LECTURE NOTES on

POWER ELECTRONICS & PLC

5TH SEMESTER ,
BRANCH-ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY
ASHWINI KUMAR SAHU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

Government Polytechnic, Bhadrak

SCR is made up of silicon, it act as a rectifier; it has very low resistance in the forward
direction and high resistance in the reverse direction. It is a unidirectional device.

Static V-I characteristics of a Thyristor

The circuit diagram for obtaining static V-I characteristics is as shown

Anode and cathode are connected to main source voltage through the load. The gate and
cathode are fed from source 𝐸𝑆.

A typical SCR V-I characteristic is as shown below:

𝑉𝐵𝑂=Forward breakover voltage

𝑉𝐵𝑅=Reverse breakover voltage

𝐼𝑔=Gate current

𝑉𝑎=Anode voltage across the thyristor terminal A,K.

𝐼𝑎=Anode current

It can be inferred from the static V-I characteristic of SCR. SCR have 3 modes of
operation:

1. Reverse blocking mode

2. Forward blocking mode ( off state)
3. Forward conduction mode (on state)

1. Reverse Blocking Mode

When cathode of the thyristor is made positive with respect to anode with switch open
thyristor is reverse biased. Junctions 𝐽1 and 𝐽2 are reverse biased where junction 𝐽2 is
forward biased. The device behaves as if two diodes are connected in series with reverse
voltage applied across them.

• A small leakage current of the order of few mA only flows. As the thyristor is
reverse biased and in blocking mode. It is called as acting in reverse blocking
mode of operation.

• Now if the reverse voltage is increased, at a critical breakdown level called

reverse breakdown voltage 𝑉𝐵𝑅,an avalanche occurs at 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 and the reverse
 current increases rapidly. As a large current associated with 𝑉𝐵𝑅 and hence more
losses to the SCR.

This results in Thyristor damage as junction temperature may exceed its maximum
temperature rise.

2. Forward Blocking Mode

When anode is positive with respect to cathode, with gate circuit open, thyristor is said to
be forward biased.

Thus junction 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 are forward biased and 𝐽2 is reverse biased. As the forward
voltage is increases junction 𝐽2 will have an avalanche breakdown at a voltage called
forward breakover voltage𝑉𝐵𝑂. When forward voltage is less then 𝑉𝐵𝑂thyristor offers high
impedance. Thus a thyristor acts as an open switch in forward blocking mode.

3. Forward Conduction Mode

Here thyristor conducts current from anode to cathode with a very small voltage drop
across it. So a thyristor can be brought from forward blocking mode to forward
conducting mode:

1. By exceeding the forward breakover voltage.

2. By applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode.

During forward conduction mode of operation thyristor is in on state and behave like a
close switch. Voltage drop is of the order of 1 to 2mV. This small voltage drop is due to
ohmic drop across the four layers of the device.

Different turn ON methods for SCR

1. Forward voltage triggering
2. Gate triggering
3. 𝑑𝑣 triggering
𝑑𝑡
4. Light triggering
5. Temperature triggering

1. Forward voltage triggering

A forward voltage is applied between anode and cathode with gate circuit open.

• Junction 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 is forward biased.

• Juntion 𝐽2 is reverse biased.
• As the anode to cathode voltage is increased breakdown of the reverse biased junction
𝐽2 occurs. This is known as avalanche breakdown and the voltage at which this
phenomena occurs is called forward breakover voltage.
• The conduction of current continues even if the anode cathode voltage reduces below
𝑉𝐵𝑂till 𝐼𝑎 will not go below𝐼ℎ. Where 𝐼ℎ is the holding current for the thyristor.

2. Gate triggering

This is the simplest, reliable and efficient method of firing the forward biased SCRs. First
SCR is forward biased. Then a positive gate voltage is applied between gate and cathode. In
practice the transition from OFF state to ON state by exceeding 𝑉𝐵𝑂 is never employed as it
may destroy the device. The magnitude of 𝑉𝐵𝑂, so forward breakover voltage is taken as final
voltage rating of the device during the design of SCR application.

First step is to choose a thyristor with forward breakover voltage (say 800V) higher than the
normal working voltage. The benefit is that the thyristor will be in blocking state with normal
working voltage applied across the anode and cathode with gate open. When we require the
turning ON of a SCR a positive gate voltage between gate and cathode is applied. The point
to be noted that cathode n- layer is heavily doped as compared to gate p-layer. So when gate
supply is given between gate and cathode gate p-layer is flooded with electron from cathode
n-layer. Now the thyristor is forward biased, so some of these electron reach junction 𝐽2 .As a
result width of 𝐽2 breaks down or conduction at 𝐽2 occur at a voltage less than 𝑉𝐵𝑂.As 𝐼𝑔
increases 𝑉𝐵𝑂 reduces which decreases then turn ON time. Another important point is
duration for which the gate current is applied should be more then turn ON time. This means
that if the gate current is reduced to zero before the anode current reaches a minimum value
known as holding current, SCR can’t turn ON.

In this process power loss is less and also low applied voltage is required for triggering.

3. dv/dt triggering

This is a turning ON method but it may lead to destruction of SCR and so it must be avoided.

When SCR is forward biased, junction 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 are forward biased and junction 𝐽2 is
reversed biased so it behaves as if an insulator is place between two conducting plate. Here 𝐽1
and 𝐽3 acts as a conducting plate and 𝐽2 acts as an insulator. 𝐽2 is known as junction capacitor.
So if we increase the rate of change of forward voltage instead of increasing the magnitude of
voltage. Junction 𝐽2 breaks and starts conducting. A high value of changing current may
damage the SCR. So SCR may be protected from high𝑑𝑣.
𝑑𝑡

𝑞 = 𝑐𝑣
𝑑𝑣
𝐼 =𝑐
𝑎
𝑑𝑡

𝐼𝑎 𝛼 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡
4. Temperature triggering

During forward biased, 𝐽2 is reverse biased so a leakage forward current always associated
with SCR. Now as we know the leakage current is temperature dependant, so if we increase
the temperature the leakage current will also increase and heat dissipitation of junction
𝐽2occurs. When this heat reaches a sufficient value 𝐽2 will break and conduction starts.

Disadvantages
This type of triggering causes local hot spot and may cause thermal run away of the device.

This triggering cannot be controlled easily.

It is very costly as protection is costly.

5. Light triggering

First a new recess niche is made in the inner p-layer. When this recess is irradiated, then free
charge carriers (electron and hole) are generated. Now if the intensity is increased above a
certain value then it leads to turn ON of SCR. Such SCR are known as Light activated SCR
(LASCR).

Some definitions:

Latching current

The latching current may be defined as the minimum value of anode current which at must
attain during turn ON process to maintain conduction even if gate signal is removed.

Holding current

It is the minimum value of anode current below which if it falls, the SCR will turn OFF.

Switching characteristics of thyristors

The time variation of voltage across the thyristor and current through it during turn on
and turn off process gives the dynamic or switching characteristic of SCR.

Switching characteristic during turn on

Turn on time

It is the time during which it changes from forward blocking state to ON state. Total turn
on time is divided into 3 intervals:

1. Delay time
2. Rise time
3. Spread time

Delay time

If 𝐼𝑔and 𝐼𝑎 represent the final value of gate current and anode current. Then the delay time
can be explained as time during which the gate current attains 0.9 𝐼𝑔 to the instant anode
current reaches 0.1 𝐼𝑔 or the anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1 𝐼𝑎.

1. Gate current 0.9 𝐼𝑔 to 0.1 𝐼𝑎.

2. Anode voltage falls from 𝑉𝑎 to 0.9𝑉𝑎.
3. Anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1 𝐼𝑎.
Rise time (𝒕𝒓)

Time during which

1. Anode current rises from 0.1 𝐼𝑎 to 0.9 𝐼𝑎

2. Forward blocking voltage falls from 0.9𝑉𝑎 to 0.1𝑉𝑎. 𝑉𝑎 is the initial forward blocking
voltage.

Spread time (𝒕𝒑)

1. Time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9𝐼𝑎 to𝐼𝑎.

2. Time for the forward voltage to fall from 0.1𝑉𝑜 to on state voltage drop of 1 to 1.5V.
During turn on, SCR is considered to be a charge controlled device. A certain amount
of charge is injected in the gate region to begin conduction. So higher the magnitude
of gate current it requires less time to inject the charges. Thus turn on time is reduced
by using large magnitude of gate current.

How the distribution of charge occurs?

As the gate current begins to flow from gate to cathode with the application of gate
signal. Gate current has a non uniform distribution of current density over the cathode
surface. Distribution of current density is much higher near the gate. The density decrease
as the distance from the gate increases. So anode current flows in a narrow region near
gate where gate current densities are highest. From the beginning of rise time the anode
current starts spreading itself. The anode current spread at a rate of 0.1mm/sec. The
spreading anode current requires some time if the rise time is not sufficient then the anode
current cannot spread over the entire region of cathode. Now a large anode current is
applied and also a large anode current flowing through the SCR. As a result turn on losses
is high. As these losses occur over a small conducting region so local hot spots may form
and it may damage the device.

Switching Characteristics During Turn Off

Thyristor turn off means it changed from ON to OFF state. Once thyristor is oON there is
no role of gate. As we know thyristor can be made turn OFF by reducing the anode
current below the latching current. Here we assume the latching current to be zero
ampere. If a forward voltage is applied across the SCR at the moment it reaches zero then
SCR will not be able to block this forward voltage. Because the charges trapped in the 4-
layer are still favourable for conduction and it may turn on the device. So to avoid such a
case, SCR is reverse biased for some time even if the anode current has reached to zero.

So now the turn off time can be different as the instant anode current becomes zero to the
instant when SCR regains its forward blocking capability.

𝑡𝑞=𝑡𝑟𝑟+𝑡𝑞𝑟

Where,
 𝑡𝑞 is the turn off time, is the reverse recovery time, 𝑡𝑞𝑟 is the gate recovery time

At 𝑡1 anode current is zero. Now anode current builds up in reverse direction with same
𝑑𝑣 slope. This is due to the presence of charge carriers in the four layers. The reverse
𝑑𝑡
recovery current removes the excess carriers from 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 between the instants 𝑡1 and𝑡3.
At instant 𝑡3 the end junction 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 is recovered. But 𝐽2 still has trapped charges which
decay due to recombination only so the reverse voltage has to be maintained for some
more time. The time taken for the recombination of charges between 𝑡3 and 𝑡4 is called
gate recovery time 𝑡𝑞𝑟. Junction 𝐽2 recovered and now a forward voltage can be applied
across SCR.

The turn off time is affected by:

1. Junction temperature
2. Magnitude of forward current 𝑑𝑖 during commutation.
𝑑𝑡

Turn off time decreases with the increase of magnitude of reverse applied voltage.

GTO(Gate turn off thyristor)

A gate turn off thyristor is a pnpn device. In which it can be turned ON like an ordinary SCR
by a positive gate current. However it can be easily turned off by a negative gate pulse of
appropriate magnitude.

Conventional SCR are turned on by a positive gate signal but once the SCR is turned on gate
loses control over it. So to turn it off we require external commutation circuit. These
commutation circuits are bulky and costly. So due to these drawbacks GTO comes into
existence.

The salient features of GTO are:

1. GTO turned on like conventional SCR and is turned off by a negative gate signal of
sufficient magnitude.
2. It is a non latching device.
3. GTO reduces acoustic and electromagnetic noise.

It has high switching frequency and efficiency.

A gate turn off thyristor can turn on like an ordinary thyristor but it is turn off by negative
gate pulse of appropriate magnitude.

Disadvantage

The negative gate current required to turn off a GTO is quite large that is 20% to 30 % of
anode current

Advantage

It is compact and cost less

Switching performance
1. For turning ON a GTO first TR1is turned on.
2. This in turn switches on TR2 so that a positive gate current pulse is applied to turn on the
GTO.
3. Thyristor 𝑇1 is used to apply a high peak negative gate current pulse.

Gate turn-on characteristics

1. The gate turn on characteristics is similar to a thyristor. Total turn on time consists of
delay time, rise time, spread time.
2. The turn on time can be reduced by increasing its forward gate current.
GATE TURN OFF

Turn off time is different for SCR.Turn off characteristics is divied into 3 pd

1. Storage time
2. Fall time
3. Tail time
Tq=ts+tf+tt
At normal operating condition gto carries a steady state current.The turn off process
starts as soon as negative current is applied after t=0.

STORAGE TIME

During the storagepd the anode voltage and current remains constant.The gate current rises
depending upon the gate circuit impedance and gate applied voltage.The beginning of pd is as soon
as negative gate current is applied.The end of storage pd is marked by fall in anode current and
rise in voltage,what we have to do is remove the excess carriers.the excess carriers are removed by
negative carriers.
FALL TIME

After ts, anode current begins to fall rapidly and anode voltage starts rising.After falling to a certain
value,then anode current changes its rate to fall.this time is called fall time.

SPIKE IN VOLTAGE

During the time of storage and fall timethere is achange in voltage due to abrupt current change.

TAIL TIME

During this time ,the anode current and voltage continues towards the turn off values.The transient
overshoot is due to the snubber parameter and voltage stabilizes to steady state value.
THE TRIAC

As SCR is a unidirectional device,the conduction is from anode to cathode and not from
cathode to anode. It conducts in both direction.It is a bidirectional SCR with three terminal.

TRIAC=TRIODE+AC

Here it is considered to be two SCRS connected in anti parallel.As it conducts in both

direction so it is named as MT1,MT2 and gate G.

SALIENT FEATURES

1.Bi directional triode thyristor

2.TRIAC means triode that works on ac

3.It conduct in both direction

4. It is a controlled device
5. Its operation is similar to two devices connected in anti parallel with common gate
connection.

6. It has 3 terminals MT1,MT2 and gate G

Its use is control of power in ac.

POWER BJT

Power BJT means a large voltage blocking in the OFF state and high current carrying capability in the
ON state. In most power application, base is the input terminal. Emitter is the common terminal.
Collector is the output terminal.

