As Biology C1-6

New Classified
AS Level
Biology
Veer Ramloghun
Distributor for Mauritius :
Editions de l’Océan Indien
22B Marcel Cabon Street
Stanley, Rose-Hill
Mauritius
www.eoi-info.com
Printed by Coact Imprints - (2020)
ISBN 978-99949-58-49-8
II
PREFACE
New Classified AS Level Biology has been specially

compiled for students and teachers following the latest
syllabus of Cambridge AS and A level Biology. This book
is presented as a topic-wise workbook so that students can
attempt all questions after completion of a topic to test
their understanding. Ample writing space have been
provided so that students feel free to express their ideas as
in exam conditions. Diagrams and graphs have also been
enlarged with greater resolution for ease of vision and
understanding. Unlike previous versions, this compilation
contains questions only from papers 1 and 2 following
the feedback given by both students and teachers. The
final presentation is handy, easy to carry and relevant for
students choosing Biology at subsidiary level. For A level
students, the A level questions are presented in another
workbook entitled New Classified A Level Biology. Like
previous versions answers to MCQs have been inserted for
rapid crosschecking. It is hoped that both teachers and
students will benefit from this new format.
Veer Ramloghun
[BSc., M. Phil]
III
CONTENT
Chapter Page
AS TOPICS
1 CELL STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01
2 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 ENZYMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4 CELL MEMBRANES AND TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5 THE MITOTIC CELL CYCLE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8 TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9 GAS EXCHANGE AND SMOKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
10 INFECTIOUS DISEASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
11 IMMUNITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
ANSWERS - MCQ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
V
CHAPTER 1 CELL STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
1. describe and interpret electron micrographs and drawings of typical animal and plant cells as seen with the
electron microscope
2. recognise the following cell structures and outline their functions:
a. cell surface membrane
b. nucleus, nuclear envelope and nucleolus
c. rough endoplasmic reticulum
d. smooth endoplasmic reticulum
e. Golgi body (Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex)
f. mitochondria (including small circular DNA)
g. ribosomes (80S in the cytoplasm and 70S in chloroplasts and mitochondria)
h. lysosomes
i. centrioles and microtubules
j. chloroplasts (including small circular DNA)
k. cell wall
l. plasmodesmata
m. large permanent vacuole and tonoplast of plant cells
3. state that ATP is produced in mitochondria and chloroplasts and outline the role of ATP in cells
4. outline key structural features of typical prokaryotic cells as seen in a typical bacterium (including: unicellular,
1-5 μm diameter, peptidoglycan cell walls, lack of organelles surrounded by double membranes, naked
circular DNA, 70S ribosomes)
5. compare and contrast the structure of typical prokaryotic cells with typical eukaryotic cells (reference to
mesosomes should not be included)
6. outline the key features of viruses as non-cellular structures (limited to protein coat and DNA/RNA)
1. The following are all features of eukaryotic cells. [N12/12/3]
1 chloroplast
2 Golgi apparatus
3 lysosome
4 mitochondrion
5 nucleus
Which of these has a single membrane?
A 1 and 2 B 2 and 3
C 3 and 4 D 4 and 5
1
2. Plant cells are fixed, stained and viewed through a light microscope. [N12/12/4]
1 What would be clearly visible at x400 magnification?
A cristae of mitochondria B grana of chloroplasts

C nucleoli D ribosomes
New Classified AS Level Biology
3. Which size range would include most prokaryotic cells? [N12/12/5]
4. The photomicrograph shows some plant tissues and the magnification is x200. [N12/12/6]
What is the diameter of the cell marked Z?
A 5 μm B 10 μm
C 50 μm D 100 μm
5. A light microscope is used to observe two membranes that are 200 nm apart. [J13/12/1]
How far apart are the membranes when the objective lens is changed from low power (X40) to high power
(x400)?
A 2 μm B 20 μm
C 200 nm D 2000 nm
6. The electron micrograph is of a chloroplast.

[J13/12/2]
2
The length of the chloroplast along the line shown is 80 mm. The actual length of the chloroplast is 10 μm.
What is the magnification of the chloroplast? 1
A x8 x 102 B x8 x 103
C x8 x 104 D x8 x 106
7. The diagram below is drawn from an electron micrograph of an animal cell. [J13/12/3]
Cell Structure
Which represents the same cell, seen under a light microscope at × 400 magnification?
8. Which features enable an organism to be identified as a prokaryote? [J13/P12/4]
1 cell wall
2 circular DNA
3 nucleus
4 ribosomes
A 2 only B 3 only
C 1 and 4 only D 2 and 4 only
9. The diagram shows an electron micrograph of a typical animal cell. [J13/12/5]
What is the function of the membrane system labelled X?
A lipid synthesis
B lipid synthesis and transport
C protein synthesis
D protein synthesis and transport
3
10. Which structure is measured in the units shown using a light microscope? [N13/P12/1]
1
structure unit
A cell surface membrane nm
B cell wall nm
C chloroplast μm
D ribosome μm
11. A student studied two photographs, at the same magnification, of a palisade mesophyll cell, one using a light
microscope and the other using an electron microscope. [N13/P12/2]
The student observed:

1 the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus
2 the grana in the chloroplasts
3 the two membranes of the nuclear envelope
4 the vacuole enclosed by a tonoplast.
Which features can only be seen because of the higher resolution of the electron microscope
A 1, 2 and 3 only B 1, 2 and 4 only

C 1, 3 and 4 only D 2, 3 and 4 only
12. A piece of mammalian tissue was homogenised and centrifuged. The biochemical activity of four subcellular
fractions was investigated. [N13/P12/3]
Which diagram indicates the fraction with maximum synthesis of messenger RNA?
13. Which row shows features of a typical eukaryotic cell? [N13/P12/4]
4
14. At approximately which magnification is light microscopy not suitable because the resolution becomes too
low? [J14/P12/1] 1
A × 100 B × 200
C × 400 D × 1500
15. The diagram shows a stage micrometer viewed with an eyepiece graticule scale, using a magnification of
X 400. [J14/P12/2]
Cell Structure
Using the same magnification, a chloroplast is measured and found to be 4 eyepiece graticule divisions long.
How long is the chloroplast?
A 1.0 × 101 μm B 4.0 × 102 μm

