence scores derived from an expert work related to early stages, such as design changes by the owner or designers
shop for each BIM use in mitigating the most influential factors that during execution (F1), errors and deficiencies in design documents (F10),
cause delays in building projects. The dark green color indicates a higher and delays in reviewing and preparing design documents (F17).
influence. The results suggest that the BIM adoption is an effective so Furthermore, the findings show that the integral adoption of BIM
lution to curb delay factors in residential building projects. The BIM uses methodology positively influences factors such as slow decision-making
with the most significant impact on delay mitigation are (1) 4D con (F13) and poor communication and coordination with designers (F7).
struction planning (U4), (2) 4D construction analysis and optimization This is because BIM allows for joint implementation and improved
(U6), and (3) 5D cost analysis (U8) (see Table 10). In particular, BIM uses communication between all the parties involved in the project, which
such as collision analysis (U1), design review (U2), and design and en leads to efficient decision-making [136]. A collaborative platform en
gineering analysis (U3) have been proven highly effective in mitigating ables all stakeholders to work simultaneously in the planning and
factors such as design changes by the owner or designers during execution stages, thus minimizing delays and optimizing execution
execution (F1), errors and deficiencies in design documents (F10), and times. BIM has demonstrated its positive influence in identifying and
delays in reviewing and preparing design documents (F17). Moreover,
Table 10
Influence of BIM uses in the mitigation of delay factors.
10
solving potential problems before they become significant obstacles permits (F14), difficulties in financing the project by contractors (F3),
[29], thus contributing to the success of building projects. and delayed payments in the process (F8). These observations are
consistent with the analysis of the impact of BIM uses, which suggests
that external factors can significantly affect the project timeline.
4.4. Lean tools influence Licensing procedures, often subject to specific regulations, can consid
erably extend construction project schedules [138], posing significant
Lean tools are essential to maximize productivity, optimize re challenges for project managers. BIM and Lean can aid in project plan
sources, and minimize interruptions in residential construction pro ning and cash flow management in project financing. Still, external
cesses [29]. They are based on continuous improvement and waste factors may cause owners and contractors to face difficulties maintain
elimination [137]. Table 11 presents the results of an evaluation of the ing construction activity financing [139].
impact of Lean tools in reducing the main delay factors in building
projects. The dark green color indicates a higher influence. The study
reveals that collaborative meetings (T7), ICT to support lean imple
mentation (T2), and the Last Planner System (LPS) (T1) are the most
effective Lean tools in mitigating delay factors in residential building
projects. These tools can effectively address several factors, including Table 12
inefficient project planning and scheduling (F2), slow decision-making Characteristics of the buildings.
(F13), and poor communication and coordination with designers (F7). Item Building #1 Building #2
The results highlight the positive impact that adopting collaborative
Planned start date October 8, 2018 November 15, 2021
workflows supported by information and communication technologies Planned completion date January 10, June 19, 2024
(ICT) can have on reducing delays. Some approaches with broad po 2021
tential are BIM, digital visual aids, drones, laser scanners, and sensors. Planned duration 27.5 months 31.1 months
These technologies can significantly improve capturing, storing, and Start date January 8, 2019 November 29, 2021
Completion date September 8, July 24, 2024
processing information to support decision-making processes during
2021 (Expected)
collaborative meetings. Duration 35.5 months 32.7 months (In
The findings indicate that specific Lean tools, such as Value Stream progress)
Mapping (VSM) (T3) and the PDCA cycle (T6), can moderately help Total delay + pandemic + national 8.0 months 1.6 months
stoppage
mitigate project delays. These tools are particularly effective in
Delay by COVID-19 pandemic 1.6 months N/A
addressing issues such as Errors and deficiencies in design documents Affected by the national stoppage 0.8 months N/A
(F10) and slow decision-making (F13), decreasing delays in residential Total delay 5.6 months 1.6 months
building projects. It is also noteworthy that the implementation of Lean Status Finished In progress
has a moderate impact on mitigating factors like delayed government
Table 11
Influence of Lean tools used in the mitigation of delay factors.
11
4.5. Building analysis changes by the owner or designers during execution (F1), 17 days were
recovered thanks to the integration of BIM uses, collision analysis (U1),
The durations and delays observed in the two case studies are pre and design review (U2) (see Table 14). These tools allowed for quick and
sented in Table 12. It’s worth noting that Building #1 was completed accurate corrections to the information in the construction drawings and
before the study date, whereas the construction process for the rein real-time implementation of structural modifications. Thus, BIM had an
forced concrete structure was completed in Building #2. outstanding influence in mitigating delay factors related to the design
stage of building projects, which aligns with the analysis of the influence
4.5.1. Building #1 of BIM applications in mitigating the main delay factors.