SIGNAL LEVEL OF BJT

n+ doped emitter layer ,doping of base is more than collector.Depletion layer exists more towards
the collector than emitter
POWER BJT CONSTRUCTION

The maxium collector emitter voltage that can be sustained across the junction, when it is
carrying substantial collector current.

Vceo=maxium collectorand emitter voltage that can be sustain by the device.

Vcbo=collector base breakdown voltage with emitter open

PRIMARY BREAKDOWN

It is due to convention avalanche breakdown of the C-B junction and its associated large
flow of current.The thickness of the depletion region determines the breakdown voltage of
the transistor.The base thickness is made as small as possible,in order to have good
amplification capability. If the thickness is too small, the breakdown voltage is
compromised.So a compromise has to be made between the two.
THE DOPING LEVELS-

1.The doping of the emitter layer is quite large.

2.The base doping is moderate.

3.n- region is lightly doped.

4. n+ region doping level is similar to emitter.

1.THICKNESS OF DRIFT REGION-

It determines the breakdown length of the transistor.

2.THE BASE THICKNES –

Small base thickness- good amplification capability

Too small base thickness- the breakdown voltage of the transistor has ti be compromised.

For a relatively thick base,the current gain will be relatively small.so it is increase the
gain.Monolithicesigns for darlington connected BJT pair have been deveploed.

SECONDARY BREAKDOWN

Secondary breakdown is due to large power disspation at localized site within the semi
conductor.

PHYSICS OF BJT OPERATION-

The transistor is assumed to operate in active region. There is no doped collector drift
region. It has importance only in switching operation, in active region of operation.

junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. Electrons are injected intobase
from the emitter. Holes are injected from base into the emitter.

QUASI SATURATION-

Intially we assume that, the transistor is in active region. Base current is allowed to increase
then lets see what happens.first collector rises in response to base current.So there is a
increase voltage drop across the collector load.So C-E voltage drops.

Because of increase in collector current, there is a increase in voltage in drift region. This
eventually reduces the reverse biased across the C-B junction.so n-p junction get
smaller, at some point the junction become forward bised. So now injection of holes from
base into collector drift region occurs. Charge neutrality requires the electron to be injected
in the drift region of the holes. From where these electron came. Since a large no of
electron is supplied to the C-B junction via injection from emitter and subsequent
diffusion across the base. As excess carrier build up in the drift region begins to occur
quasi saturation region is entered. As the injected carrires increase in the drift region is
gradually shotred out and the voltage across the drift region drops. In quasi saturation the
drift region is not completely shorted out by high level injection.Hard saturation obtained
when excess carrier density reaches the n+ side.

During quasi saturation, the rate of the collector fall.Hard saturation occurs when excess
carriers have completely swept across the drift region .

THYRISTOR PROTECTION

OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION

Over voltage occurring during the switching operation causes the failure of SCR.

INTERNAL OVERVOLTAGE

It is due to the operating condition of SCR.

During the commutation of SCR ,when the anode current decays to zero anode current
reverses due to stored changes. First the reverse current rises to peak value, then reverse
current reduces abruptly with large 𝑑𝑖⁄𝑑𝑡. During series inductance of SCR large

transient large voltage i.e 𝐿 𝑑𝑖⁄𝑑𝑡. is generated.

EXTERNAL OVER VOLTAGE

This is due to external supply and load condition. This is because of

1. The interruption of current flow in an inductive circuit.

2. Lightening strokes on the lines feeding the thyristor systems.

Suppose a SCR converter is fed from a transformer, voltage transient occur when
transformer primary will energise or de-energised.

This overvoltages cause random turn ON of a SCR.

The effect of overvoltage is minimized using
1. RC circuits
2. Non linear resistor called voltage clamping device.

Voltage clamping device is a non linear resistor.It is connected between

cathode and anode of SCR. The resistance of voltage clamping device
decreases with increasing voltages. During normal working condition Voltage
clamping (V.C) device has high resistance, drawing only leakage current.
When voltage surge appears voltage clamping device offers a low resistance and it
create a virtual short circuit across the SCR. Hence voltage across SCR is
clamped to a safe value.
 When surge condition over voltage clamping device returns to high resistance
state.
e.g. of voltage clamping device
1.Seleniumthyrector diodes
2.Metal Oxide varistors
3.Avalanche diode supressors

OVER CURRENT PROTECTION

Long duration operation of SCR, during over current causes the
1.junction temp. of SCR to rise above the rated value,causing permanent
damage to device.
SCR is protected from overcurrent by using
1.Circuit breakers
2.Fast acting fuses
Proper co-ordination is essential because
1..fault current has to be interrupted before SCR gets damaged.
2.only faulty branches of the network has to be replaced.
In stiff supply network,source has negligible impedance.So in such system
the magnitude and rate of rise of current is not limited.Fault current hence
junction temp rises in a few miliseconds.
POINTS TO BE NOTED-
1. Proper coordination between fast acting fuse and thyristor is essential.
2. The fuse is always rated to carry marginal overload current over
definite period.
3. The peak let through current through SCR must be less than sub cycle
rating of the SCR.
4. The voltage across the fuse during arcing time is called arcing or
recovery voltage and is equal to sum of the source voltage and emf
induced in the circuit inductance during arcing time.
5. On abrupt interruption of fuse current, induce emf would be high, which
results in high arcing voltage.

Circuit Breaker (C.B)

C.B. has long tripping time. So it is used for protecting the device against continuous
overload current or against the surge current for long duration. In order that fuse
protects the thyristor realiably the 𝐼2𝑡 rating of fuse current must be less than that of
SCR.

ELECTRONIC CROWBAR PROTECTION

For overcurrent protection of power converter using SCR, electronic crowbar are
used. It provide rapid isolation of power converter before any damage occurs.

HEAT PROTECTION-

To protect the SCR

1. From the local spots

2. Temp rise
SCRs are mounted over heat sinks.

GATE PROTECTION-

Gate circuit should also be protected from

1. Overvoltages
2. Overcurrents

Overvoltage across the gate circuit causes the false triggering of SCR
Overcurrent raise the junction temperature. Overvoltage protection is by zener diode across
the gate circuit.

INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR(IGBT)-

BASIC CONSTRUCTION-

The n+ layer substrate at the drain in the power MOSFET is substituted by p+ layer substrate
and called as collector. When gate to emitter voltage is positive,n- channel is formed in the
p- region.This n- channel short circuit the n- and n+ layer and an electron movement in n
channel cause hole injection from p+subtrate layer to n- layer.
 POWER MOSFET
A power MOSFET has three terminal device. Arrow indicates the direction of current
flow. MOSFET is a voltage controlled device. The operation of MOSFET depends on flow
of majority carriers only.

(Circuit diagram) (circuit symbol)

Switching Characteristics:-

The switching characteristic is influenced by

1. Internal capacitance of the device.

2. Internal impedance of the gate drive circuit.

Total turn on time is divided into

1. Turn on delay time

2.Rise time

Turn on time is affected by impedance of gate drive source. During turn on delay time gate
to source voltage attends its threshold value 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇.

After 𝑡𝑑𝑛 and during rise time gate to source voltage rise to 𝑉𝐺𝑠𝑝, a voltage which is
sufficient to drive the MOSFET to ON state.

The turn off process is initiated by removing the gate to source voltage. Turn off time is
composed of turn off delay time to fall time.

Turn off delay time

To turn off the MOSFET the input capacitance has to be discharged . During 𝑡𝑑𝑓 the input
capacitance discharge from 𝑉1to 𝑉𝐺𝑠𝑝. During , fall time ,the input capacitance discharges
from 𝑉𝐺𝑠𝑝 to 𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑇. During 𝑡𝑓 drain current falls from 𝐼𝐷 to zero.

So when 𝑉𝐺𝑠 ≤ 𝑉 , MOFSET turn off is complete.

Fig. Switching waveform of power MOSFET

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

IGBT has high input impedance like MOFFSET and low on state power lose as in BJT.

IGBT Characteristics

Here the controlling parameter is gate emitter voltage As IGBT is a voltage controlled device.

When 𝑉𝐺𝐸 is less than 𝑉𝐺𝐸𝑇 that is gate emitter threshold voltage IGBT is in off state.
Fig. a Fig. b. Fig. c

Fig. a (Circuit diagram for obtaining V-I characteristics) Fig. b (Static V-I
characteristics)

Fig. c (Transfer characteristic)

Switching characteristics: Figure below shows the turn ON and turn OFF characteristics of
IGBT

Turn on time
 Time between the instants forward blocking state to forward on -state .

Turn on time = Delay time + Rise time

Delay time = Time for collector emitter voltage fall from 𝑉𝐶𝐸 to 0.9𝑉𝐶𝐸

𝑉𝐶𝐸=Initial collector emitter voltage

𝑡𝑑𝑛=collector current to rise from initial leakage current to 0.1Ic

Ic= Final value of collector current

Rise time

Collector emitter voltage to fall from 0.9𝑉𝐶𝐸 to 0.1𝑉𝐶𝐸.

Ic to Ic

After 𝑡𝑜𝑛 the device is on state the device carries a steady current of Ic and the collector
emitter voltage falls to a small value called conduction drop 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑆.

Turn off time

1) Delay time 𝑡𝑑𝑓

2) Initial fall time 𝑡𝑓1
3) Final fall time 𝑡𝑓2

𝑡𝑂𝑓𝑓 =𝑡𝑑𝑓 + 𝑡𝑓1+ 𝑡𝑓2

𝑡𝑑𝑓 = Time during which the gate emitter voltage falls to the threshold value 𝑉𝐺𝐸𝑇.

Collector current falls from Ic to 0.9Ic at the end of the 𝑡𝑑𝑓 collector emitter voltage begins to
rise.

Turn off time = Collector current falls from 90% to 20% of its initial value Ic OR The time
during which collector emitter voltage rise from 𝑉𝐶𝐸 to 0.1𝑉𝐶𝐸.

𝑡𝑓2 = collector current falls from20% to 10% of Ic.

During this collector emitter voltage rise 0.1𝑉𝐶𝐸 to final value of 𝑉𝐶𝐸.

Series and parallel operation of SCR

SCR are connected in series for h.v demand and in parallel for fulfilling high current
demand. Sting efficiency can be defined as measure of the degree of utilization on SCRs in a
string.

String efficiency < 1.

Derating factor (DRF)

1 – string efficiency.

If DRF more then

no. of SCRs will more, so string is more reliable.

Let the rated blocking voltage of the string of a series connected SCR is 2𝑉1 as shown in the
figure below, But in the string two SCRs are supplied a maximum voltage of 𝑉1+𝑉2.

𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝜂=
2𝑉1

Significance of string efficiency .

Two SCRs are have same forward blocking voltage ,When system voltage is more then the
voltage rating of a single SCR. SCRs are connected in series in a string.

There is a inherent variation in characteristics. So voltage shared by each SCR may not be
equal. Suppose, SCR1 leakage resistance > SCR2 leakage resistance. For same leakage
current 𝐼0 in the series connected SCRs. For same leakage current SCR1 supports a voltage
𝑉1 , SCR2 supports a voltage 𝑉2,

So string 𝜂 for two SCRs = 𝑉1+𝑉2 = 1(1 + 𝑉2) < 1 .

2𝑉2 2 𝑉1

So, 𝑉1 > 𝑉2,

The above operation is when SCRs are not turned ON. But in steady state of operation , A
uniform voltage distribution in the state can be achieved by connect a suitable resistance
across each SCRs , so that parallel combination have same resistance.

But this is a cumbersome work. During steady state operation we connect same value of
shunt resistance across each SCRs. This shunt resistance is called state equalizing circuit.

Suppose,
 Let SCR1 has lower leakage current 𝐼 , It will block a voltage comparatively larger than
other SCRs.

Voltage across SCR1 is 𝑉𝑏𝑚 =𝐼1𝑅.

Voltage across (n-1)SCR is (n-1) 𝐼2R, so the voltage equation for the series circuit is
Vs = 𝐼1𝑅+ (𝑛 − 1)𝐼2𝑅 = 𝑉𝑏𝑚+ (n-1)R (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑥 )

As 𝐼1 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑛

𝐼2= 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑥

So, Vs = 𝑉𝑏𝑚+ (n-1)R [𝐼1 − (𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑥 − 𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑛)]

If Δ𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑥 − 𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑛

Then Vs = 𝑉𝑏𝑚+(n-1)R (𝐼1 − Δ𝐼𝑏)

Vs = 𝑉𝑏𝑚+ (n-1)R 𝐼1-(n-1)R Δ𝐼𝑏

R𝐼1= 𝑉𝑏𝑚

So, Vs = 𝑉𝑏𝑚+ (n-1) 𝑉𝑏𝑚 -(n-1)R Δ𝐼𝑏

= n 𝑉𝑏𝑚- (n-1)R Δ𝐼𝑏

⇒R = 𝑛𝑉𝑏𝑚−𝑉𝑆
(n−1)Δ𝐼𝑏

SCR data sheet usually contain only maximum blocking current , 𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑥

so we assume 𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑛 = 0

So Δ𝐼𝑏=𝐼𝑏𝑚𝑥

So the value of R calculated is low than actually required.

SCRs having unequal dynamic characteristics:

 It may occur that SCRS may have unequal dynamic characteristics so the voltage
distribution across the SCR may be unequal during the transient condition.

SCR 1 and SCR 2 have different dynamic characteristics. Turn ON time of SCR 2 is more
than SCR 1 by time Δ .

As string voltage is 𝑉𝑆 so voltage shared by each SCRs be 𝑉𝑆/2. Now both are gated at same
time so SCR 1 will turn ON at 𝑡1 its voltage fall nearly to zero so the voltage shared by SCR
2 will be the string voltage if the break over voltage of SCR 2 is less than 𝑉𝑆 then SCR 2 will
turn ON .