C 2.5 × 10–1 μm D 2.5 × 10–2 μm
16. Which organelle does not contain a partially permeable membrane? [J14/P12/3]
A Golgi apparatus B lysosome

C mitochondrion D ribosome
17. An amino acid enters a cell and is then used to synthesise an enzyme secreted by the cell.
What is the sequence of cell structures involved in the synthesis of the enzyme? [J14/P12/5]
5
18. The statements are all descriptions of cell structures. [N14/P12/3]
1
1. surrounded by a single membrane and enclosing a large fluid-filled space
2. surrounded by a single membrane and enclosing inactivated enzymes
3. formed by two membranes enclosing a matrix, the inner membrane is folded
4. formed by a membrane that has flattened sacs and tubular structures inter-connected throughout the
cell
5. formed of nucleic acid and protein attached to membranes or free in the cytoplasm
Which row shows the typical cell in which these cell structures are found?
19. Which sequence shows some of the stages in the production and secretion of an enzyme? [N14/P12/5]
A Golgi apparatus ! ribosome ! rough endoplasmic reticulum ! mRNA

B mRNA ! smooth endoplasmic reticulum ! Golgi apparatus ! vesicle
C ribosome ! rough endoplasmic reticulum ! vesicle ! Golgi apparatus
D smooth endoplasmic reticulum ! mRNA ! vesicle ! ribosome
20. What is the diameter of a typical plant cell? [J15/P12/1]
A 4.0 × 101 μm B 1.0 × 100 μm

C 4.0 × 102 nm D 1.0 × 102 nm
21. What is the function of plasmodesmata in plant cells? [J15/P12/3]
A to act as a barrier to water soluble substances

B to allow active transport of ions and sucrose between cells
C to allow the symplastic movement of substances between cells
D to enable cells to recognise each other
22. Which size of ribosome is found in both chloroplasts and mitochondria? [J15/P12/4]
A 60S B 70S
C 80S D 90S
6
23. Ribosomes consist of two subunits, each containing rRNA. An analysis of all the 70S ribosomes from a single
cell of the bacterium, Escherichia coli, showed that there were: [J15/P12/6] 1
● 38 000 rRNA molecules
● 2 main types of rRNA molecule
● 19 000 copies of each type of rRNA molecule
How many 70S ribosomes were there in the E. coli cell?
A 9500 B 19 000
C 38 000 D 76 000
24. Lysosomes have a variety of different shapes and sizes, making them difficult to identify. [N15/P12/4]
Cell Structure
What describes a lysosome?
A a vesicle containing enzymes, enclosed by a double membrane, that is budded off the endoplasmic
reticulum
B a vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes and surrounded by a single membrane, found only in phagocytes
C a vesicle enclosed by a single membrane, containing several different hydrolytic enzymes that may act
inside or outside the cell
D a vesicle surrounded by a double membrane, containing enzymes which can hydrolyse damaged
organelles in a cell
25. A culture of human cells had its cell surface membranes removed, releasing the cell contents. [N16/P11/2]
This material became contaminated by bacteria.
The material was then centrifuged, separating out the various cell structures according to size and mass.
Which cell structure would be separated out along with the bacteria?
A endoplasmic reticulum B mitochondria

C nuclei D ribosomes
26. Until recently, the typical viruses known to science were 20 – 150 nm in size. [N16/P12/1]
In 2003, the Mimivirus was discovered with a size of approximately 680 nm.
In 2013, the Pandoravirus was discovered which has a size of over 1000 nm.
Which viruses can be seen using both a light microscope with a maximum resolution of 0.25 μm and an electron
microscope?
7
27. This electron micrograph of a section of a leaf has a magnification of × 210. [N16/P12/2]
1
What is the actual length along the line X–Y?
A 1.86 μm B 18.6 μm
C 185.7 μm D 1857 μm
28. What is the correct order in which organelles function to make and secrete an enzyme? [N16/P12/3]
A nucleolus " ribosome " Golgi body " vesicle

B nucleolus " smooth endoplasmic reticulum " lysosome " vesicle
C nucleus " rough endoplasmic reticulum " Golgi body " vesicle
D nucleus " smooth endoplasmic reticulum " lysosome " vesicle
29. The diagram shows a stage micrometer scale, with divisions 0.1 mm apart, viewed through an eyepiece
containing a graticule. [N16/P12/4]
What is the area of the field of view of the microscope at this magnification? (π = 3.14)
A π × 12.5 × 12.5 = 4.9 × 102 μm2

B π × 50 × 50 = 7.9 × 103 μm2
C π × 125 × 125 = 4.9 × 104 μm2
D π × 250 × 250 = 2.0 × 105 μm2
8
30. A scientist carried out an experiment to separate the organelles in an animal cell by mass. [N16/P12/5]
The scientist mixed the cells with a buffer solution which had the same water potential as the cells. He then 1
broke the cells open with a blender to release the organelles.
The extracted mixture was filtered and then spun in a centrifuge at a high speed to separate the heaviest
organelle. This sank to the bottom, forming a solid pellet, 1.
Cell Structure
The liquid above pellet 1 was poured into a clean centrifuge tube and spun in the centrifuge at a higher speed
to separate the next heaviest organelle. This organelle sank to the bottom, forming a solid pellet, 2.
He repeated this procedure twice more to obtain pellet 3 and pellet 4, each containing a single organelle.
What is the function of the organelle extracted in pellet 2?
A digestion of old organelles B production of ATP

C production of mRNA D synthesis of protein
31. Which organelles are enclosed in a single phospholipid bilayer and contain hydrolytic enzymes? [J17/P12/1]
A endocytotic vesicles B Golgi body

C lysosomes D mitochondria
32. The DNA of prokaryotes is naked and circular. [J17/P12/2]
Which statement describes how the DNA of eukaryotes differs from that of prokaryotes?
A It has a nuclear envelope around it and is a double helix.