After carefully examining all the relevant documents, we found a The study’s results are similar to those found by Assafi et al. [50] in
delay of 5.6 months in the schedules. This delay does not include in their case study of a three-story mosque complex in the Rupsha region of
terruptions caused by the pandemic or the national strike in Colombia in Bangladesh. They discovered that design errors and inefficient prefab
2019 due to social conflicts. The main reason behind this delay was the rication in the pre-construction stage were the primary contributors to
change in design initiated by the owner or designers during the execu the delay, which were only identified in the execution stage. Unfortu
tion phase, which resulted in a delay of 84 days. However, this delay was nately, it was impossible to recover the impact at this stage. Therefore,
minimized by 28 days using BIM and Lean. After that, the lack of labor the authors suggested that the design should be verified using the 4D
caused a further delay of 34 days, and the contractor’s difficulty in BIM methodology, with the help of Naviswork’s Clash Detective tools,
funding the project added another 24 days to the delay. The results align and in the execution stage with Naviswork’s 4D TimeLiner. By doing so,
with the analysis of delay factors, which lists design changes by the there would be a significant reduction in the impact on the chronogram.
owner or designers during execution (F1) as a significant factor. In a study by Sholichan et al. [140], it was shown that the joint appli
Shortage of labor (F9) and difficulties in financing the project by con cation of M-PERT and 4DBIM methodologies was effective in optimizing
tractors (F3) are among the top ten factors causing delays in building the duration of a stadium construction project. By analyzing the con
construction projects, as shown in Table 13. struction of one area of the structure stage that was intervened
The BIM methodology played a crucial role in the project’s devel compared to untouched areas of the structure, the authors obtained
opment by addressing deviations in the schedule. It proved to be highly satisfactory results with a 2.67 % improvement in project duration.
effective, especially concerning delay factors such as design changes by Another case study that demonstrated the benefits of implementing the
the owner or designers during execution (F1), inefficient project plan BIM methodology was the analysis of the construction of the "Motor
ning and scheduling (F2), and poor communication and coordination esudio" project of Hyundai in Gyeonggi, Korea. In this study, Jang et al.
with designers (F7). Initially, 84 days of delay were estimated, but with [141] concluded that early decision-making involving a larger team had
seamless coordination between the designers and owners, 28 days were a positive impact on the project schedule. Furthermore, by implement
made up. This was possible due to real-time adjustments to the model, ing the BIM methodology and coordinating a diverse team, the
which facilitated agile decisions. Additionally, BIM collision analysis decision-making process was able to reduce the initially planned times
was utilized to detect and correct errors in the design documents, such as significantly.
interferences or omissions. These were recorded in the BIM360 platform In a case study analysis, Handayani et al. [142] determined the
and immediately addressed and resolved, allowing on-site digital impact of change orders on the schedule during the construction phase
consultation with real-time updates. The implementation of Lean of a high-rise building located on the campus of the University of Chu
methodology had a positive impact on schedule management. Tools like lalongkorn in Thailand. They also proposed a solution to mitigate the
balance lines and LPS helped create visual schedules, enabling the impact by implementing the BIM methodology. A group of experts
identification and correction of inefficiencies and interferences proac modeled in real-time the possible options to execute change orders and
tively. The LPS tool detected early deviations in performance, alerting determined the consequences of executing such changes. They made
the contractor to take immediate action. It ensured constant monitoring decisions in a short time on the best alternative, achieving minimal
and timely decisions concerning the performance of those involved. impact on the schedule compared to traditional options for affecting
changes in design orders. In another related case study, Charehzehi et al.
4.5.2. Building #2 [143] demonstrated the benefits of implementing the BIM methodology
Building 2 showed that the factors identified as the most influential in the comparison of two construction projects, namely the National
during the project’s development were concord with those initially Cancer Institute of Malaysia and the Sultan Ibrahim Hall Tower. They
identified (see Table 9). Three main factors were highlighted: Shortage concluded that the implementation positively impacted the schedule of
of labor (F9), difficulties in financing the project by contractors (F3), and both projects as it helped identify the causes of conflicts from the
design changes by the owner or designers during execution (F1). The perspective of clients, contractors, and consultants. By adopting the BIM
BIM methodology played a crucial role in mitigating 65 % of the total methodology, they were able to control the causes of conflicts and
impact on the schedule. Out of the 26 days affected by the factor design minimize the occurrence of detected collisions. The adoption of the Lean
Table 13
Factors and delays in Building #1.
Id Factors Delay (days) Recoverable (days) Not recoverable (days) Rank Influence Rank
Building #1
F1 Design changes by owner or designers during execution 84 28 56 1 1