* In case 𝑉𝑆 is less than the breakoverer voltage, SCR 2 will turn ON at instant 2. SCR 1
assumed to have less turn off 𝑡𝑞1 time then SCR 2, so 𝑡𝑞1 < 𝑡𝑞2 . At 𝑡2 SCR 1 has recovered
while SCR 2 is developing recovery voltage at 𝑡1 both are developing different reverse
recovery voltage.
At 𝑡2 SCR 1 has recovered while SCR2 is developing reverse recovery voltage .

Conclusion :

* Series connected SCR develop different voltages during turn ON and turn OFF
process. Till now we connect a simple resistor across the diode for static voltage equalizing
circuit .

* During turn ON and turn OFF capacitance of reverse biased junction determine the
voltage distribution across SCRs in a series connected string . As reverse biased junction
have different capacitance called self capacitance , the voltage distribution during turn ON
and turn Off process would be different.
 * Under transient condition equal voltage distribution can be achieved by employing
shunt capacitance as this shunt capacitance has the effect of that the resultant of shunt and
self capacitance tend to be equal. The capacitor is used to limits the dv/dt across the SCR
during forward blocking state. When this SCR turned ON capacitor discharges heavy current
through the SCR . The discharge current spike is limited by damping resistor . 𝑅𝑐 also damps
out high frequency oscilation that may arise due to series combination of ,C and series
inductor . 𝑅𝑐 & C are called dynamic equalizing circuit

Diode D is used during forward biased condition for more effective charging of the capacitor.
During capacitor discharge 𝑅𝑐 comes into action for limiting current spike and rate of change
of current di/dt .

The R, 𝑅𝑐 & C component also provide path to flow reverse recovery current. When one SCR
regain its voltage blocking capability. The flow of reverse recovery current is necessary as it
facilitates the turning OFF process of series connected SCR string. So C is necessary for both
during turn ON and turn OFF process. But the voltage unbalance during turn OFF time is
more predominant then turn ON time. So choice of C is based on reverse recovery
characteristic of SCR .
 SCR 1 has short recovery time as compared to SCR 2. Δ𝑄 is the difference in reverse
recovery charges of two SCR 1 and SCR 2. Now we assume the SCR 1 recovers fast . i.e it
goes into blocking state so charge Δ𝑄 can pass through C . The voltage induced by 𝑐1 is
𝛥𝑄/C , where is no voltage induced across 𝐶2 .

The difference in voltage to which the two shunt capacitor are charged is 𝛥𝑄/C .

Now thyristor with least recovery time will share the highest transient
voltage say 𝑉𝑏𝑚,

So, 𝑉𝑏𝑚 - 𝑉2 = Δ𝑄/C

So, 𝑉2= 𝑉𝑏𝑚 - Δ𝑄/C

As 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑏𝑚

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉1+𝑉2

= 𝑉𝑏𝑚+(𝑉𝑏𝑚 - Δ𝑄/C)

𝑉𝑆 = 2𝑉𝑏𝑚-Δ𝑄/C
⇒ 1 (𝑉 + Δ 𝑄) = 𝑉
2 𝑠 𝐶 𝑏𝑚

⇒ 2= 𝑉𝑏𝑚 - Δ𝑄/C

1[𝑉𝑠 - Δ𝑄/C]
2

Now suppose that there are n series SCRs in a string.

 Let us assume that if top SCR has similar to characteristic SCR 1. Then SCR 1 would
support a voltage 𝑉𝑏𝑚

* If the remaining (n-1) SCR has characteristic that of SCR 2 .Then SCR 1
would recover first and support a voltage 𝑉𝑏𝑚 . The charge (n-1) Δ𝑄 from the remaining (n -
1) SCR would pass through C.

𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑏𝑚

𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑏𝑚 - Δ𝑄/C

Voltage across (n-1) slow thyristors

𝑉 = (n-1) (𝑉𝑏𝑚 - Δ𝑄/C)

So, 𝑉𝑆 = V1+(n-1) 𝑉2

= 𝑉𝑏𝑚 + (n-1) (𝑉𝑏𝑚 - Δ𝑄/C)

By simplifing we get ,

𝑉𝑏𝑚 = 1 [𝑉𝑠+(n-1) Δ𝑄/C ]

𝑛

C =[ (n-1) Δ𝑄/( n𝑉𝑏𝑚 -𝑉𝑆)

𝑉2 = (𝑉𝑆 - Δ𝑄/C )/ n .

Parallel operation:

When current required by the load is more than the rated current of single thyristor ,
SCRs are connected in parallel in a string .
For equal sharing of current, SCRs must have same 𝑉 − 𝐼characteristics during forward
conduction. 𝑉𝑇 across them must be same. For same , SCR 1 share 𝐼1and SCR 2 share I2 .

If 𝐼1 is the rated current

𝐼2 < 𝐼1

The total current 𝐼1+𝐼2 and not rated current 2𝐼1.Type equation here.

Thus string efficiency ,

𝐼1+𝐼𝐼2 1
= (1 + 𝐼𝐼2 )
2𝐼1 2 𝐼1

Middle conductor will have more inductance as compared to other two nearby conductor. As
a result less current flow through the middle conductor. Another method is by magnetic
coupling.

Thyristor gate characteristics:-

𝑉𝑔 = +ve gate to cathode voltage.

𝐼𝑔= +ve gate to cathode current.

As the gate cathode characteristic of a thyrister is a p-n junction, gate characteristic of the
device is similar to diode.

Curve 1 the lowest voltage value s that must be applied to turn on the
SCR.
Curve 2 highest possible voltage values that can be safely applied to get circuit.

𝑉gm= Maximum limit for gate voltage .

𝐼gm= Maximum imilt for gate current.

𝑃gav = Rated gate power dissipation for each SCR.

These limits should not be crossed in order to avoid the permanent damage of the
device junction 𝐽3.

OY = Minimum limit of gate voltage to turn ON .

OX = minimum limit of gate current to turn ON.

If 𝑉gm, 𝐼gm, 𝑃gav are exceeded the thyristor will damage so the preferred gate drive area
of SCR is bcdefghb.

oa = The non triggering gate voltage , If firing circuit generates +ve gate
signal prior to the desired instant of triggering the SCR.It should be ensured that this un
wanted signal should be less than the non –triggering voltage oa.

𝐸𝑆 = 𝑉𝑔 + 𝐼𝑔𝑅𝑆

𝐸𝑆 =Gate source voltage

𝑉𝑔 = Gate cathode voltage

𝐼𝑔 = Gate current

𝑅𝑆 = Gate source resistance

𝑅𝑆 = The internal resistance of the trigger source

𝑅1 is connected across the gate cathode terminal, which provides an easy path to the flow of
leakage current between SCR terminal. If 𝐼 , 𝑉gmn are the minimum gate current and gate
voltage to turn ON the SCR.

𝐸𝑆 = (𝐼𝑔𝑚𝑛+ 𝑉gmn/ 𝑅1) 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑉𝑔𝑚𝑛

 MODULE-2
UNDERSTAND THE WORKING OF CONVERTERS, AC REGULATORS AND
CHOPPERS
CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Rectifier are used to convert A.C to D.C supply. Rectifiers can be classified as
single phase rectifier and three phase rectifier. Single phase rectifier are
classified as 1-Փhalf wave and 1-Փfull wave rectifier. Three phase rectifier are
classified as 3-Փhalf wave rectifier and 3-Փfull wave rectifier. 1-ՓFull wave
rectifier are classified as1-Փmid point type and 1-Փbridge type rectifier. 1-Փ
bridge type rectifier are classified as 1-Փhalf controlled and 1-Փfull controlled
rectifier. 3-Փfull wave rectifier are again classified as 3-Փmid point type and 3-
Փbridge type rectifier. 3-Փbridge type rectifier are again divided as 3-Փhalf
controlled rectifier and 3-Փfull controlled rectifier

Single phase half wave circuit with R load:

Single phase half wave circuit with R-L load
2,3 Understand need of freewheeling diode
Single phase Fully Controlled Converter
Three phase half wave Controlled Converter with resistive load

For a 3 - phase half-wave controlled rectifier shown in Fig. A, the input phase
voltages Va, Vb, Vc have same amplitude and frequency with 120◦ phase shift
as shown in Fig.2.
This converter is called 3-phase 3-pulse converter or 3-phase M-3
converter.
With reference to the above circuit diagram and waveforms, if firing angle is
zero-degree, SCR T1 would begin conducting from ωt= 300 to 1500, T2 from
ωt= 1500 to 2700 and T3 from ωt= 2700 to 3900 and so on. In other words,
firing angle for this controlled converter would be measured from ωt= 300
for T1, from ωt= 1500 for T2 and from ωt= 2700 for T3. For zero degree firing
angle delay thyristor behaves as a diode. The operation of this converter is
now described for α<300 and for α>300.
Firing angle <300,
The output voltage waveform for firing angle less than 300 (say around 300 )
is sketched, where T1 conducts from ωt= 300 + α to ωt= 1500 + α, T2 conducts
from ωt= 1500 + α to ωt= 2700 + α, T3 conducts from ωt= 2700 + α to ωt= 3900
+ α and so on. Each SCR conducts for 120 degrees. The waveform of load
current would be identical with voltage waveform.
Average value of output voltage
3√3
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑚𝑝 cos 𝛼
2𝜋
3
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑚𝑙 cos 𝛼
2𝜋
Where 𝑉𝑚𝑝= maximum value of phase voltage

𝑉𝑚𝑙= maximum value of line voltage= √3 𝑉𝑚𝑝

𝛼= firing angle
𝑉0 3
𝐼 = = 𝑉 cos 𝛼
0 𝑅 2𝜋𝑅 𝑚𝑙
Firing angle > 300,
When firing angle is more than 300, T1 conducts from ωt= 300 + α to ωt=
1800, T2 conducts from ωt= 1500 + α to ωt= 3000, T3 conducts from ωt=
2700 + α to ωt= 4200 and so on. For R load when phase voltage V0 reaches
zero at ωt= 1800, current i0 = 0, T1 is therefore turned off. Thus, T1 would
conduct from ωt= 300 + α to ωt= 1800. Same is true for other SCRs. This
shows that each SCR for Firing angle > 300 conducts for (1500- α) only. This
also implies that for R load maximum possible value of firing angle is 1500.
The waveform of load current would be identical with voltage waveform.
Average value of output voltage
3
𝑉0 = 𝑉 [1 + cos(𝛼 + 300)]
2𝜋 𝑚𝑝
Where 𝑉𝑚𝑝= maximum value of phase voltage
 𝛼= firing angle

Three phase fully Controlled Converter with resistive load

 (3-phase 6-pulse)

The three-phase bridge rectifier circuit has three-legs, each phase connected to
one of the three phase voltages. Alternatively, it can be seen that the bridge
circuit has two halves, the positive half consisting of the SCRs S1, S3 and S5 and
the negative half consisting of the SCRs S2, S4 and S6. At any time when there is
current flow, one SCR from each half conducts. If the phase sequence of the
source be RYB, the SCRs are triggered in the sequence S1, S2 , S3 , S4, S5 , S6 and
S1 and so on.
The operation of the circuit is first explained with the assumption that diodes
are used in place of the SCRs. The three-phase voltages vary as shown below.

Let the three-phase voltages be defined as shown below.

It can be seen that the R-phase voltage is the highest of the three-phase voltages
when q is in the range from 30o to 150o. It can also be seen that Y-phase voltage
is the highest of the three-phase voltages when q is in the range from 150o to
270o and that B-phase voltage is the highest of the three-phase voltages
when q is in the range from 270o to 390o or 30o in the next cycle. We also find
that R-phase voltage is the lowest of the three-phase voltages when q is in the
range from 210o to 330o. It can also be seen that Y-phase voltage is the lowest
of the three-phase voltages when q is in the range from 330o to 450o or 90o in
the next cycle, and that B-phase voltage is the lowest when q is in the range from
90o to 210o. If diodes are used, diode D1 in place of S1 would conduct from 30o to
150o, diode D3 would conduct from 150o to 270o and diode D5 from 270o to
390o or 30o in the next cycle. In the same way, diode D4 would conduct from
210o to 330o, diode D6 from 330o to 450o or 90o in the next cycle, and diode
D2 would conduct from 90o to 210o. The positive rail of output voltage of the
bridge is connected to the topmost segments of the envelope of three-phase
voltages and the negative rail of the output voltage to the lowest segments of
the envelope.
Period, range of q SCR Pair in conduction
30o to 90o S1 and S6
90o to 150o S1 and S2
150o to 210o S2 and S3
210o to 270o S3 and S4
270o to 330o S4 and S5
330o to 360o and 0o to 30o S5 and S6

If SCRs are used, their conduction can be delayed by choosing the desired firing
angle. When the SCRs are fired at 0o firing angle, the output of the bridge
rectifier would be the same as that of the circuit with diodes. For instance, it is
seen that D1 starts conducting only after q = 30o. In fact, it can start
conducting only after q = 30o, since it is reverse-biased before q = 30o. The bias
across D1 becomes zero when q = 30o and diode D1 starts getting forward-biased
only after q =30o. When vR(q) = E*Sin (q), diode D1 is reverse-biased before q =
30o and it is forward-biased
when q > 30o. When firing angle to SCRs is zero degree, S1 is triggered when q =
30o. This means that if a synchronizing signal is needed for triggering S1, that
signal voltage would lag vR(q) by 30o and if the firing angle is a, SCR S1 is
triggered when q = a + 30o. Given that the conduction is continuous, the
following table presents the SCR pair in conduction at any instant.