B It has a nuclear envelope around it and is circular.
C It has proteins attached to it and is a double helix.
D It has proteins attached to it and is linear.
33. The recently discovered Pandoravirus measures 1000 nm in diameter. [J17/P12/3]

The Mimivirus has a diameter of 400 nm.
What can be detected using a light microscope with a maximum resolution of 0.25 μm?
A both the Mimivirus and the Pandoravirus

B neither the Mimivirus nor the Pandoravirus
C the Mimivirus, but not the Pandoravirus
D the Pandoravirus, but not the Mimivirus
9
34. What are found in chloroplasts and mitochondria? [J17/P12/4]
1
1 DNA
2 70S ribosomes
1 3 mRNA
1
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1 and 2 only
C 1 only D 2 and 3 only
35. Which equation for calculating the actual size of a specimen, A, or image size, I, or magnification, M, is correct?
[N17/P12/1]
A A=M÷I B A=IXM
C I = M ÷A D M=I÷A
36. One of the smallest viruses is the polio virus, which has a diameter of approximately 30 nm. [N17/P12/2]
In 2003, the Mimivirus was discovered which has a diameter of approximately 680 nm.
In 2013, the Pandoravirus was discovered which has a diameter of approximately 1000 nm.
Which row correctly matches a cell structure with a virus that has a similar approximate size?
polio virus Mimivirus Pandoravirus
A lysosome nucleolus nucleus

B nucleolus lysosome mitochondrion
C nucleolus mitochondrion lysosome
D ribosome lysosome mitochondrion
37. Which cell components are present in all prokaryotic cells? [N17/P12/3]
cell surface endoplasmic

cell wall flagellum
membrane reticulum
A key
B = present
C = not present
D
10
38. The electron micrograph shows part of an animal cell. [N17/P12/4]
1
Cell Structure
What will be synthesised in large quantities in this cell?
1 ATP
2 glucose
3 RNA

C 1 only D 2 only
39. Mitochondria are thought to have evolved from prokaryotic cells that were ingested by an ancestral cell.
[N17/P12/5]
Which feature have the prokaryotes lost during their evolution into mitochondria?
A cell wall B circular chromosome

C endoplasmic reticulum D ribosomes
40. Which statement is correct? [N17/P12/6]
A A virus is composed of a protein coat which may surround RNA or DNA.

B Eukaryotic plant cell walls contain peptidoglycans in addition to cellulose.
C Plasmodesmata and centrioles are found in all plant cells.
D Prokaryotic cells contain 80S ribosomes which they use to manufacture proteins.
41. Some features of cells are listed.

[J18/P12/1]
1 cell wall
2 cell surface membrane
3 ribosomes
Which features can be found in plant cells and in prokaryotic cells?

11
42. Which of these statements about light microscopy are correct? [J18/P12/2]
1
1. The greater the resolution of a light microscope, the greater the detail that can be seen.
2. The greater the magnification of a light microscope, the greater the detail that can be seen.
3. Increasing the magnification of a light microscope up to its limit of resolution allows more detail to be
seen.
4. The shorter the wavelength of light used in a light microscope, the greater the detail that can be seen.
A 1, 2, 3 and 4 B 1, 3 and 4 only

C 1 and 2 only D 4 only
43. Which type of cell contains the highest proportion of cell structures bound by a single membrane?
[J18/P12/3]
A ciliated epithelial cell B goblet cell
C red blood cell D smooth muscle cell
44. The table shows a variety of structures which may be found in cells. [J18/P12/4]
Which row shows structures that could be found in the root cells of a plant?
45. Which of these cell structures are present in Plasmodium (eukaryote)? [J18/P12/5]
46. What is the diameter of a typical prokaryote, such as Streptococcus? [N18/P12/1]
A 7.5 × 101nm B 7.5 × 102 nm

C 7.5 × 100 μm D 7.5 × 101 μm
12
47. A specimen of plant tissue is first observed under a microscope using red light with a wavelength of 650 nm.
[N18/P12/2] 1
The same specimen is then observed under the same conditions, but using green light with a wavelength of
510 nm.
What happens to the magnification and resolution when using green light compared to red light?
Cell Structure
48. Which structures are present in a Vibrio cholerae (bacterium) cell? [N18/P12/3]
49. The removal of a plant cell wall by enzyme digestion leaves an intact membrane-bound structure called a
protoplast. [N18/P12/4]
Which statement explains why protoplasts are easily damaged?
A Mitochondria stop producing ATP to maintain membrane integrity.

B Net movement of water is no longer limited by turgor.
C Secretory vesicles are unable to fuse with the cell surface membrane.
D The shape of the cell structures is changed by the loss of cell shape.
50. Which statements are correct for a green plant? [N18/P12/5]
1. ATP is produced by mitochondria.

2. ATP is produced by chloroplasts.
3. ATP forms part of the DNA.

13
51. Which processes occur in eukaryotes and prokaryotes? [N18/P12/6]
1
1 hydrolysis 2 mitosis
3 transcription 4 translation
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1, 2 and 4
C 1, 3 and 4 D 2,3 and 4
52. The actual length of a cell structure is 8 μm.

[J19/P12/1]
Which steps are used to calculate the magnification of an electron micrograph of this cell structure?
step 1 measure the length of the cell structure image on the micrograph in centimetres
step 2 measure the length of the cell structure image on the micrograph in millimetres
step 3 divide the image length by 1000
step 4 multiply the image length by 1000
step 5 divide by 8
step 6 multiply by 8
A steps 1, 3 and 6 B steps 1, 4 and 6

C steps 2, 3 and 5 D steps 2, 4 and 5
53. What is the typical resolution of a microscope using daylight as a light source with a ×10 eyepiece lens and a
×40 objective lens? [J19/P12/2]
A 0.20nm B 200nm
C 100μm D 400μm
54. Two different types of cell, P and Q, were broken up using ultrasound and their contents analysed. Both types
of cell contained small circular DNA. The circular DNA from P all carried the same base sequence, but those
from Q were of two types, with different base sequences. [J19/P12/3]
What may be concluded about the identity of cell types P and Q?
55. Which features shown in the diagram can be present in viruses? [J19/P12/4]
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1, 2 and 4
C 1, 3 and 4 D 2, 3 and 4
14
Structured Questions 1
1. Fig. 1.1 is a diagram of an electron micrograph of a plant cell.