F9 Shortage of labor 64 30 34 2 10
F3 Difficulties in financing the project by contractors 49 25 24 3 9
F5 Shortage of materials on-site 39 11 28 4 13
F16 Low labor productivity 29 18 11 5 15
F8 Delayed payments in the process 16 10 6 6 8
F12 Late delivery of materials 11 6 5 7 16
F19 Equipment breakdowns and maintenance problems 6 3 3 8 20
F4 Inadequate experience of the contractor 6 4 2 9 11
F6 Poor management of the contractor 5 5 0 10 12
F11 Unexpected weather conditions 4 4 0 11 17
F2 Inefficient project planning and scheduling 3 3 0 12 2
12
Table 14
Factors and delays in Building #2.
Id Factors Delay (days) Recoverable (days) Not recoverable (days) Rank Influence Rank
Building #2
F9 Shortage of labor 40 29 11 1 9
F3 Difficulties in financing the project by contractors 31 18 13 2 3
F1 Design changes by owner or designers during execution 26 17 9 3 1
F5 Shortage of materials on-site 13 10 3 4 5
F6 Inefficient project planning and scheduling 12 7 5 5 2
F11 Unexpected weather conditions 7 7 0 6 11
F4 Inadequate experience of the contractor 6 4 2 7 4
F20 Late contract award/poor contract management 6 2 4 8 20
F12 Late delivery of materials 3 3 0 10 12
F15 Shortage of equipment 1 1 0 11 15
methodology was crucial to mitigate delays during the project. Tools (T3).
like the lines of balance, the Last Planner System (LPS) (T1), and the The results indicate that design and planning play a significant role
visual management system (T3) helped detect possible delays caused by in causing delays in building projects. The factors related to early stages
factors such as the shortage of manpower and financial limitations of the that affect the project timeline the most include design changes by the
contractors. These tools helped identify the causes of the contractors’ owner or designers during execution (F1), inefficient project planning
low performance and evaluated the economic conditions that limited the and scheduling (F2), and errors and deficiencies in design documents
hiring of qualified manpower. The use of these tools allowed critical (F10). Proper planning and process control in the early stages of the
decisions to ensure that the project proceeded smoothly, including the project can help alleviate construction delays. Moreover, a lack of
continuity of the contractor responsible for the project’s structure. communication and coordination between the parties involved (F7) can
The results obtained from adopting Lean methodology in construc significantly impact construction delays. Addressing these factors re
tion projects are in line with the findings reported by Morales et al. quires additional actions, and it can be challenging. The BIM method
[144]. They were able to demonstrate a significant reduction in the ology can aid in better project management and greater engineering
impact on the schedule during the execution of internal natural gas design and analysis efficiency. Furthermore, the Lean methodology fo
networks in residential buildings located in Lima, Peru. The impact was cuses on eliminating waste and promoting collaboration among team
reduced from 11 % to 6 % by proposing a solution model developed with members. By implementing these emerging methodologies, it is possible
Lean tools. The study determined that the model can be replicated in to reduce the factors that affect construction and optimize processes,
similar companies, improving indicators that affect the schedule, such as leading to greater efficiency and profitability in the construction of
comprehensive management of inventory resources and proper man residential projects.
agement of the production chain. Another case study where the benefits BIM plays a critical role in the management of residential building
of Lean implementation were demonstrated is the luxury residential projects. Its applications include design review, interference detection,
building of three levels and a basement located in Malaysia. The authors and engineering design and analysis, which help prevent design issues
Lajevardi et al. focused on identifying the activities that contributed to and schedule delays. Additionally, BIM’s 4D planning and optimization
the loss of time and quantifying the amount of these activities. They also are crucial in countering project scheduling and planning deficiencies.
quantified the percentage of activities that do not add value, achieved However, BIM has limitations in dealing with delays in obtaining