Period, range of q SCR Pair in conduction

a + 30o to a + 90o S1 and S6
a + 90o to a + 150o S1 and S2
a + 150o to a + 210o S2 and S3
a + 210o to a + 270o S3 and S4
a + 270o to a + 330o S4 and S5
a + 330o to a + 360o and S5 and S6
a+0o to a + 30o

SINGLE PHASE AC REGULATOR OR CONTROLLER – PHASE ANGLE

CONTROL
Thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased during positive and negative half- cycle,
respectively. During positive half-cycle, T1 is triggered at a firing
angle α. T1 starts conducting and source voltage is applied to load from α to π .
At π, both e0, i0 fall to zero. Just after π, T1 is subjected to reverse bias and it is,
therefore, turned-off. During negative half-cycle, T2 is triggered at (π+α).
T2 conducts from (π+α) to 2π . Soon after 2π, T2 is subjected to a reverse bias
and it is, therefore, commutated. Load and source currents have the same
waveform.
From zero to α, T1 is forward biased, therefore VT1=es as shown in Fig.1.b.
From α to π, T1 conducts, VT1 is therefore about 1 V. After π, T1 is reverse
biased by source voltage, therefore, VT1=es from π to (π+α) . The voltage
variation VT1 across T1 is shown in Fig.1.b. Similarly, the variation of
voltage VT2 across thyristor T2 can be drawn. In Fig.1.b, voltage drop across
thyristors T1 and T2 is purposely shown just to highlight the duration of reverse
bias across T1 and T2. Examination of this figure reveals that for any value
of α, each thyristor is reverse biased for π/ω seconds.
SINGLE PHASE AC REGULATOR OR CONTROLLER – INTEGRAL CYCLE CONTROL
STEP UP & STEP-DOWN CHOPPER
STEP DOWN CHOPPER
A chopper is a static device that converts fixed DC input voltage to variable
output voltage directly. Chopper are mostly used in electric vehicle, mini
haulers. Chopper are used for speed control and braking. The systems
employing chopper offer smooth control, high efficiency and have fast
response.
2.8.2 STEP UP CHOPPER

Working of Step up Chopper

Step up Chopper
The step up chopper is one in which output DC voltage is greater than the
input DC voltage.
The basic diagram for the step up chopper is shown in the figure A.
When the chopper is switched ON during TON time, the energy stored in the
inductor via path Vdc – L – CH – Vdc.
The direction of current passing through inductor is shown in the figure B
when the chopper CH is switched on.
When chopper is switched OFF during TOFF time, the current passing through
inductor is zero and voltage across inductor is L ( di/dt ).
The stored energy of inductor is transferred to the load.
The circuit diagram of step up chopper during chopper OFF time is shown in
the figure C.
The load / output voltage is equal to
VO = Vdc + VL
= Vdc + L (di/dt)
When chopper is switch ON, the energy stored in the inductor is
Wi = Vdc I TON................................... (1)
When chopper is switched OFF, the energy stored in the inductor is transferred
to the load.
Wo = ( Vo – Vdc )I TOFF..............(2)
If there are no losses in the system, the input energy is equal to output energy
Vdc I TON = ( Vo – Vdc )I TOFF
Vdc TON = Vo TOFF – Vdc TOFF
Vdc ( TON + TOFF ) = Vo TOFF
Vo = [ ( TON + TOFF ) / TOFF ] Vdc
Vo = [ T / TOFF ] Vdc
OR
Vo = [ T / ( T –TON ) ] Vdc
Vo = [ 1 / ( 1 – TON / T ) ] Vdc
Vo = [ 1 / ( 1 – K ) ] Vdc
When K = 0 ( chopper is in OFF condition ) Vo = Vdc
When K = 1 ( chopper is in OFF condition ) Vo = ∞
When the duty cycle lies is in the range of 0 < K < 1, the output voltage lies is in
the range of Vdc < Vo < ∞.

Application of DC Step up Chopper

The application of step up chopper is in the regenerative braking of DC Motor.
The output voltage is greater than the input voltage therefore the DC
Motor works as DC generator and load current flows from load to supply side.

CONTROL MODES OF CHOPPER

Constant frequency operation:
1) The chopping period T is kept constant and on time is varied.
The pulse width modulation ,the width of the pulse is varied.
2) Variable frequency operation, the chopping frequency f is varied.
Frequency modulation, either on time or off time is kept constant.
This type of control generate harmonics at unpredictable frequency and filter
design is often
difficult.
TYPES OF CHOPPER:
FIRST QUADRANT OR TYPE A CHOPPER:

When switch ON
V0=Vs
Current i₀ flows in the same direction when switch off.
V₀=0, i₀=0
So, average value of both the load and the current are positive.
SECOND QUADRANT OR TYPE B CHOPPER:

When switch is closed the load voltage E drives current through L and switch.
During Ton, L stores energy.
When switch off V0 exceeds source voltage Vs.
V0= E+ L di/dt
Diode D₂ is forward biased. power is fed back to supply. As V₀ is more than
source voltage. So such chopper is called step up chopper.
So current is always negative and V₀ is always positive.
TWO QUADRANT TYPE A CHOPPER OR, TYPE C CHOPPER:

Both the switches never switch ON simultaneously as it lead direct short circuit
of the supply.
Now when sw2 is closed or FD is on the output voltage V₀ is zero.
When sw1 is ON or diode D conducts output voltage is V₀ is +Vs’

CURRENT ANANLYSIS:
When CH1 is ON current flows along i0. When CH1 is off current continues to
flow along i0 as FD is forward biased. So i0 is positive.
Now when CH2 is ON current direction will be opposite to i0. When sw2 is off
D2 turns ON. Load current is –i0. So average load voltage is always positive.
Average load current may be positive or negative.
TWO QUADRANT TYPE B CHOPPER, OR TYPE D CHOPPER:

When CH1 and CH2 both are on then V0=Vs.

When CH1 and CH2 are off and D1 and D2 are on V 0=-Vs.
The direction of current is always positive because chopper and diode can only
conduct in the direction of arrow shown in fig. Average voltage is positive
when Ton>Toff
FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER, OR TYPE E CHOPPER

FIRST QUADRANT:
CH4 is kept ON
CH3 is off
CH1 is operated
V0=Vs
i0 = positive
when CH1 is off positive current free wheels through CH4,D2
so V0 and I2 is in first quadrant.

SECOND QUADRANT:
CH1, CH3, CH4 are off.
CH2 is operated.
Reverse current flows and I is negative through L CH2 D4 and E.
When CH2 off D1 and D4 is ON and current id fed back to source. So
𝑑𝑖
𝐸 + 𝐿 is more than source voltage Vs.
𝑑𝑡
As i0 is negative and V0 is positive, so second quadrant operation.

THIRD QUADRANT:
CH1 OFF, CH2 ON
CH3 operated. So, both V0 and i0 is negative.
When CH3 turned off negative current freewheels through CH2 and D4.

FOURTH QUADRANT:
CH4 is operated other are off.
Positive current flows through CH4 E L D2.
Inductance L stores energy when current fed to source through D3 and D2.V0
is negative.
 MODULE-3
INVERTERS
The device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and
frequency is called an inverter.
Single phase voltage source inverters:
The inverter is a power electronic converter that converts direct power to
alternating power. By using this inverter device, we can convert fixed dc into
variable ac power which as a variable frequency and voltage. Secondly from
this inverter, we can vary the frequency i.e we will be able to generate the
40HZ, 50HZ, 60HZ frequencies as of our requirement. If the dc input is a
voltage source then the inverter is known as VSI (Voltage Source Inverter). The
inverters need four switching devices whereas half-bridge inverter needs two
switching devices. The bridge inverters are of two types they are half-
bridge inverter and full-bridge inverter. This article discusses the half-bridge
inverter.
The inverter is a device that converts a dc voltage into ac voltage and it consists
of four switches whereas half-bridge inverter requires two diodes and two
switches which are connected in anti-parallel. The two switches are
complementary switches which means when the first switch is ON the second
switch will be OFF Similarly, when the second switch is ON the first switch
will be OFF.
Where RL is the resistive load, Vs/2 is the voltage source, S1 and S2 are the two
switches, i0 is the current. Where each switch is connected to diodes D1 and
D2 parallelly. In the above figure, the switches S 1 and S2 are the self-commutating
switches. The switch S1 will conduct when the voltage is positive and current is
negative, switch S2 will conduct when the voltage is negative, and the current is
negative. The diode D1 will conduct when the voltage is positive and current is
negative, diode D2 will conduct when the voltage is negative, and the current is
positive.
Case 1 (when switch S1 is ON and S2 is OFF): When switch S1 is ON from a time
period of 0 to T/2, the diode D1 and D2 are in reverse bias condition and S2 switch
is OFF.
Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law)

Vs/2-V0=0

Where output voltage V0= Vs/2

Where output current i0 = V0/R= Vs/2R
In case of supply current or switch current, the current iS1 = i0 = Vs/2R, iS2 = 0
and the diode current iD1 = iD2 = 0.
Case 2 (when switch S2 is ON and S1 is OFF): When switch S2 is ON from a time
period of T/2 to T, the diode D1 and D2 are in reverse bias condition and S1 switch
is OFF.
Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law)

Vs/2+V0=0
Where output voltage V0= -Vs/2
Where output current i0 = V0/R= -Vs/2R
In case of supply current or switch current, the current iS1 = 0, iS2 = i0 = -Vs/2R
and the diode current iD1 = iD2 = 0.
The single-phase half-bridge inverter output voltage waveform is shown in the
below figure.
Single phase full bridge inverter:
The power circuit of a single-phase full bridge inverter comprises of four
thyristors T1 to T4, four diodes D1 to D1 and a two wire DC input power
source Vs. Each diode is connected in antiparallel to the thyristors viz. D1 is
connected in anti-parallel to T1 and so on. The power circuit diagram of a
single-phase full bridge inverter is shown in the figure below.
The working principle of single-phase full bridge inverter is based on the
sequential triggering of thyristors placed diagonally opposite. This means, for
half of time period, thyristors T3 & T4 will be triggered while for the remaining
half of time period, T1 & T2 will be triggered. Only two thyristors are turned
ON in half of the time period.
Carefully observe the waveform of the gating signal. You will notice that
thyristors T1 & T2 are triggered simultaneously for a time T/2. Therefore, load
is connected to source through T1 & T2 and hence, the load voltage is equal to
the source voltage with positive polarity. This is the reason; the load voltage is
shown positive & equal to Vs in the output voltage waveform.
As soon as the gate signal (ig1 & ig2) are removed, T1 and T2 gest turned OFF.
However, at the same instant gate signal (ig3 & ig4) are applied and hence, T3 &
T4 are turned ON. When T3 & T4 are conducting, load gets connected to the
source. The load voltage magnitude is again Vs but with reverse polarity. This is
the reason; the output voltage is shown negative in the voltage waveform.

To summarize,
For the time 0<t≤(T/2), thyristors T1 & T2 conducts and load voltage Vo = Vs.
For the time (T/2)<t≤T, thyristors T3 & T4 conducts and load voltage Vo = -Vs.

Purpose of Diodes D1 to D4:

If the load is purely resistive, there is no need to put diode D1 to D4 as the
output voltage and current are always in phase. But unfortunately, for loads
other than purely resistive, the load current (io) will not be in phase with the
load voltage (vo). For such case, the diode connected in anti-parallel with the
thyristor will allow the current to flow when main thyristor is turned off. When
these diode conducts, the energy is fed back to the DC source and hence, these
diodes (D1 to D4) are called flyback diode.
Comparison between Half & Full Bridge Inverters:
The major difference between the single phase half and full bridge inverter is
that former requires a three wire DC input source while the latter requires two
wire DC source. Another difference between the two type of inverters are
tabulated below:

SERIES INVERTER: IT’S WORKING, OPERATION AND

WAVEFORM

Inverter is an electronic circuit which converts DC power into AC power. The

inverter circuit in which the commutating elements L and C are connected in
series with the load to form an under damped circuit is called a series inverter.
This circuit is also called load commutated or self-commutated inverter.
Operation of Series inverter

The whole operation is divided into three modes:

Mode-I (T1 on and T2 off): In this mode we give firing pulse to thyristor T1 so,
T1 get turned on and T2 thyristor is turned off initially. So, current flow from
supply Vs….T1……load……back to Vs.

The nature of the load current is alternating due to under damped circuit. So,
this time capacitor (C) starts charging gradually from -Vs to its max voltage.
This time inductor (L) also get charge. When the load current becomes
maximum the voltage across capacitor becomes + Vs. When the load current
becomes zero at point the voltage across capacitor becomes +2Vs. Then the
load current becomes zero the thyristor T1 automatically turns off at point a.

Mode- II (T1 and T2 both off): This time thyristor T1 turns off because the load
current becomes zero from point a to b. In this time duration the thyristor T1
and T2 are turned off and voltage across capacitor becomes equal to +2 Vs.

Mode III (T1 off and T2 on): In this mode we give firing pulse to thyristor T2.
So, T2 get turned on. In this time capacitor start discharging its energy from
+2Vs to – Vs through thyristor T2 and R – L circuit. Due to capacitor
discharging reverse current flow across the load. Now at point C thyristor T2
turns off automatically due to load current becomes zero. The thyristor T2 turns
off during point C to D and thyristor T1 again turns on. In this way cycle repeat.

Now, we see in the waveform the time duration ab and cd is called as dead
zone.
Application of Series Inverter

Series Inverter is basically used in high frequency applications (200 Hz to 100

KHz) because it generates high frequency sinusoidal waveform.

This circuit is called load commutated inverter because the load component (L
and C) is responsible to turned off the thyristor. It is called self-commutated
inverter because in this circuit anode current itself become zero resulting the
thyristor turned off.

The Circuit Diagram of Series Inverter is shown in the figure. It consists of two
thyristors (TI and T2). The thyristor T1 and T2 are turn on appropriately to get
the output voltage of desired frequency. This circuit consist of L and C
connected in series with load (R).
 Initially we considered that thyristor T2 is turned off and the polarity across
capacitor is shown in figure.

PARALLEL INVERTER: IT’S BASICS, OPERATION AND

WAVEFORM

Parallel inverter is an electronic circuit which converts DC power into AC

power. The inverter circuit in which the commutating component C (capacitor)
is connected in parallel with the load via transformer called a parallel inverter.
This circuit is also called Push-pull inverter.