Fig. 1.2 is a diagram of an electron micrograph of an animal cell.
Both diagrams are incomplete.
Cell Structure
(a) Explain how Fig. 1.1 can be identified as a plant cell.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
15
(b) Some organelles are missing from Figs 1.1 and 1.2. Information about these organelles is shown in the
1 shaded boxes in Table 1.1.
Complete the empty boxes in Table 1.1 by adding the correct information below each column heading.
Table 1.1
[8]
[Total: 10][J10/P22/1]
16
2. Fig. 2.1 shows part of an animal cell viewed with an electron microscope.
1
Cell Structure
Fig. 2.1
(a) Name the structures A to C.
A ...............................................................................
B ...............................................................................
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
(b) (i) State the function of structure C.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(ii) Explain why structure C cannot be seen using a light microscope.
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
(c) Suggest one disadvantage of the electron microscope compared to the light microscope for the study of
cells.
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(d) Calculate the magnification of the image in Fig. 2.1.

Show your working and give your answer to the nearest whole number.
Answer = ...................................[2]
[Total: 9][J10/P23/1]
17
3. Fig. 3.1 is an electron micrograph of a mitochondrion.
1
Fig. 3.1
(a) State the function of mitochondria.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(b) Name structure A.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(c) Calculate the magnification of the image in Fig. 3.1.

Show your working.
magnification X ......................................................... [2]
(d) Explain why the light microscope could not be used to produce the image in Fig. 3.1.
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(e) Scientists think that mitochondria were once prokaryotes. The evidence for this is that mitochondria have
features in common with prokaryotes.
State two features that mitochondria have in common with prokaryotes.
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
[Total: 8][N15/P21/1]
18
4. A student compared an image of a plant cell with an image of an animal cell. Both images were at the same
magnification. 1
Parts (a) to (c) are four correct comparative statements about these images.
(a) Both cells contain large numbers of an organelle, bound by a double membrane. The inner membrane
of these organelles is folded. These organelles all have a similar structure but do not always appear to
have the same shape.
(i) State the name of the organelles described.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(ii) Suggest one reason why the organelles described do not always seem to have the same shape.
............................................................................
Cell Structure
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(b) Both cells contain cell structures that are approximately 25 nm in diameter and are not bound by a
membrane.
(i) State the name of the cell structures described.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(ii) Draw a circle around the measurement that has the same value as 25 nm.
0.00025 μm 0.0025 μm 0.025 μm 0. 25 μm 2.5 μm

[1]
(c) There are strands of cytoplasm passing through channels in the cell wall of the plant cell.
These are not visible in the animal cell.
(i) State the name of the cell structures described.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(ii) Explain one advantage to the plant cell of having these structures.
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
[Total: 6][N15/P22/1]
5. Match the description for each of statements A to E to a correct cell structure.
A Double membrane-bound organelle, absent in animal cells, that produces ATP.
.................................................................................
B Partially permeable membrane surrounding the large permanent vacuole of plant cells.
.................................................................................
C Formed from microtubules during mitosis.
.................................................................................
19
D Has peptidoglycan as one of its major components.
1
.................................................................................
E Site of assembly of 80S ribosomes.

.................................................................................
[Total: 5][N16/P22/1]
6. Complete Table 6.1 to show some differences between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell.
Table 6.1
[2][J18/P23/6b]
20
7. (a) Aphids are small insects which feed directly on phloem sap.
The salivary glands of aphids have secretory cells that make and release a variety of proteins that assist 1
in feeding.
Fig. 1.1 is a transmission electron micrograph of a small area of a salivary gland cell of an aphid.
Cell Structure
Fig. 1.1
Describe the role of Golgi bodies in secretory cells, such as the salivary gland cells of aphids.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
(b) (i) Explain why secretory cells have large numbers of mitochondria.
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
21
(ii) Mitochondria are partly controlled by the nucleus, but can also function independently.
1 Suggest the features of mitochondria that allow them to function independently of the nucleus.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
(c) Aphids are important vectors of plant viral diseases.

(i) Describe the structure of a typical virus.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
(ii) Suggest how viruses are able to pass from one plant cell to the next without crossing membranes.
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
[Total: 11][N18/P23/1]
22
CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Learning
Learning objectives
objectives
1. describe the ring forms of α -glucose and β –glucose

2. define the terms monomer, polymer, macromolecule, monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide
3. describe the formation of a glycosidic bond by condensation, with reference both to polysaccharides and
to disaccharides, including sucrose
4. describe the breakage of glycosidic bonds in polysaccharides and disaccharides by hydrolysis, with
reference to the non-reducing sugar test
5. describe the molecular structure of polysaccharides including starch (amylose and amylopectin), glycogen
and cellulose and relate these structures to their functions in living organisms
6. describe the molecular structure of a triglyceride with reference to the formation of ester bonds and relate
the structure of triglycerides to their functions in living organisms
7. describe the structure of a phospholipid and relate the structure of phospholipids to their functions in
living organisms
8. carry out tests for reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars, the iodine in potassium iodide solution test
for starch, the emulsion test for lipids and the biuret test for proteins to identify the contents of solutions
9. carry out a semi-quantitative Benedict’s test on a reducing sugar using dilution, standardising the test
and using the results (colour standards or time to first colour change) to estimate the concentration
1. Which shows the basic unit of glycogen? [J14/P12/7]
2. Four sugar solutions were tested with a standard Benedictʼs solution. The table shows the colour of the
solutions after testing. [J14/P12/8]
23
What is the best interpretation of the results?
2
3. Which features adapt a cellulose molecule for its function? [J14/P12/9]
1. Long chains of glucose molecules coil into a helix.