greater control of the factors that cause these orders, and improved their governmental permits and complications with contractors and suppliers.
processes. Adopting the BIM approach results in more effective communication
and coordination among project participants and improves decision-
5. Conclusions making. When it comes to countering the causes of delays in residen
tial construction, collaborative meetings are found to be the most
This study offers three key theoretical contributions: (1) it identifies effective Lean tool. This approach is beneficial in mitigating problems
the primary factors causing delays in building projects, (2) it estimates related to poor planning and scheduling, delays in decisions due to
the influence of BIM uses in the mitigation of delay factors, and (3) it multiple stakeholders, and design modifications during execution. Other
identifies Lean tools and estimates their effectiveness in reducing techniques, such as the Last Planner System (LPS) and Information and
schedule delays in building projects. The study follows a five-stage Communication Technologies (ICT) that support Lean implementation
research method: identifying delay factors, BIM uses, and Lean tools, are also precious. However, Value Stream Mapping (VSM) and the PDCA
designing and validating questionnaires, and performing quantitative Cycle have only a moderate impact. It’s worth noting that Lean tools can
analysis. A questionnaire was administered to 50 building project only provide partial solutions to certain factors, such as late government
managers, and 20 delay factors with the most significant impact on permits, delays in payments to contractors and suppliers, and challenges
building project delays were identified and classified. First, the top five in project financing.
delay factors identified were design changes by the owner or designers This study has some limitations that may affect the interpretation of
during execution (F1), inefficient project planning and scheduling (F2), the results. Firstly, the study only considered 20 delay factors that were
errors and deficiencies in design documents (F10), slow decision-making frequently reported in the literature without considering a wider range
(F13), and delays in reviewing and preparing design documents (F17). of factors. Secondly, only eight Lean tools and eight BIM uses were
Second, the study also gathered opinions from 12 experts in BIM and chosen, which may not be a comprehensive enough representation.
Lean methodologies and identified the five BIM uses with the most Thirdly, the impact of BIM and Lean tools was determined based on the
significant impact on delay mitigation: 4D construction planning (U4), opinions of only twelve experts. Fourthly, the study did not take into
4D construction analysis and optimization (U6), 5D cost analysis (U7), consideration the factors that affect cost overruns in residential building
design review (U2), and 3D modeling of existing conditions (U5). Third, projects. Lastly, the study focused solely on residential building projects,
the most influential Lean tools were identified as collaborative meetings which excludes other types of construction projects. Apart from these
(T7), ICT to support lean implementation (T2), Last Planner System (LPS) limitations, it is important to note that the size of the sample used may
(T1), error-proofing system (Poka-Yoke) (T8), and visual management affect the representativeness of the results. A small sample may not
13
adequately represent the diversity of the population. Data collection real time. This holistic approach could significantly improve time and
problems may also have an impact on the quality of the information resource management, raising the overall efficiency of residential con
obtained, which could, in turn, affect the accuracy of the results. Finally, struction projects. In addition, the adoption of these advanced tech
the external validity of the study may be compromised if the findings nologies would facilitate greater accuracy in project planning,
cannot be generalized to other contexts or populations beyond the res execution, and monitoring, which, in turn, could result in reduced lead
idential building setting. It is important to consider these limitations times and increased customer satisfaction.
when interpreting the results and to identify areas for improvement in
future research. CRediT authorship contribution statement