Parallel Inverter working is similar to the class B commutation. Parallel inverter

has important role in Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS).

Parallel inverter circuit consist of two thyristor T1 and T2, a transformer,

inductor L and a commutating component C. Capacitor (C) is connected in
parallel with the load via transformer therefore it is called a parallel inverter.
And inductor (L) is connected in series with supply to make the source current
constant. Here we also use a center -tapped transformer. Centre tapping is done
in the primary winding of transformer so, primary winding is divided into two
equal halves ao and ob
Operation of Parallel Inverter:

The operation is divided into four modes:

Mode I (0< t < t1): In this mode we give firing pulse to thyristor T1 and T1 get
turned on and T2 is turned off. Current flow from Supply Vs …. T1…. ao
(upper half of primary winding) …. back to Vs. As a result, Vs voltage is
induced across upper as well as lower half of the primary winding of
transformer. And Vs voltage is induced in secondary winding.

So, output voltage across load is Vs.

So, the total voltage across primary winding is 2Vs. Here capacitor is connected
in parallel with primary winding therefore capacitor charge with 2Vs voltage
with upper plate is positive and lower plate is negative.

Mode II (t1< t < t3): In this duration we give firing pulse to thyristor T2 and T2
get turned on. At this time capacitor start discharging through T1 therefore T1
turned OFF. This time current flow from supply Vs …. T2…. bo (lower half of
primary winding) …. back to Vs.
Now this time capacitor charged with upper plate is negative, from +2Vs at t=t1
to -2Vs at t=t2. Load voltage also changes from Vs at t=t1 to -Vs at t=t2. After
t=t2 voltage across capacitor is maintain constant -2Vs between t= t2 to t3.

So, load voltage is also constant -Vs.

Mode III (t3< t < t4): In this mode again, we give firing pulse to thyristor T1
and T1 get turned on. At this time capacitor start discharging through T2
therefore T2 turned OFF. This time current flow from supply Vs …. T1…. ao
(upper half of primary winding) …. back to Vs. So, the total voltage across
primary winding is 2Vs.

Now this time capacitor charged with upper plate is positive, from -2Vs at t=t3
to +2Vs at t=t4. Load voltage also changes from Vs at t=t3 to -Vs at t=t4.

So, output voltage across load is Vs.

Now draw the waveform

Waveform of parallel Inverter 1) Ig1 is the gate current given to T1 2) Ig2 is the
gate current given to T2. 3) Vc capacitor voltage 4) Ic current across capacitor
5) Vo output voltage waveform
CYCLOCONVERTER
A cycloconverter (also known as a cycloconverter or CCV) converts a constant
voltage, constant frequency AC waveform to another AC waveform of a
different frequency. A cycloconverter achieves this through synthesizing the
output waveform from segments of the AC supply (without an intermediate DC
link).
The main forms of electrical energy commonly available are constant DC
(Direct Current) and constant AC (Alternating Current). Often though, we need
to swap between AC and DC, change the frequency, or swap from constant to
variable power. For these conversion purposes, several converters like inverters,
rectifiers, DC choppers and cycloconverters are employed. The cycloconverters
can in fact transfer AC power of a fixed frequency to the AC power of a
different frequency (see figure 1).

STEP UP CYCLOCONVERTER
Step-up cycloconverter is a single phase to single phase device which converts
input AC power at one frequency to output power at a different frequency. The
output frequency is more than the input frequency for this cycloconverter.
Single phase to single phase means that both the input power and output power
are single phase. This article presents the working principle of Step-up
Cycloconverter with relevant circuit diagram and waveforms.
Working Principle of Step-up Cycloconverter:
The working principle of a step-up cycloconverter is based on switching
of thyristors in a proper sequence. The thyristor acts as a power switch. These
switches are arranged is a specific patter so that the output power is available
for both the positive and negative half of the input power
supply. Forced commutation technique is used to turn OFF the conducting
thyristor.
Two circuit configurations are possible for step-up cycloconverter: Mid-point
Type and Bridge Type. In this article, we will consider mid-point type of circuit
arrangement for better understanding of working principle.
Circuit Diagram:
Figure below shows the circuit diagram of Mid-point step-up cycloconverter:

The circuit consists of a single phase transformer with mid tap on the secondary
winding and four thyristors. Two of these thyristors P1 & P2 are for positive
group. Here positive group means when either P1 or P2 conducts, the load
voltage is positive. Other two thyristors N1 & N2 are for negative
group. Load is connected between secondary winding mid-point O and terminal
A. The load is assumed resistive for simplicity. Assumed positive direction for
voltage and current are marked in the circuit diagram.
Operation of Step-up Cycloconverter:
During the positive half cycle of input supply voltage, positive group thyristors
P1 & N2 are forward biased for ωt = 0 to ωt = π. As such SCR P1 is fired to
turn it ON at ωt = 0 such that load voltage is positive with terminal A positive
and O negative. The load voltage, thus, follows the positive envelop of the input
supply voltage. At some time instant ωt = ωt1, the conducting thyristor P1 is
force commutated and the forward biased thyristor N2 is fired to turn it ON.
During the period N2 conducts, the load voltage is negative because O is
positive & A is negative this time. The load or output voltage traces the
negative envelop of the supply voltage. This is shown in figure below.

At ωt = ωt2, N2 is force commutated and P1 is turned ON. The load voltage is

now positive and follows the positive envelop of the supply voltage. At ωt = π,
terminal “b” is positive with respect to terminal “a”; both SCRs P2 & N1 are
therefore forward biased from ωt = π to ωt = 2π. AT ωt = π, N2 is force
commuated and forward biased SCR P2 is turned ON. The load voltage is
positive and follows the positive envelop of supply voltage.
If the supply frequency is fs and output frequency is fo, P2 will be force
commutated at ωt = (1/2fs) + (1/2fo). Carefully note this from the waveform
shown in the figure-2.
When P2 is force commutated, forward biased SCR N1 is turned ON. This time,
the load voltage is negative and follows the negative envelop of the supply
input.
In this manner, SCRs P1, N2 for the first half cycle; P2, N1 in the second half
cycle and so on are switched alternately between positive and negative envelops
at a high frequency. This results in output frequency fo more than the input
supply frequency fs. In our example of figure-2, note that there is a total of 6
cycles of output in one cycle of input supply. This means that frequency of
output voltage is 6 times of input frequency i.e. fo = 6fs.
STEP DOWN CYCLOCONVERTER
Step-down cycloconverter is a device which steps down the fixed frequency
power supply input into some lower frequency. It is a frequency changer. If fs &
fo are the supply and output frequency, then fo < fs for this cycloconverter.
The most important feature of step-down cycloconverter is that it does not
require force commutation. Line or Natural Commutation is used which is
provided by the input AC supply.
Circuit Diagram:
There are two circuit configurations of a step-down cycloconveter: Mid-point
and Bridge type. This article, focuses on the mid-point type. The operation for
continuous and discontinuous type of RL load is explained for mid-point
type cycloconverter.
Figure below shows the circuit diagram of mid-point type cycloconverter. The
positive direction of voltage and current are marked in the diagram.
The working principle of step-down cycloconverter is explained for
discontinuous and continuous load current. The load is assumed to be comprised
of resistance (R) & inductance (L).
Discontinuous Load Current:
For positive cycle of input AC supply, the terminal A is positive with respect to
point O. This makes SCRs P1 forward biased. The forward biased SCR P1 is
triggered at ωt = 0. With this, load current io starts building up in the positive
direction from A to O. Load current io becomes zero at ωt = β>π but less than
(π+α). Refer figure-2. The thyristor P1 is thus, naturally commutated at ωt = β
which is already reversed biased after π.

After half a cycle, b is positive with respect to O. Now forward biased thyristor
P2 is fired at ωt = (π+α). Load current is again positive from A to O and builds
up from zero as shown in figure-2. At ωt = (π+ β), io decays to zero and P2 is
naturally commutated. At ωt = (2π+α), P is again turned ON. Load current in
figure-2 is seen to be discontinuous.
After four positive half cycles of load voltage and load current, thyristor N2 is
gated at (4π+α) when O is positive with respect to b. As N2 is forward biased, it
starts conducting but the direction of load current is reverse this time i.e. it
flows from O to A. After N2 is triggered, O is positive with respect to “a” but
before N1 is fired, io decays to zero and N2 is naturally commutated. Now when
N1 is gated at (5π+α), io again builds up but it decays to zero before thyristor N2
in sequence is again gated.
In this manner, four negative half cycles of load voltage and load current, equal
to number of positive half cycles of load voltage & current, are generated. Now
P1 is again triggered to fabricate four positive half cycles of load voltage and so
on. It may be noted that, natural commutation is achieved for discontinuous
current load.
Form figure-2, the waveform of mean load voltage & current may be noted. It is
clear that the output frequency of load voltage & current is (¼) times of input
supply frequency.

Continuous Load Current:

When “a” is positive with respect to O in figure-1, P1 is triggered at ωt = α,
positive output voltage appears across load and load current starts building up as
shown in figure-3. At ωt = π, supply and load voltages are zero. After ωt = π, P1
is reversed biased. As load current is continuous, P1 is not turned OFF at ωt = π.
When P2 is triggered in sequence at (π+α), a reverse voltage appears across P1,
it is therefore turned OFF by natural commutation.

When P1 is commutated, load current has builds up to a value equal to RR. With
the tun ON of P2 at (π+α), output voltage is again positive. As a consequence,
load current builds up further than RR as shown in figure-3. At (2π+α), when P1
is again turned ON, P2 is naturally commutated and load current through P1
builds up beyond RS.
At the end of four positive half cycles of output voltage, load current is RU. When
N2 is triggered after P2, load is subjected to negative voltage cycle and load
current io decreases from RU to negative AB. Now N2 is commutated and N1 is
gated at (5π+α). Load current io becomes more negative than AB at (6π+α), this
is because with N1 ON, load voltage is negative. For four negative half cycles of
output voltage, current io is shown in figure-3. Load current waveform is redrawn
in the last waveform of figure-3.
It may be seen from the waveform of load current that it is symmetric with respect
to wt axis. The mean waveform of load voltage is also shown in load voltage
waveform. It is clear from the load current and mean load voltage waveform that
the output frequency is one fourth of the input supply frequency i.e. fo = (¼)fs.
 MODULE-4
Application of Power Electronics
Below is an attempt to briefly present the diaspora of power electronics.
application of power electronics

Our Daily Life: If we look around ourselves, we can find a whole lot of power
electronics applications such as a fan regulator, light dimmer, air-conditioning,
induction cooking, emergency lights, personal computers, vacuum cleaners,
UPS (uninterrupted power system), battery charges, etc.
Automotive and Traction: Subways, hybrid electric vehicles, trolley, fork-lifts,
and many more. A modern car itself has so many components where power
electronic is used such as ignition switch, windshield wiper control, adaptive
front lighting, interior lighting, electric power steering and so on. Besides power
electronics are extensively used in modern traction systems and ships.
Industries: Almost all the motors employed in the industries are controlled by
power electronic drives, for eg. Rolling mills, textile mills, cement mills,
compressors, pumps, fans, blowers, elevators, rotary kilns etc. Other
applications include welding, arc furnace, cranes, heating applications,
emergency power systems, construction machinery, excavators etc.
Défense and Aerospace: Power supplies in aircraft, satellites, space shuttles,
advance control in missiles, unmanned vehicles and other defense equipments.
Renewable Energy: Generation systems such as solar, wind etc. needs power
conditioning systems, storage systems and conversion systems in order to
become usable. For example solar cells generate DC power and for general
application we need AC power and hence power electronic converter is used.
Utility System: HVDC transmission, VAR compensation (SVC), static circuit
breakers, generator excitation systems, FACTS, smart grids, etc.

Factors Affecting the Speed of D.C. Motor

According to the speed equation of a d.c. motor we can write,

The factors Z, P, A are constants for a d.c. motor.

But as the value of armature resistance Ra and series field resistance Rse is very
small, the drop Ia Raand (Ra + Rse) is very small compared to applied voltage V.
Hence neglecting these voltage drops the speed equation can be modified as,

Thus, the factors affecting the speed of a d.c. motor are,

1. The flux Φ
2. The voltage across the armature
3. The applied voltage V
depending upon these factors the various methods of speed control are,
1. Changing the flux Φ by controlling the current through the field winding
called flux control methods.
2. Changing the armature path resistance which in turn changes the voltage
applied across the armature called rheostatic control.
3. Changing the applied voltage called voltage control method.
DC Motor speed Control through Converters:

DC motor control is conveniently and efficiently achieved by phase-controlled

converters wherein the ac input voltage is converted to a controlled dc output.
The commutation process, the transfer of current from one thyristor to the other,
in these converters is the inexpensive natural or line commutation. As, an
incoming thyristor is turned-on, it reverse-biases the outgoing thyristor, turning
it off. No additional commutation circuitry is therefore required. The power
conversion efficiency in these converters is above 95% because of relatively low
losses in thyristors. These converters are used in the speed control of fractional-
kW dc motors as well as in large motors employed in variable-speed reversing
drives for rolling mills with motor ratings as large as several MWs.

In certain types of converters (semi-converters) a diode known as a, free-

wheeling diode is connected across motor terminals to allow for dissipation of
energy stored in motor inductance and to provide for continuity of motor current
when the thyristors are blocked. It also provides protection against transient
overvoltage.

Single Phase Half Wave Converter:

Figure 11.14 shows a single-phase half-wave converter for controlling a

separately excited DC Motor. It requires a single thyristor and a free-wheeling
diode. In this circuit the motor current is always discontinuous, resulting in poor
motor performance. This type of converter is employed only for motors below
400 W. It will not be described in detail here; these easily follow from the
description of waveforms (voltage and current) for the semi-converter.
Semi-Converter feeding a Separately excited DC Motor:

This is a one-quadrant converter (Fig. 11.15a) which gives voltage and current of
one polarity at dc terminals. It therefore does not provide for regenerative
braking, i.e. power flow from DC Motor Control to the ac supply. Where
regeneration is not required, this converter is used for reasons for economy.