2. Many hydrogen bonds form between adjacent chains.
3. It is insoluble in water.

4. Which molecule contains a glycosidic bond? [J14/P12/11]
5. Two disaccharides are maltose and sucrose. Maltose is formed from two molecules of glucose, whilst sucrose
is formed from fructose and glucose. [N14/P12/8]
Which row shows the molecular formulae of the two disaccharides?
24
6. The diagram shows a carbohydrate molecule. [N14/P12/9]
Of which polymers could this be a part?
Biological Molecules
A amylopectin and cellulose B amylose and starch
C glycogen and amylose D starch and glycogen
7. Which of the bonds stabilising the tertiary structure of a protein would be least likely to break when the
temperature is increased above the optimum for the protein? [N14/P12/10]
A disulfide B hydrogen
C hydrophobic D ionic
8. The diagram shows the structure of four amino acids in solution. [N14/P12/11]
Which amino acids have no overall charge?
A alanine and aspartate B alanine and glycine

C aspartate and lysine D glycine and lysine
25
9. The statements are about the properties of water. [N14/P12/12]
2
1. It requires a lot of heat to evaporate.
2. It retains a lot of heat.
3. It is able to form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules.
4. It is able to form hydrogen bonds with other polar and non-polar molecules.
Which properties are important in transpiring plants to prevent enzymes in leaves from being denatured?
A 1 only B 1 and 2 only

C 2 and 3 only D 1, 2, 3 and 4
10. Which type of bond holds together an α-helix or β-pleated sheet of a protein? [J15/P12/7]
A disulfide
B hydrogen
C ionic
D peptide
11. What describes only the quaternary structure of haemoglobin? [J15/P12/8]
1. α-helix
2. a dipeptide
3. a globular structure
4. the specific order of amino acids
5. four polypeptide chains joined together
A 1, 2 and 3 B 2, 4 and 5
C 1 and 4 D 5 only
12. The statements are about the properties of water. [J15/P12/9]
1. ability to form hydrogen bonds with other molecules

2. less dense when frozen
3. able to hold a lot of heat
What allows a small insect to rest on the surface of a pond?
A 1 and 2 B 2 and 3
C 1 only D 2 only
13. Which bonds hold together the structure of cellulose? [J15/P12/10]
1. glycosidic
2. hydrogen
3. ionic

26
14. Which bonds are found in glycogen? [J15/P12/11]
15. Solutions of biological molecules are tested for sugars. The table shows the colours of the solutions after
testing. [J15/P12/12]
Which may contain non-reducing sugars?

16. The colour of a positive Benedictʼs test is due to the formation of copper oxide. The mass of copper oxide is
proportional to the mass of reducing sugar present. [N15/P12/7]
Samples of fruit juice were tested for the presence of reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars using the
Benedictʼs test. The results show the mass of copper oxide after boiling with Benedictʼs solution and after acid
hydrolysis and boiling with Benedictʼs solution.
Which sample contained the most non-reducing sugar?
17. Which diagram shows the bond linking the individual units of both cellulose and glycogen? [N15/P12/8]
27
18. Which row describes a triglyceride? [N15/P12/9]
2
19. The diagrams show the amino acid serine. [N15/P12/10]
Which circled area is different in all other amino acids?
20. As a frozen lake warms after a cold winter, mineral nutrients are brought to the surface. [N15/P12/11]
Which properties of water contribute to this process?
1. Its greatest density is at 4 °C.

2. It has high specific heat capacity.
3. It is a solvent.
4. Its molecules form hydrogen bonds.
A 1 and 3 B 1 and 4
C 2 and 3 D 2 and 4
21. Which row shows the monomer and type of bond that form the polymer? [J16/P12/5]
28
22. Which biological molecules always contain the element nitrogen? [J16/P12/6]
A amino acids, cellulose, mRNA

B amino acids, DNA, lipids 2
C enzymes, mRNA, tRNA
D membrane proteins, starch, tRNA
23. Which statement about the quaternary structure of proteins is correct? [J16/P12/7]
A consists of four subunits

B depends on the presence of metal ions
C depends on the primary structure of the subunits
D is made of α and β subunits
24. Which set of statements correctly describes haemoglobin? [J16/P12/8]
25. The diagrams show different types of bond found in biological molecules. [J16/P12/9]
Which bonds are found in proteins with a tertiary structure?
A 1, 2, 3 and 4 B 2, 3, 4 and 5
C 1 and 5 D 2 and 4 only
29
26. The diagrams show four monosaccharides with the formula C6H12O6. [N16/P12/7]
2
Which diagrams do not show glucose molecules?
A 1 and 2 B 1 and 4
C 2 and 3 D 3 and 4
27. Complete digestion of polysaccharides requires all the glycosidic bonds between the monomers to be broken.
[N16/P12/8]
Amylase breaks only α-1,4 glycosidic bonds.
How completely can amylase digest molecules of amylose, amylopectin or glycogen?
28. Which statements about a triglyceride molecule are correct? [N16/P12/9]
1 It always contains unsaturated hydrocarbon tails.

2 It is formed using ester bonds.
3 It does not form hydrogen bonds.
4 It contains a hydrophilic glycerol head.
A 1, 2 and 3 B 2, 3 and 4
29. The table shows some features of collagen and haemoglobin. [N16/P12/10]
Which row is collagen?
30
30. The ring structure of sugars can also be represented as a linear structure, as shown in the diagram.
[N16/P12/11]
Which of the sugar molecules could be represented by this formula?
2
Which of the sugar molecules could be represented by this formula?
1 β-glucose
2 ribose
3 sucrose
A 1 and 2 only B 2 and 3 only

C 1 only D 2 only
31. What is the minimum number of carbon atoms in an amino acid? [N16/P12/12]
A 1 B 2
C 3 D 4
32. Boiling the bones and teeth from dead animals can be used to produce a type of glue. [J17/P12/5]
The glue is formed from the collagen fibres present in bones and teeth.
Which statement describes the changes to collagen that occur when the glue is produced?
A The fibres of collagen become more coiled.