Future research can focus on several areas to deepen the under
standing of how BIM and Lean practices can mitigate delays in con Yeimi Pérez: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation,
struction projects. Firstly, it is recommended that the impact of BIM Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
applications and Lean tools be estimated in reducing such delays using editing. Jeffer Ávila: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
advanced statistical methods or analysis based on specific construction Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – orig
cases to allow more precise quantification of their effect. Secondly, it inal draft, Writing – review & editing. Omar Sánchez: Supervision,
would be relevant to explore how the joint implementation of BIM and Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
Lean can contribute to reducing cost overruns, especially in building editing, Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
projects, by identifying synergies and best practices that maximize ef Methodology.
ficiency in cost management. Thirdly, expanding the spectrum of anal
ysis to different types of construction projects, including civil
infrastructure, industrial works, and renovation projects, could offer a Declaration of competing interest
more holistic view of the applicability and benefits of these methodol
ogies in different construction contexts. This expanded approach would The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
not only enrich the existing knowledge base but also provide practical interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
guidelines for more effective implementation of BIM and Lean in the the work reported in this paper.
construction industry, fostering adaptability and innovation in the face
of emerging challenges in the sector. Data availability
Additionally, future research should consider integrating comple
mentary technologies, such as laser scanners, drones, artificial intelli Data will be made available on request.
gence (AI), and the Internet of Things (IoT), along with the
implementation of BIM and Lean, to mitigate the main drivers of Acknowledgments
schedule slippage in residential construction projects. This approach
could offer insights into how these advanced technologies contribute to The authors would like to thank the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana
identifying, preventing, and correcting delays and how their synergy for its support through the APC funding through “support for the pub
with BIM and Lean can generate innovative solutions that address the lication of high-quality research articles.” We gratefully acknowledge
most critical and impactful aspects of construction processes. Exploring the support from the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia,
these emerging technologies opens up the possibility of developing more through “Apoyo a proyectos de investigación liderados por profesores
dynamic and adaptive methodologies that allow early detection of po que se encuentran en su primera etapa de su carrera en investigación
tential deviations, as well as the implementation of corrective actions in 2023” with the project ID 20673.
Appendix A. BIM uses
Table A1
BIM uses applicable to building projects.
Id BIM uses References Frequency Relative frequency
Planning
U1 Modeling of existing conditions [75,145–149] 7 70.0 %
U2 Cost estimation [75,145,146–151] 8 80.0 %
U3 Planning phase [75,146,149–152] 6 60.0 %
U4 Scheduling [75,145,149,151,152] 4 40.0 %
U5 Site analysis [75,145,149–151] 6 60.0 %
U6 Design review [75,145,147,149–152] 8 80.0 %
Design
U7 Design creation [75,146,149,152] 5 50.0 %
U8 Energy analysis [75,145–147,150–152] 8 80.0 %
U9 Structural analysis [75,145–147,149,151,152] 8 80.0 %
U10 Lighting analysis [75,145–147,151,152] 7 70.0 %
U11 Mechanical analysis [75,145–147,149,151,152] 8 80.0 %
U12 Other analysis [75,145–147,149] 6 60.0 %
U13 LEED evaluation [75,145,146,151] 5 50.0 %
U14 Collision analysis [75,145,146,147,150–152] 7 70.0 %
U15 3D coordination [75,145,147,149–152] 7 70.0 %
U16 Design audit [145,146,147,149–152] 7 70.0 %
Construction
U17 Site utilization plan [75,145,146,149] 4 40.0 %
U18 Construction system design [75,145,149] 5 50.0 %
(continued on next page)
14
Table A1 (continued )
Id BIM uses References Frequency Relative frequency
U19 Digital fabrication [75,145,146,149] 4 40.0 %