Figure 11.15(b) gives the circuitry of a semi-converter feeding a separately

excited DC Motor Control. The armature resistance Ra and inductance La are
shown lumped in series with an armature-induced emf ea while the armature
terminal voltage is va. It has two thyristors, two diodes and a free-wheeling diode
(connected across motor terminals). It will be assumed that in steady-state
operation the armature current is continuous over the whole range of operation.
Typical steady-state voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig. 11.16. The
thyristor Th1 is fired at angle α and Th2 at angle π + α with respect to the supply
voltage ν and the process is repeated continuously.
Under steady conditions, as Th1 is fired (ωt = α), Th1 and D2 conduct and the
motor is connected to the supply, i.e. νa = ν. At ωt = π, νa tends to become
negative as the input voltage polarity changes. This causes DFW, the free-wheeling
diode, to become forward-biased and the armature current flowing through
Th1D2 is transferred to DFw, which means that Th1 commutates (naturally). The
motor terminals are shorted through DFw for the free-wheeling period π < ωt < π
+ α providing for continuity of the armature current during this period when the
motor remains disconnected from the supply. At ωt = π + α, Th2 is fired and
Th2D1 conduct, causing DFW to become reverse-biased and therefore open-
circuited. The motor is once again connected positively to the supply for the next
period of π + α < ωt < 2π. This process repeats continuously.

Various voltage and current waveforms of a separately excited DC Motor Control

fed through a semi-converter are shown in Fig. 11.16. Though the voltage across
motor terminals (Fig. 11.16(c)) contains harmonics over and above a steady dc
value, it is rightly assumed here that the motor does not respond to these
harmonics and therefore runs at constant speed (n) and has constant induced emf
(ea). As Th1 fires at ωt = α, the motor current is given by

up to the point P shown in Fig. 11.16(a); ν > ea so that the motor current increases.
So does the motor emf ea. During this period, apart from the energy being
delivered to the load, energy is also being stored in motor inductance (L a). Beyond
the point P, ν < ea and the motor current begins to decrease. This also implies the
reversal of voltage across the motor inductance which now feeds energy into the
system. During the free-wheeling period (π < ωt < π + α), the diode continues to
be forward-biased by the reversal of the inductive voltage. During this period a
part of the energy stored in motor inductance is consumed to feed the mechanical
load. The motor current, speed and emf, therefore, all reduce. This process then
repeats over the next period (π + α < ωt < 2π + α ) via Th2D1 and later through
DFW. The current drawn from the supply shown in Fig. 11.16(d) is that part of the
armature current which flows over the periods (α, π), (π + α, 2π), … when the
motor is connected to the supply. It is not necessary to use the free-wheeling
diode. In its absence at ωt = π, D1 becomes forward-biased so that free-wheeling
takes place through Th1D1 till Th2 is fired. At ωt = 2π free-wheeling takes place
through Th2D2 and so on.

It should be observed from Fig. 11.16(d) that the fundamental of the current
drawn from the mains lags the voltage by an angle Φ1 (< α ).
Discontinuous Armature Current:

The armature current becomes discontinuous for large values of the firing angle,
high speed and low values of torque. The motor performance deteriorates with
discontinuous armature current. The ratio of peak to average and rms to average
armature current increases. It is, therefore, desirable to operate the motor in the
continuous current mode. To achieve this, an external armature circuit choke may
be used, which decreases the rate of current decay during the free-wheeling
operation.
The voltage and current waveforms for semi-converter with discontinuous current
are shown in Fig. 11.17. The motor is connected to supply through Th1D2 for the
period α < ωt < π. Beyond π, the motor is shorted through the free-wheeling diode
DFW. The armature current decays to zero at angle β (extinction angle) π + α, i.e.,
before the thyristor Th2 is fired, thereby making the armature current
discontinuous. During α to π, the conduction period through Th1D2, the motor
terminal voltage is the same as the input voltage. During π to β the motor terminal
voltage is zero as motor terminals are shorted by the free-wheeling diode. From
β to π + α, the motor coasts and so its terminal voltage is the same as its induced
emf.

Full-Converter feeding a Separately Excited DC Motor:

A full-converter is a two-quadrant converter (see Fig. 11.18(a)) in which the

voltage polarity of the output can reverse, but the current remains unidirectional
because of the unidirectional thyristors. A full-converter employs four thyristors
but no free-wheeling diode is required. A full-converter feeding a separately
excited DC Motor Control is shown in Fig. 11.18. The voltage and current
waveforms are shown in Fig. 11.19 with the assumption that the armature current
ia is almost constant. Thyristors Th1 Th3 conduct for the interval α < ωt < π +
α and connect the motor to supply. At π + α, thyristors Th2Th4 are triggered.
Immediately the supply voltage appears in reverse-bias across Th1 Th3 and turns
them off. This is natural or line commutation. The motor current is transferred
from Th1 Th3 to Th2Th4. Since there is no period when the motor is disconnected
from supply, no free-wheeling is necessary. During α to π , energy flows from the
supply to motor (both ν and i are positive and so are va and ia).
However, during π to π + α, some of the motor energy is fed back to the supply
(v and i have opposite polarity and so are va and ia which means reversal of power
flow). Observe that the fundamental of the current drawn from the mains lags the
voltage by angle Φ1 = α.

The voltage and current waveforms for α > 90° are shown in Fig. 11.20. The
average motor terminal voltage is now negative. If the motor terminals are
reversed, it will act as a generator feeding power back to the ac supply. This is
the inversion operation of the converter and is used in regenerative braking of
the motor. One point needs to be noted here. During the conduction period of
either Th1Th3 or Th2Th4 as the supply voltage becomes negative, the armature
current begins to reduce, causing the inductance polarity to reverse so that the
conducting thyristors continue to be forward-biased.

The voltage and current waveforms for the case of discontinuous armature current
can be found as in the case of the semi-converter. (see Fig. 11.20).
Torque-Speed Characteristics:

It will be assumed here that the armature current is continuous. For a semi
converter with free-wheeling diode action, the armature circuit equations are

For a full-converter, the armature circuit equation is

Let ν = √2 V sin ωt . The average motor terminal voltages are: With a semi-
converter,

With a full-converter,

Figure 11.21 gives the variation of the motor terminal voltage as a function of the
firing angle for both the semi-converter and full-converter. In the case of the full-
converter inversion operation occurs for 90° < α < 180°.
The motor equations for average values are

and

Substituting for Ia from Eq. (11.8) and Va from Eqs (11.5) or (11.6) in Eq. (11.9),
the speed-torque characteristics are given as follows:

With a semi-converter,

With a full-converter
The first term in Eqs. (11.10) and (11.11) represents the theoretical no-load speed
while the second term represents speed drop caused by armature resistance. The
theoretical no-load speed can be varied by the firing angle α.

In the case of discontinuous current, the average voltage at motor terminals

depends upon the angle β (extinction angle) which itself is dependent on the
average motor speed n, average motor current Ia and firing angle α. The analytical
treatment of this case is beyond the scope of this book.

Dual-Converter:

The dual-converter can operate in all the four quadrants as shown in Fig. 11.22(a).Its
circuit is shown in Fig. 11.22(b). It is indeed two full-converters converting to dc
in either direction. The dual converter provides virtually instantaneous reversal of
voltage at dc terminals.

Control of DC Series Motor:

Semi-converters and full-converters are also employed for control of a dc series

motor. The total circuit inductance is high because of the series field, as a
consequence of which the armature current is mostly continuous. The governing
motor equations differ as the flux/pole is now proportional to the armature
current. The treatment otherwise is similar to that of a separately excited DC
Motor Control and will not be pursued here for want of space.
DC Motor Speed Control using Chopper

In many different applications it is required to control speed of DC motor. Some

of the examples are

· In treadmill machine it is required to vary the speed of motor that used to

roll the belt

· The speed of DC motor used in railway engines (traction) has to be varied

· E-bikes, e-bicycles, e-scooters also runs on DC motor and to vary their

speed it is required to control speed of DC motor

· DC motors are also used in portable sewing machine, drill machine etc, in
which speed control of motor is provided for different operation

One of the popular methods of speed control of DC motor is using

chopper. Chopper is a device that gives variable DC output from applied fixed
DC input. It simply chops fixed DC and generates variable DC. Let us first
understand how it generates variable DC.
Fig. 1: Block Representation of Chopper circuit used to control rotation of DC
Motor

As shown in figure the chopper supplies fixed DC voltage to motor. When

chopper is ON motor gets supply but when chopper is off motor does not get the
supply. So as shown in figure let us say chopper is on for Ton time and it is off
for Toff time. So depending upon the Ton and Toff time the DC voltage applied
to motor is

Vdc = [Ton / (Ton + Toff)] × Vfixed

But Ton + Toff = Ttotal

So Vdc = [Ton / Ttotal] × Vfixed

Here Ton / Ttotal is called duty cycle. So as duty cycle is more the average DC
voltage supplied to motor is more and so speed of motor is increased. So as duty
cycle is varied by varying on and off time of chopper, the speed of motor can be
varied. The given circuit demonstrates one of such chopper circuit using Zero
Cross Detector (ZCD), timer IC NE555 and darlington amplifier TIP122 used as
chopper device. The circuit chops rectified DC output and varies the speed of
DC motor.

Circuit Description

· 230V @ 50 Hz AC is applied at the primary of transformer T1 (0-12

VAC, 500 mA). It’s secondary is connected with AC input terminals of bridge
rectifier BR1.

· Rectified output is given to base of transistor Q1 through voltage divider

formed by resistors R1 (1K) & R2 (1K).

· Collector output of Q1 is fed to base of transistor Q2 through R4 (470Ω).

Q1 and Q2 both are connected in switch configuration as shown.

· The output of Q2 is applied at the trigger input of NE555 chip U1. It is

configured in monostable mode. Timing components RV1 (10K pot) and C1 (1
µF) decides width of output pulse

· Output of U1 is applied to base of darlington transistor TIP122 through

current limiting resistor R6

· The DC motor is connected between rectified output and collector of

TIP122. The emitter of TIP122 is connected to ground

(Check the circuit diagram below for complete circuit for DC motor speed
control using chopper)
Circuit Operation

Let us understand the circuit operation with the help of waveforms at different
points A, B, C, D, E and F

Fig. 2: Timing Diagram of Signals at various stages of the chopper circuit

· Step down transformer T1 steps down 230 VAC into 12 VAC as shown
as waveform 1 above figure at point A
· This AC input is given to bridge rectifier. Bridge rectifier will produce
rectified DC output as shown in second waveform if above figure at point B

· This rectified output is given to base of transistor Q1. Because transistor

Q1 is connected in switch configuration, when the input at the base becomes
lower than 0.7 V it comes into cutoff and produces very short duration positive
pulse at point ‘C’. That is shown as 3rd waveform in figure

· As these positive pulses are given to Q2 which is again connected in

switch configuration, it will produce negative pulse at point ‘D’ of same width
of positive pulse. This is shown as 4th waveform

· These negative pulses are applied to trigger input of NE555 chip

connected in monostable mode. So, it will generate high output every time when
it gets this negative pulse. Its time period can be varied from 0 milisecond to
max 10 milisecond using 10 K pot

· As per the waveforms given in below figure let us understand 2 different

cases with pulse width of NE555 3 ms and 8 ms

· As shown a second waveform in above figure, the NE555 will generate

high output when gets negative pulse at its trigger input. For first case the width
of pulse is 3 ms

· Because this pulse is given to base input of TIP122, it is turned ON till

pulse is high. When TIP122 is ON the motor gets chopped rectified output as
shown in 3rd waveform in figure. Out of total 10 ms time, the motor gets DC
waveform for 3 ms only

· So average voltage applied to DC motor is less (as shown in waveform)

and its speed is also less
 Fig. 3: Timing Diagram of Output Waveforms from the Chopper Circuit

· As shown in 4th and 5th waveforms, now the time period (pulse width) of
NE555 is increased to 8 ms. So, the rectified output applied to DC motor is also
more – means average voltage applied to motor is more and its speed is more

· Thus, as time period (width of output pulse) of NE555 is varied from 0

ms to 10 ms, it gives chopped rectified DC wave to motor that will vary its
speed from min to max.
List the factors affecting speed of the AC motors
A three phase induction motor is basically a constant speed motor so it’s
somewhat difficult to control its speed. The speed control of induction motor is
done at the cost of decrease in efficiency and low electrical power factor. Before
discussing the methods to control the speed of three phase induction motor
one should know the basic formulas of speed and torque of three phase
induction motor as the methods of speed control depends upon these formulas.
Synchronous Speed

Where, f = frequency and P is the number of poles

The speed of induction motor is given by,

Where,
N is the speed of the rotor of an induction motor,
Ns is the synchronous speed,
S is the slip.
The torque produced by three phase induction motor is given by,

When the rotor is at standstill slip, s is one.

So the equation of torque is,

Where,
E2 is the rotor emf
Ns is the synchronous speed
R2 is the rotor resistance
X2 is the rotor inductive reactance
The Speed of Induction Motor is changed from Both Stator and Rotor Side. The
speed control of three phase induction motor from stator side are further
classified as:
• V / f control or frequency control.
• Changing the number of stator poles.
• Controlling supply voltage.
• Adding rheostat in the stator circuit.
The speed controls of three phase induction motor from rotor side are further
classified as:

• Adding external resistance on rotor side.

• Cascade control method.
 • Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side.