B The fibres of collagen become more flexible.
C The helices of collagen molecules unwind.
D The molecules of collagen dissolve in water.
33. What describes the primary structure of a protein? [J17/P12/6]
A α-helix B a dipeptide
C a globular structure D the specific order of amino acids
31
34. The diagrams show four monosaccharides with the formula C6H12O6. [J17/P12/7]
2
Which diagram shows α-glucose?
35. Complete digestion of polysaccharides requires all the glycosidic bonds between the monomers to be broken.
[J17/P12/8]
Amylase only breaks α-1,4 glycosidic bonds.
Which row shows how completely amylase can digest molecules of cellulose, amylopectin or amylose?
36. The diagram shows the results of tests on four solutions containing biological molecules. [J17/P12/9]
Which shows the solution that contains only starch and protein?
37. A student carried out four tests for biological molecules on a sample of milk. [N17/P12/7]
The tests and their results were as follows.

● Heating to 80 °C with Benedictʼs solution gave a brick red colour.
● Adding Biuret solution gave a purple colour.
● Adding iodine solution gave an orange colour.
● Boiling with acid, followed by neutralisation, then heating to 80 °C with Benedictʼs solution gave a brick
red colour.
32
Which biological molecules must be present in the milk?
1. non-reducing sugars
2.
3.
protein
reducing sugars
2
4. starch

C 2 and 3 only D 3 and 4
38. Which features adapt a cellulose molecule for its function? [N17/P12/8]
1. Long chains of glucose molecules coil into a helix.
2. Many hydrogen bonds form between adjacent chains.
3. It is insoluble in water.

39. Two disaccharides are maltose and sucrose. [N17/P12/9]

Maltose is formed from two molecules of glucose, whilst sucrose is formed from fructose and glucose.
Which row shows the molecular formulae of the two disaccharides?
maltose sucrose
A C12H22O11 C12H22O11
B C12H22O11 C12H24O12
C C12H24O12 C12H22O11
D C12H24O12 C12H24O12
40. The diagram shows the structure of the polysaccharide chitin which is found in the cell wall of fungi.
[N17/P12/10]
CH3
C O
CH2OH N H CH2OH
H C O C C H H C O
C C O C C O C C
C C H H C O C C H
N H CH2OH N H
O C O C
CH3 CH3
Which statements are correct for chitin and for cellulose?
1. The monomers are joined by 1,4 glycosidic bonds.

2. Every second monosaccharide in the polysaccharide chain is rotated by 180°.
3. The polysaccharide contains the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

33
41. Which row correctly matches the functional and structural features of cellulose, collagen, glycogen or
2 triglyceride? [N17/P12/11]
structure
molecules held
molecule function fibrous together by branched chains

hydrogen bonds
A cellulose support
triglyceride energy source
B collagen strengthening
cellulose support
C collagen strengthening
glycogen storage
D glycogen storage
triglyceride energy source
key = true = false
42. A polypeptide has a number of amino acids (n). [N17/P12/12]

1
How many peptide bonds and R groups (side chains) does this polypeptide have?
A n – 1 peptide bonds and n – 1 R groups

B n – 1 peptide bonds and n R groups
C n peptide bonds and n – 1 R groups
D n peptide bonds and n R groups
43. What are the features of triglycerides? [N17/P12/13]
lower proportion
less dense
polar of hydrogen than
than water
in carbohydrates
A key
B = yes
C = no
D
44. A student was asked to estimate the concentration of glucose in a solution using the Benedictʼs test. The
student was provided with a 1.0 mol dm–3 glucose solution and was told to make a 0.6 mol dm–3 solution by
proportional dilution. [J18/P12/6]
Which row shows the correct volumes of both 1.0 mol dm–3 glucose solution and distilled water needed to
make the 0.6 mol dm–3 solution?
34
45. The diagram shows part of a carbohydrate molecule formed by glucose. [J18/P12/7]
What is the name of the molecule?
A amylose B cellulose
C glycogen D starch
46. The diagram shows the relationship between some biological molecules. [J18/P12/8]
Which row is correct?
47. Which diagram shows the reaction that occurs to link two monomers that form cellulose? [J18/P12/9]
35
48. Which molecules contain C=O bonds? [J18/P12/10]
2
1. amino acids
2. fatty acids
3. glycerol

49. Which row describes a collagen molecule? [J18/P12/11]
50. A sample of a solution was tested for reducing sugar and the result was negative. [N18/P12/7]
Another sample of the same solution was then tested for non-reducing sugar and the result was positive.
Which step in the test for non-reducing sugar breaks the glycosidic bonds?
A addition of Benedictʼs reagent

B addition of sodium hydroxide
C boiling with hydrochloric acid
D heating to 80 °C
51. Which row correctly identifies three polysaccharides? [N18/P12/8]
36
52. Which row describes a triglyceride? [N18/P12/9]
53. Which diagram shows where a peptide bond would be formed? [N18/P12/10]
54. Which statements about collagen molecules are correct? [N18/P12/11]
1. Both types of secondary structure occur within the molecules.

2. Large numbers of hydrogen bonds stabilise the molecules.
3. Repeated amino acid sequences determine the tertiary structure.

55. The protein glutenin gives bread dough its elasticity. The diagram represents a polypeptide of glutenin.
[N18/P12/12]
What describes the structure of glutenin?
A quaternary structure because there are both globular and fibrous regions
B quaternary structure because there are both spiral and tightly coiled regions
C secondary structure because the loose spiral is an α-helix
D tertiary structure because the different regions form a 3D shape
37
56. Which diagram correctly shows hydrogen bonding between water molecules? [N18/P12/13]
2 The symbol δ indicates the partial charge on an atom in the water molecule.
57. After boiling a sample of milk with Benedictʼs solution, a yellow colour is observed. [J19/P12/5]
Which conclusion about the sample of milk is correct?
A Reducing sugars are not present.