U20 3D planning and control [75,149] 2 20.0 %
U21 Model registration [75,145] 2 20.0 %
U22 Construction waste management [146] 1 10.0 %
U23 Component prefabrication [149] 2 20.0 %
U24 Site safety review [145] 2 20.0 %
U25 Commissioning and handover 1 10.0 %
Operation
U26 Maintenance scheduling [75,146,149] 3 30.0 %
U27 Construction analysis [75,146] 2 20.0 %
U28 Asset management [75,145,146,149] 4 40.0 %
U29 Space management/monitoring [75,146,149] 3 30.0 %
U30 Disaster planning [75,146] 2 20.0 %
U31 Built models 1 10.0 %
U32 Existing conditions analysis [148,149] 2 20.0 %
U33 Reusable element labeling [148] 1 10.0 %
U34 4D deconstruction simulation [148,149] 2 20.0 %
Appendix B. Informed Consent
Title of research: "Study of the influence of Lean tools and BIM uses to mitigate schedule deviation factors in residential building projects."
Program: Master in Civil Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana.
Researchers: Yeimi Perez, Jeffer Avila, and Omar Sanchez.
Dear participant:
Your participation in this research project is based on being able to determine, according to your criteria, which of the BIM and Lean tools are the
most effective in mitigating certain delay factors that affect the schedules of residential building projects; because of this, it is vital to have your
opinion to identify and analyze the results of the data collected.
Your participation in this study is free and voluntary, and you may request to be excluded from it and that your interventions are not considered in
this research without prior justification or prejudice to you. You are free not to answer any of the questions or requests made to you in the framework
of generating information if this could cause you any harm or discomfort. The data will be stored on the SurveyMonkey platform for the research
duration and accessible to the research team. The data will be stored for two years, after which they will be disposed of confidentially.
Given the characteristics of the study, the data will be used only for academic research purposes and for disseminating the research. Likewise, the
research team assumes a commitment to confidentiality to protect the identity of all those involved in this study. All information you share in this
study is confidential, and your anonymity will be guaranteed. At no time will your name or identity be revealed, nor will any personally identifiable
information about you be disclosed.
If you have any questions during or after the systematization of the course, you may contact the research team. By responding to this survey, you
consent to using your information in this study. Thank you for your attention.
Appendix C. Abbreviations
Abbreviation Meaning
AI Artificial Intelligence
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers management
BIM Building Information Modeling
BO Boolean operators
CPM Critical Path Method
II Important Index
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
IoT Internet of Things
JIT Just in time
LPS Last Planner System
PDCA Plan-Do-Check-Act
RII Relative Influence Index
RFI Relative Frequency Index
RSI Relative Severity Index
TIA Time Impact Analysis
VSM Value Stream Mapping
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Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102236

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Influence of BIM and Lean on mitigating delay factors in building projects

Fig. 1. Research method stages.

Building “AND” Delay “AND” Causes “AND” Construction

implemented to validate and calibrate the questionnaire. In the first

Table 5 identified delay factors.

Status Finished In progress

Table 8 Table 8 (continued )

F1 Design changes by owner or designers during execution 84 28 56 1 1

Appendix A. BIM uses

Id BIM uses References Frequency Relative frequency

U19 Digital fabrication [75,145,146,149] 4 40.0 %

Appendix B. Informed Consent

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