Speed Control from Stator Side:

V / f Control or Frequency Control:

Whenever three phase supply is given to three phase induction motor rotating
magnetic field is produced which rotates at synchronous speed given by

In three phase induction motor emf is induced by induction similar to that of

transformer which is given by

Where, K is the winding constant, T is the number of turns per phase and f is
frequency. Now if we change frequency synchronous speed changes but with
decrease in frequency flux will increase and this change in value of flux causes
saturation of rotor and stator cores which will further cause increase in no load
current of the motor . So, its important to maintain flux , φ constant and it is only
possible if we change voltage. i.e if we decrease frequency flux increases but at
the same time if we decrease voltage flux will also decease causing no change in
flux and hence it remains constant. So, here we are keeping the ratio of V/f as
constant. Hence its name is V/ f method. For controlling the speed of three phase
induction motor by V/f method we have to supply variable voltage and frequency
which is easily obtained by using converter and inverter set.

Controlling Supply Voltage:

The torque produced by running three phase induction motor is given by

In low slip region (sX)2 is very very small as compared to R2. So, it can be
neglected. So torque becomes

Since rotor resistance, R2 is constant so the equation of torque further reduces to

We know that rotor induced emf E2 𝖺 V. So, T 𝖺 sV2.

The equation above clears that if we decrease supply voltage torque will also
decrease. But for supplying the same load, the torque must remain the same, and
it is only possible if we increase the slip and if the slip increases the motor will
run at a reduced speed. This method of speed control is rarely used because a
small change in speed requires a large reduction in voltage, and hence the
current drawn by motor increases, which cause overheating of the induction
motor.

Changing the number of stator poles:

The stator poles can be changed by two methods

(I) Multiple stator winding method.

(II) Pole amplitude modulation method (PAM)

Multiple Stator Winding Method:

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, we provide two
separate windings in the stator. These two stator windings are electrically
isolated from each other and are wound for two different numbers of poles.
Using a switching arrangement, at a time, supply is given to one winding only
and hence speed control is possible. Disadvantages of this method are that the
smooth speed control is not possible. This method is more costly and less
efficient as two different stator windings are required. This method of speed
control can only be applied to squirrel cage motor.

Pole Amplitude Modulation Method (PAM):

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor the original
sinusoidal mmf wave is modulated by another sinusoidal mmf wave having the
different number of poles.

Let f 1(θ) be the original mmf wave of induction motor whose speed is to be
controlled.
f2(θ) be the modulation mmf wave.
P1 be the number of poles of induction motor whose speed is to be controlled.
P2 be the number of poles of modulation wave.

After modulation resultant mmf wave

So we get, resultant mmf wave

Therefore the resultant mmf wave will have two different number of poles

Therefore by changing the number of poles we can easily change the speed of
three phase induction motor.

• Adding Rheostat in Stator Circuit

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor

rheostat is added in the stator circuit due to this voltage gets
dropped. In case of three phase induction motor torque produced is
given by T 𝖺 sV 22. If we decrease supply voltage torque will also
decrease. But for supplying the same load, the torque must remain
the same and it is only possible if we increase the slip and if the
slip increase motor will run reduced speed.

Speed Control from Rotor Side:

• Adding External Resistance on Rotor Side

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor

external resistance are added on rotor side. The equation of torque
for three phase induction motor is

The three-phase induction motor operates in a low slip region. In

low slip region term (sX)2 becomes very very small as compared to
R2. So, it can be neglected. and also E2 is constant. So the equation
of torque after simplification becomes,

Now if we increase rotor resistance, R2 torque decreases but to

supply the same load torque must remain constant. So, we increase
slip, which will further result in the decrease in rotor speed. Thus,
by adding additional resistance in the rotor circuit, we can decrease
the speed of the three-phase induction motor. The main advantage
of this method is that with an addition of external resistance
 starting torque increases but this method of speed control of three
phase induction motor also suffers from some disadvantages:
• The speed above the normal value is not possible.
• Large speed change requires a large value of resistance,
and if such large value of resistance is added in the
circuit, it will cause large copper loss and hence reduction
in efficiency.
• Presence of resistance causes more losses.
• This method cannot be used for squirrel cage induction
motor.
• Cascade Control Method

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, the

two three-phase induction motors are connected on a common shaft
and hence called cascaded motor. One motor is the called the main
motor, and another motor is called the auxiliary motor. The three-
phase supply is given to the stator of the main motor while the
auxiliary motor is derived at a slip frequency from the slip ring of
the main motor.
Let NS1 be the synchronous speed of the main motor.
NS2 be the synchronous speed of the auxiliary motor.
P1 be the number of poles of the main motor.
P2 be the number of poles of the auxiliary motor.
F is the supply frequency.
F1 is the frequency of rotor induced emf of the main motor.
N is the speed of set, and it remains same for both the main and
auxiliary motor as both the motors are mounted on the common
shaft.
S1 is the slip of main motor.

The auxiliary motor is supplied with same frequency as the main

motor i.e

Now put the value of

 Now at no load , the speed of auxiliary rotor is almost same as its
synchronous speed i.e N = NS2

Now rearrange the above equation and find out the value of N, we
get,

This cascaded set of two motors will now run at new speed having
number of poles (P1 + P2). In the above method the torque
produced by the main and auxiliary motor will act in same
direction, resulting in number of poles (P1 + P2). Such type of
cascading is called cumulative cascading. There is one more type
of cascading in which the torque produced by the main motor is in
opposite direction to that of auxiliary motor. Such type of
cascading is called differential cascading; resulting in speed
corresponds to number of poles (P1 – P2).
In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor,
four different speeds can be obtained
• When only main induction motor work, having speed

corresponds to .
• When only auxiliary induction motor work, having speed
corresponds to .
• When cumulative cascading is done, then the complete
set runs at a speed of .
• When differential cascading is done, then the complete
set runs at a speed of .
• Injecting Slip Frequency EMF into Rotor Side

When the speed control of three phase induction motor is done by

adding resistance in rotor circuit, some part of power called, the
slip power is lost as I2R losses. Therefore the efficiency of three
phase induction motor is reduced by this method of speed control.
This slip power loss can be recovered and supplied back to
improve the overall efficiency of the three-phase induction motor,
and this scheme of recovering the power is called slip power
recovery scheme and this is done by connecting an external source
of emf of slip frequency to the rotor circuit. The injected emf can
either oppose the rotor induced emf or aids the rotor induced emf.
If it opposes the rotor induced emf, the total rotor resistance
increases and hence the speed is decreased and if the injected emf
aids the main rotor emf the total decreases and hence speed
increases. Therefore by injecting induced emf in the rotor circuit,
the speed can be easily controlled. The main advantage of this type
of speed control of three phase induction motor is that a wide range
of speed control is possible whether it is above normal or below
normal speed.
4.8 WORKING OF UPS WITH BLOCK DIAGRAM
4.10 BASIC SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS)
SMPS stands for switched mode power supply. It is known by a wide range of
names like power supply, supply unit, regulator, or switcher in an electronic
power supply. It incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power
efficiently. It is mainly used for obtaining a controlled dc power supply as
output.
It is used to convert power (voltage) using switching devices that are turned on
and off alternatively at high frequencies. It uses storage components
like inductors or capacitors to supply power when the switching device is in
its non-conduction state (off-state). SMPS possesses high efficiency and is
widely used in various electronic equipment such as computers, battery
chargers, and other sensitive equipment requiring a stable and efficient power
supply.
The working & design of SMPS is divided into various sections and stages.

1: Input Stage

The AC input supply of frequency (50-60) Hz feds directly to the rectifier and

filter circuit. Its output contains many variations and the capacitance value of

the capacitor should be higher enough to handle the input fluctuations. Finally,

the unregulated dc is given to the central switching section of SMPS in order

to regulate it. This section does not contain any transformer for the step down

in input voltage supply.

2: Switching Section

It consists of fast switching devices like a Power transistor or a MOSFET,

which switches ON and OFF according to the variations in the voltage. The

output obtained is given to the primary of the transformer which is present in

this section.

The transformer used here is a much smaller, lighter, and highly effective one

that steps down voltage. These are much efficient compared to other step-down

methods. Hence, the power conversion ratio is higher.

3: Output Stage

The output that is derived from the switching section is again rectified and

filtered. It uses a rectification and filter circuit to get the desired DC voltage.

The obtained regulated output voltage is then given to the control circuit.

4: Control Unit

This unit is all about feedback, which has many sections contain in it. Lets see

the brief information about this section.

The inner control unit consists of an oscillator, amplifier, sensor, etc. The

sensor senses the output signal and feedback to the control unit. All the signals
are isolated from each other so that, any sudden spikes should not affect the

circuitry. The reference voltage is given as one input along with the signal to

the error amplifier. The amplifier is a comparator that compares the signal

with the required signal level.

The next stage is Controlling the chopping frequency. The final voltage level

is controlled by comparing the inputs given to the error amplifier, whose output

helps to decide whether to increase or to decrease the chopping frequency.

The oscillator produces a standard PWM wave with a fixed frequency.

Types of SMPS:
1: Non-isolated

Non-isolated converters are mostly used when the change in the voltage is
comparatively small. The non-isolated SMPS are the ones whose input and
output circuitry are not isolated from each other. The major disadvantage is that
it cannot provide protection from high electrical voltages and it poses more
noise. They are of 3 types.
I: Buck
In a typical non-isolated step-down (buck) converter the output voltage VOUT
depends on the input voltage VIN and the switching duty cycle of the power
switch.
II: Boost
It is used to boost voltage and it uses the same number of passive components
but arranged to step up the input voltage so that the output is higher than that of
the input.
III: Buck-Boost
This converter allows the input voltage to be either stepped-up or stepped-down,
depending on the duty cycle. The output voltage is given by the relation
VOUT = -VIN *D/ (1-D)

2: Isolated

Isolated SMPS are the ones where there is isolation maintained between the
input and output circuitry. The supplies make use of a transformer to separate
the switching from the output. The secondary winding of the transformer acts as
the energy storing element.
I: Fly-back Converter:
The working of this converter is similar to the buck-boost converter of the non-
isolating category. The only difference is that it uses a transformer to store
energy instead of an inductor in the circuit.
II: Forward Converter
The working of this converter makes use of the transformer to send the energy,
between the input and output in a single step.

Application of Switched Mode power supply (SMPS)

• It is used in servers, power stations, and personal computers.
• It is used in vehicles for charging batteries.
• It is used in factories and industries for power.
• It is used in the railway system, security system.
• It is also used in mobile and also as lighting.
 MODULE-5

PLC AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Introduction of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Programmable logic controllers are now the most widely used industrial process
control technology. A programmable logic controller (PLC) is an industrial grade
computer that is capable of being programmed to perform control functions. The
programmable controller has eliminated much of the hardwiring associated with
conventional relay control circuits. Other benefits include easy programming and
installation, high control speed, network compatibility, troubleshooting and
testing convenience, and high reliability. The programmable logic controller is
designed for multiple input and output arrangements, extended temperature
ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact.
Programs for the control and operation of manufacturing process equipment and
machinery are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC
is an example of a real-time system since the output of the system controlled by
the PLC depends on the input conditions. The programmable logic controller is,
then, basically a digital computer designed for use in machine control. Unlike a
personal computer, it has been designed to operate in the industrial environment
and is equipped with special input/output interfaces and a control programming
language. The common abbreviation used in industry for these devices, PC, can
be confusing because it is also the abbreviation for “personal computer.”
Therefore, most manufacturers refer to their programmable controller as a PLC,
which stands for “programmable logic controller.”

Advantages of PLC
Programmable controllers offer several advantages over a conventional relay type
of control. Relays have to be hardwired to perform a specific function. When the
system requirements change, the relay wiring has to be changed or modified. In
extreme cases, such as in the auto industry, complete control panels had to be
replaced since it was not economically feasible to rewire the old panels with each
model changeover. The programmable controller has eliminated much of the
hardwiring associated with conventional relay control circuits. It is small and
inexpensive compared to equivalent relay-based process control systems. Modern
control systems still include relays, but these are rarely used for logic. In addition
to cost savings, PLCs provide many other benefits including:

• Increased Reliability. Once a program has been written and tested, it can be
easily downloaded to other PLCs. Since all the logic is contained in the PLC’s
memory, there is no chance of making a logic wiring error. The program takes
the place of much of the external wiring that would normally be required for
control of a process. Hardwiring, though still required to connect field devices,
is less intensive. PLCs also offer the reliability associated with solid-state
components.

• More Flexibility. It is easier to create and change a program in a PLC than to

wire and rewire a circuit. With a PLC the relationships between the inputs and
outputs are determined by the user program instead of the manner in which they
are interconnected. Original equipment manufacturers can provide system
updates by simply sending out a new program. End users can modify the program
in the fi eld, or if desired, security can be provided by hardware features such as
key locks and by software passwords.

• Lower Cost. PLCs were originally designed to replace relay control logic, and
the cost savings have been so significant that relay control is becoming obsolete
except for power applications. Generally, if an application has more than about
a half-dozen control relays, it will probably be less expensive to install a PLC.

• Communications Capability. A PLC can communicate with other controllers or

computer equipment to perform such functions as supervisory control, data
gathering, monitoring devices and process parameters, and download and upload
of programs.
• Faster Response Time. PLCs are designed for highspeed and real-time
applications. The programmable controller operates in real time, which means
that an event taking place in the
fi eld will result in the execution of an operation or output. Machines that process
thousands of items per second and objects that spend only a fraction of a second
in front of a sensor require the PLC’s quick-response capability.

• Easier to Troubleshoot. PLCs have resident diagnostics and override functions

that allow users to easily trace and correct software and hardware problems. To
find and fix problems, users can display the control program on a monitor and
watch it in real time as it executes.
Different parts of PLC by drawing the block diagram and purpose of
each part of PLC

A typical PLC can be divided into parts, as illustrated in Figure 1-8. These are the
central processing unit (CPU), the input/output (I/O) section, the power supply,
and the programming device.

The term architecture can refer to PLC hardware, to PLC software, or to a

combination of
both. An open architecture design allows the system to be connected easily to
devices and programs made by other manufacturers.