B Reducing sugars are present.
C There is a high concentration of fructose.
D There is a low concentration of sucrose.
58. Which of the statements about polysaccharides can be used to describe amylose and cellulose?
[J19/P12/6]
1 contains 1,4 glycosidic bonds
2 contains 1,6 glycosidic bonds
3 polymer of glucose
A 1 and 2
B 1 and 3
C 1 only
D 2 and 3
59. Which diagram shows the formation of a peptide bond? [J19/P12/7]
38
60. Which features affect the tensile strength of collagen? [J19/P12/9]
1. the helical structure of collagen chains

2.
3.
the small R group of the amino acids in collagen
the insoluble nature of collagen
2
4. the bonds between collagen molecules
A 1, 2, 3 and 4
B 1, 2 and 4 only
C 1 and 3 only
D 2, 3 and 4 only
39
2
Structured Questions
1. The amino acid sequence of the protein hormone insulin is shown in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1
40
(a) With reference to Fig. 1.1, state
(i) which two levels of protein structure are shown
1 ........................................................................... 2
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
(ii) the name of the structures responsible for holding the two polypeptide chains together.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(b) Many people with diabetes need to take regular injections of insulin. Insulin in the form shown in Fig. 1.1
cannot be taken by mouth as it would be hydrolysed by proteases in the gut.
In the space below, draw a diagram to show how the peptide bond between glutamine 15 and leucine
16 in polypeptide chain A could be hydrolysed and show the products of the hydrolysis.
[3]
[Total: 6][J10/P23/3]
41
2. Fig. 2.1 shows five different biological molecules.
2
Fig. 2.1
42
Complete Table 2.1 by indicating which molecule matches each statement.
You may use each letter (H to M) once, more than once or not at all.
You should write only one letter in each box.
Table 2.1
2
[Total: 7][J11/21/5]
3. Fig. 3.1 shows the structures of four biological molecules A, B, C and D.
Fig. 3.1
43
(a) Give the letter, A to D, of the molecule in Fig. 3.1 which:
2
(i) is a nucleotide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(ii) can form peptide bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(iii) contains ester bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

[3]
(b) Some of the molecules in Fig. 3.1 can form polymers.

(i) Name a polymer which can be formed only from many molecules of C.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(ii) State one way, visible in Fig. 3.1, in which the part labelled 1 of molecule A differs from the part
labelled 2.
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(iii) Molecule D can form macromolecules with other similar monomers.

These macromolecules have three dimensional shapes held in place by interactions or bonds other
than those between adjacent monomers.
Name two of these interactions or bonds.
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
[Total: 7][J14/P23/1]
4. (a) In the space below, draw a diagram to show a hydrogen bond between two water molecules.
[3]
(b) (i) Movement of water in xylem depends on the force of attraction between water molecules as a
result of hydrogen bonding.
State the name given to this force of attraction.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(ii) State the property of water that results in a cooling effect as water evaporates from the surface of
organisms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
[Total: 5][J17/P23/6]
44
5. Triglycerides and phospholipids are types of lipid.
Fig. 5.1 shows the structure of one type of phospholipid known as phosphatidylcholine. F1 and F2 are fatty
acid residues.
2
Fig. 5.1
(a) Phospholipase is an enzyme that can break down phospholipids. This enzyme is found in the venom of
some insects, such as bees.
Bee venom can destroy red blood cells, a condition known as haemolysis.
Suggest how bee venom destroys red blood cells.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(b) Compare, stating similarities and differences, the structure of the phosphatidylcholine shown in Fig. 5.1
with the structure of a triglyceride molecule.
similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
45
differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [4]
(c) Name and describe the cell structure in which the synthesis of triglycerides and other lipids takes place.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
[Total: 9][N17/22/2]
6. (a) Fig. 6.1 is a transmission electron micrograph showing two adjacent cells in a leaf.
Fig. 6.1
(i) Cellulose is the main polysaccharide in cell walls of plants.

Describe the structure of cellulose.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
(ii) State one feature visible in Fig. 6.1, other than the cell wall, that identifies the cells as plant cells.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
46
(iii) Outline the role of ATP in a leaf cell.
............................................................................
............................................................................
2
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
Water is a main component of plant cells.

(b) Fig. 6.2 shows two water molecules linked by a hydrogen bond.
Fig. 6.2
Explain how hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
(c) Suggest why water is an excellent solvent for ions.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
[Total: 11][N18/P21/3]
47
7. (a) Proteins are macromolecules composed of many amino acids.
2 (i) Two amino acids are represented in the diagram in Fig. 7.1.
Complete the diagram to show how the two amino acids react together to form a dipeptide.
Fig. 7.1
[3]
(ii) State what is represented by R1 and R2 in Fig. 7.1.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(b) Amylose and cellulose are polysaccharides.

Fig. 7.2 shows the structure of part of a cellulose molecule.
Fig. 7.2
48
With reference to Fig. 7.2, state how the structure of a cellulose molecule differs from the structure of an
amylose molecule.
................................................................................. 2
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
(c) Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls.