There are two ways in which I/Os (Inputs/Outputs) are incorporated into the PLC:
fixed and modular. Fixed I/O is typical of small PLCs that come in one package
with no separate, removable units. The processor and I/O are packaged together,
and the I/O terminals will have a fixed number of connections built in for inputs
and outputs. The main advantage of this type of packaging is lower cost. The
number of available I/O points varies and usually can be expanded by buying
additional units of fixed I/O. One disadvantage of fixed I/O is its lack of
flexibility; you are limited in what you can get in the quantities and types dictated
by the packaging. Also, for some models, if any part in the unit fails, the whole
unit has to be replaced.
Modular I/O is divided by compartments into which separate modules can be
plugged. This feature greatly increases your options and the unit’s flexibility. You
can choose from the modules available from the manufacturer and mix them any
way you desire. The basic modular controller consists of a rack, power supply,
processor module (CPU), input/output (I/O modules), and an operator interface
for programming and monitoring. The modules plug into a rack. When a module
is slid into the
rack, it makes an electrical connection with a series of contacts called the
backplane, located at the rear of the rack. The PLC processor is also connected to
the backplane and can communicate with all the modules in the rack.

The power supply supplies DC power to other modules that plug into the rack.
For large PLC systems, this power supply does not normally supply power to the
field devices. With larger systems, power to fi eld devices is provided by external
alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) supplies. For some small micro-
PLC systems, the power supply may be used to power field devices.

The processor (CPU) is the “brain” of the PLC. A typical processor usually
consists of a microprocessor for implementing the logic and controlling the
communications among the modules. The processor requires memory for storing
the results of the logical operations performed by the microprocessor. Memory is
also required for the program EPROM or EEPROM plus RAM. The CPU controls
all PLC activity and is designed so that the user can enter the desired program in
relay ladder logic. The PLC program is executed as part of a repetitive process
referred to as a scan. A typical PLC scan starts with the CPU reading the status of
inputs. Then, the application program is executed. Once the program execution is
completed, the CPU performs internal diagnostic and communication tasks. Next,
the status of all outputs is updated. This process is repeated continuously as long
as the PLC is in the run mode.

The I/O system forms the interface by which field devices are connected to the
controller. The purpose of this interface is to condition the various signals
received from or sent to external field devices. Input devices such as pushbuttons,
limit switches, and sensors are hardwired to the input terminals. Output devices
such as small motors, motor starters, solenoid valves, and indicator lights are
hardwired to the output terminals. To electrically isolate the internal components
from the input and output terminals, PLCs commonly employ an optical isolator,
which uses light to couple the circuits together.

A programming device is used to enter the desired program into the memory of
the processor. The program can be entered using relay ladder logic, which is one
of the most popular programming languages. Instead of words, ladder logic
programming language uses graphic symbols that show their intended outcome.
A program in ladder logic is similar to a schematic for a relay control circuit.
It is a special language written to make it easy for people familiar with relay logic
control to program the PLC.

A personal computer (PC) is the most commonly used programming device. Most
brands of PLCs have software available so that a PC can be used as the
programming device. This software allows users to create, edit, document, store,
and troubleshoot ladder logic programs. The computer monitor is able to display
more logic on the screen than can hand-held types, thus simplifying the
interpretation of the program. The personal computer communicates with the
PLC processor via a serial or parallel data communications link, or Ethernet. If
the programming unit is not in use, it may be unplugged and removed. Removing
the programming unit will not affect the operation of the user program.

A program is a user-developed series of instructions that directs the PLC to

execute actions. A programming language provides rules for combining the
instructions so that they produce the desired actions.

Relay ladder logic (RLL) is the standard programming language used with PLCs.
Its origin is based on electromechanical relay control. The relay ladder logic
program graphically represents rungs of contacts, coils, and special instruction
blocks. RLL was originally designed for easy use and understanding for its users
and has been modified to keep up with the increasing demands of industry’s
control needs.
Application of PLC
There are three major types of PLC application: single ended, multitask, and
control management.

A single ended or stand-alone PLC application involves one PLC controlling one
process. This would be a stand-alone unit and would not be used for
communicating with other computers or PLCs. The size and sophistication of the
process being controlled are obvious factors in determining which PLC to select.
The applications could dictate a large processor, but usually this category requires
a small PLC.

A multitask PLC application involves one PLC controlling several processes.

Adequate I/O capacity is a significant factor in this type of installation. In
addition, if the PLC would be a subsystem of a larger process and would have to
communicate with a central PLC or computer, provisions for a data
communications network are also required.

A control management PLC application involves one PLC controlling several

others. This kind of application requires a large PLC processor designed to
communicate with other PLCs and possibly with a computer. The control
management PLC supervises several PLCs by downloading programs that tell the
other PLCs what has to be done. It must be capable of connection to all the PLCs
so that by proper addressing it can communicate with anyone it wishes to

Because of the versatility of PLC, it is used in various places for automation. In

industries various processes needs to be controlled at every instant of time such
as valve control, pressure control, robotic action, etc. It becomes tedious and
infeasible for humans to control all such activities on their own. Thus, relays were
used to perform those activities. However, a relay can be used only for a specific
and limited operation which makes their use bulky and uneconomic. On the
contrary PLC having the ability to perform number of tasks by simply modifying
the program has become a prominent device for automation of such activities.
There are various
places where a PLC can be used. Some of those are listed as below:

• Robotic arm in car manufacturing

• Air compressors
• Airport runway lighting control
• Traffic signal control
• Smoke alarm control
• Process valve control
• Textile equipment
• Vacuum pump system
Apart from these applications, PLC is widely used in automation of electrical
power system. At electrical substations automatic reclosing, circuit breaker
tripping, capacitor switching, etc. can be controlled with PLCs.
 Ladder diagram

• Lets use a PLC in place of the relay.

• The first thing that's necessary is to create what's called a Ladder Diagram.
• We have to create one of these because, unfortunately, a PLC doesn't
understand a schematic diagram it only recognizes code.
• Most PLCs have software which convert ladder diagrams into code.

• First Step : Translate all of the items we're using into symbols the PLC
understands.
• Second step : We must tell the PLC where everything is located. In other
words we have to give all the devices an address.
• Final step : We have to convert the schematic into a logical sequence of
events.

First step:
• The PLC doesn't understand terms like switch, relay, bell, etc.
• It prefers input, output, coil, contact, etc.
• It doesn't care what the actual input or output device actually is. It only cares
that its an input or an output.
• First we replace the battery with a symbol. This symbol is common to all
ladder diagrams. We draw what are called bus bars.
• These simply look like two vertical bars. One on each side of the diagram.
Think of the left one as being + voltage and the right one as being ground.
Further think of the current (logic) flow as being from left to right.
• Next we give the inputs a symbol. In this basic example we have one real
world input. (i.e. the switch).
• We give the input that the switch will be connected to the symbol shown
below. This symbol can also be used as the contact of a relay.

• Next we give the outputs a symbol. In this example we use one output (i.e. the
bell).
• We give the output that the bell will be physically connected to the symbol
shown below. This symbol is used as the coil of a relay.
• The AC supply is an external supply so we don't put it in our ladder. The PLC
only cares about which output it turns on and not what's physically connected to
it.

Second step:
• We must tell the PLC where everything is located. In other words we have to
give all the devices an address.
• Where is the switch going to be physically connected to the PLC? How about
the bell? We start with a blank road map in the PLCs town and give each item
an address.
• Could you find your friends if you didn't know their address? You know they
live in the same town but which house? The plc town has a lot of houses (inputs
and outputs) but we have to figure out who lives where (what device is
connected where).
• We'll get further into the addressing scheme later. The PLC manufacturers
each do it a different way! For now let's say that our input will be called "0000".
The output will be called "500".

Final step:
• Convert the schematic into a logical sequence of events.
• The program we're going to write tells the PLC what to do when certain events
take place.
• In our example we have to tell the plc what to do when the operator turns on
the switch.

• Final converted diagram.

• We eliminated the real world relay from needing a symbol.

Description of contacts and coils in the following states

i) Normally open

Load :
• The load(LD) instruction is a normally open contact. It is sometimes also
called examine if on (XIO).(as in examine the input to see if its physically on).
The symbol for a load instruction is shown below.
• This is used when an input signal is needed to be present for the symbol to
turn on.
• When the physical input is on we can say that the instruction is True.
• We examine the input for an on signal. If the input is physically on then the
symbol is on.
• An on condition is also referred to as a logic 1 state.

ii) Normally closed

Load Bar :
• The Load bar instruction is a normally closed contact. It is sometimes also
called LoaDNot or examine if closed(XIC)(as in examine the input to see if its
physically closed) The symbol for a loadbar instruction is shown below.

• This is used when an input signal does not need to be present for the symbol to
turn on.
• When the physical input is off we can say that the instruction is True.
• We examine the input for an off signal. If the input is physically off then the
symbol is on.
• With most PLCs this instruction (Load or Loadbar) MUST be the first
symbol on the left of the ladder.

iii) Energized output

out:
• The Out instruction is sometimes also called an Output Energize instruction.
The output instruction is like a relay coil. Its symbol looks as shown below.
• When there is a path of True instructions preceding this on the ladder rung, it
will also be True.
• When the instruction is True it is physically ON.
• We can think of this instruction as a normally open output.

iv) Latched output

Out bar:
• The Outbar instruction is sometimes also called an OutNot instruction.
• The Outbar instruction is like a normally closed relay coil. Its symbol looks
like that shown below.

Ladder diagrams

i)AND gate
ii) OR gate
iii) NOT gate
Ladder diagrams for combination circuits using NAND, NOR, OR and
NOT
Timersi)T
ON
• TIMER : It is an instruction that waits a set amount of time before doing
something.
• Type of Timers : On-Delay Timer and Off-Delay Timer.
On-Delay Timer :
• Simply "delays turning on".
• After sensor (input) turns ON, wait x-seconds before activating a solenoid
valve(output).
• This is the most common timer. It is often called TON(timer on-delay),
TIM(timer) or TMR(timer).
ii) T OFF
Off-Delay Timer :
• Simply "delays turning off".
• After sensor (input) sees a target it turn on a solenoid (output).
• When the sensor no longer sees the target it hold the solenoid on for x-seconds
before turning it off.
• It is called a TOF (timer off-delay).
iii) Retentive timer

CountersCTU
CTD

Ladder diagram using Timers and Counters

Ladder diagram for DOL starter
SPECIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
DCS:
A distributed control system (DCS) is part of a manufacturing system.

Distributed control systems (DCS) are used in industrial and civil engineering
applications to monitor and control distributed equipment with remote human
intervention.

It is generally, since the 1970s, digital, and normally consists of field

instruments, connected via wiring to computer buses or electrical buses to
multiplexer/demultiplexers and A/D's or analog to digital and finally the
Human-Machine Interface (HMI) or control consoles. A DCS is a process
control system that uses a network to interconnect sensors, controllers, operator
terminals and actuators. A DCS typically contains one or more computers for
control and mostly use both proprietary interconnections and protocols for
communications. See PAS.

DCS is a very broad term that describes solutions across a large variety of
industries, including:

* Electrical power grids and electrical generation plants

* Environmental control systems
* Traffic signals
* Water management systems
* Refining and chemical plants
* Pharmaceutical manufacturing
SCADA:
SCADA is the acronym for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition.
SCADA may be called Human-Machine Interface (HMI) in Europe. The term
refers to a large-scale, distributed measurement (and control) system. SCADA
systems are used to monitor or to control chemical, physical or transport
processes.
The three components of a SCADA system are:

1. Multiple Remote Terminal Units (also known as RTUs or Outstations).

2. Master Station and HMI Computer(s).
3. Communication infrastructure
Contents
* 1 Systems concepts
* 2 Human Machine Interface
* 3 Hardware solutions
* 4 System components
* 5 Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
* 6 Master Station
* 7 Operational philosophy
* 8 Communication infrastructure and methods
* 9 Future trends in SCADA
* 10 Practical uses
* 11 External links

The term SCADA usually refers to a central system that monitors and controls a
complete site. The bulk of the site control is actually performed automatically
by a Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) or by a Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC). Host control functions are almost always restricted to basic site over-ride
or supervisory level capability.
SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database which contains data
elements called points. A point represents a single input or output value
monitored or controlled by the system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft". A
hard point is representative of an actual input or output connected to the system,
while a soft point represents the result of logic and math operations applied to
other hard and soft points. The point values are normally stored as value-
timestamp combinations; the value and the timestamp when the value was
recorded or calculated. A series of value-timestamp combinations is the history
of that point.
DCS vs. SCADA
DCS and SCADA are monitoring and control mechanisms that are used in
industrial installations to keep track and control of the processes and equipment;
to ensure that everything goes smoothly, and none of the equipment work outside
the specified limits. The most significant difference between the two is their
general design. DCS, or Data Control System, is process oriented, as it focuses
more on the processes in each step of the operation. SCADA, or Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition, focuses more on the acquisition and collation
of data for reference of the personnel who are charged with keeping track of the
operation.

DCS is process state driven, while SCADA is even driven. DCS does all its tasks
in a sequential manner, and events are not recorded until it is scanned by the
station. In contrast, SCADA is event driven. It does not call scans on a regular
basis, but waits for an event or for a change in value in one component to trigger
certain actions. SCADA is a bit more advantageous in this aspect, as it lightens
the load of the host. Changes are also recorded much earlier, as an event is logged
as soon as a value changes state.
In terms of applications, DCS is the system of choice for installations that are
limited to a small locale, like a single factory or plant, while SCADA is preferred
when the entire system is spread across a much larger geographic location,
examples of which would be oil wells spread out in a large field. Part of the reason
for this is the fact that DCS needs to be always connected to the I/O of the system,
while SCADA is expected to perform even when field communications fail for
some time. SCADA does this by keeping a record of all current values, so that
even if the base station is unable to extract new information from a remote
location, it would still be able to present the last recorded values.

Summary:

1. DCS is process oriented, while SCADA is data acquisition oriented.

2. DCS is process state driven, while SCADA is event driven.

3. DCS is commonly used to handle operations on a single locale, while SCADA

is preferred for applications that are spread over a wide geographic location.