Explain why cellulose is suitable as a component of plant cell walls.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [4]
[Total: 11][N18/P23/2]
49
CHAPTER 3 ENZYMES
Learning objectives
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. explain that enzymes are globular proteins that catalyse metabolic reactions
2. state that enzymes function inside cells (intracellular enzymes) and outside cells (extracellular enzymes)
3. explain the mode of action of enzymes in terms of an active site, enzyme/substrate complex, lowering of
activation energy and enzyme specificity (the lock and key hypothesis and the induced fit hypothesis should
be included)
4. investigate the progress of an enzyme-catalysed reaction by measuring rates of formation of products (for
example, using catalase) or rates of disappearance of substrate (for example, using amylase)
5. investigate and explain the effects of the following factors on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions:
● temperature
● pH (using buffer solutions)
● enzyme concentration
● substrate concentration
● inhibitor concentration
6. explain that the maximum rate of reaction (Vmax) is used to derive the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km)
which is used to compare the affinity of different enzymes for their substrates
7. explain the effects of reversible inhibitors, both competitive and non-competitive, on the rate of enzyme
activity
8. investigate and explain the effect of immobilising an enzyme in alginate on its activity as compared with its
activity when free in solution
1. An enzyme is completely denatured at 50 °C. A fixed concentration of this enzyme is added to a fixed
concentration of its substrate. The time taken for completion of the reaction is measured at different
temperatures. [J10/P12/24]
Which graph shows the results?
50
2. The enzyme lysozyme secreted from tear glands forms deposits on contact lenses. [J10/P12/25]
Which ingredient would be effective in a contact lens cleaner for removing these deposits?
A ethanol B lysosomes
C pH buffers D proteases 3
3. A fixed volume of the enzyme catalase was added to a fixed volume of hydrogen peroxide solution.
[N10/P12/11]
The diagram shows how the rate of the reaction changed over the course of the reaction.
Enzymes
Why did the actual rate of reaction decrease over time?
A The enzyme active sites become saturated.

B The enzymes were denatured.
C The product inhibited the reaction.
D The substrate molecules were used up.
4. Which levels of protein structure are always involved when competitive and non-competitive inhibitors bind to
enzymes? [N10/P12/12]
5. The graph shows the activation energy of an enzyme-catalysed reaction and the same reaction without a
catalyst. [J11/P12/12]
51
Which of the following shows the activation energy of the uncatalysed reaction?
3
A X+Y–Z B X+Z–Y
C X+Y D Y+Z
6. Which of the following statements are true of all enzymes? [J11/P12/13]
1. soluble in water
2. catalyse the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules
3. only have one active site
4. have a quaternary structure

C 1 only D 4 only
7. The graphs show the effects of temperature and pH on enzyme activity. [J11/P12/14]
Which statement explains the enzyme activity at the point shown?
A At P, hydrogen bonds are formed between enzyme and substrate.

B At Q, the kinetic energy of enzyme and substrate is highest.
C At R, peptide bonds in the enzyme begin to break.
D At S, the enzyme is completely denatured.
8. In an enzyme-catalysed reaction, which combination of inhibitor and substrate would result in the highest rate
of reaction? [N11/P12/12] [J15/P12/13]
52
9. Following a heart attack, the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase leaks into the blood plasma from damaged heart
muscle. [N11/P12/13]
Which steps are required to obtain the best estimate of lactate dehydrogenase activity in a sample of blood
plasma?
10. Which graph represents the changes in concentration of a substrate and its product in the same enzyme-
catalysed reaction? [J12/P12/12]
11. Glucose in urine can be detected using a biochemical test. When the end of a test strip, which is impregnated Enzymes
with the enzyme glucose oxidase, is dipped into urine, the development of a blue colour indicates that glucose
is present. [J12/P12/13]
This is a reliable test that people with diabetes can carry out at home.
Which feature of the enzyme makes this test so reliable?
A It is heat stable.
B It is specific.
C It lowers the activation energy of the reaction.
D It only works at low pH range.
53
12. What is the role of enzymes in metabolism? [N12/P12/13]
3
A to catalyse the hydrolysis of large molecules only
B to increase the number of collisions between molecules
C to lower the activation energy required to start a reaction
D to supply the activation energy required to start a reaction
13. Two enzyme experiments were carried out. The first, experiment X, was carried out at a constant temperature
of 37 oC. During the second experiment the temperature was increased from 37 oC to 80 oC. All other factors
were kept the same. [N12/P12/14]
Which graph shows the results?
14. Two pairs of students each counted the number of bubbles of oxygen given off in a minute when investigating
the effect of catalase from plant tissue on hydrogen peroxide. [J13/P12/14]
Each pair repeated the experiment five times and calculated the mean number of bubbles per minute.
Which have correctly calculated the mean?
A 1, 3 and 4 only B 1 and 4 only

C 2 only D 3 only
15. When investigating the rate of reaction of the enzyme lipase on the hydrolysis of triglycerides, the pH must be
maintained at an optimum to prevent the lipase denaturing. [J13/P12/15]
What is the reason for this?
A The addition of water molecules produced by hydrolysis increases pH.

B The products of hydrolysis decrease the pH.
C The products of hydrolysis increase the pH.
D The removal of water molecules used in hydrolysis decreases pH.
54
16. Which is correct for a non-competitive inhibitor of enzyme action? [N13/P12/11]
1. Increasing the concentration of the enzyme’s substrate will reduce its effect.
2. It reduces the activation energy required for a reaction to take place.
3. It reduces the maximum rate of reaction.
A 1 only B 3 only 3
17. The enzyme lysozyme secreted from tear glands forms deposits on contact lenses. [N13/P12/12]
Which ingredient would be effective in a contact lens cleaner for removing these deposits?
A ethanol B lysosomes
C pH buffers D proteases
18. The drug ritonavir is sometimes used in the treatment of HIV / AIDS. [J14/P12/13]
Ritonavir consists of three amino acids and is a competitive inhibitor of HIV protease. HIV causes this protease
Enzymes
to be made inside human cells.
Ritonavir produces many side effects as it interferes with many metabolic processes in human cells.
Which statements about ritonavir are correct?
1. Ritonavir has a shape complementary to the active site of HIV protease.

2. Ritonavir will enter human cells directly through the lipid bilayer and not require any transport proteins.
3. Ritonavir is likely to inhibit many of the enzymes of human cells.
4. Complete hydrolysis of ritonavir would require the addition of three water molecules.

C 2 and 4 D 3 and 4
19. Which words from the table correctly complete the paragraph about enzymes? [N14/P12/13]
When the pH of an environment is decreased below an enzymeʼs optimum pH, ……1…… bonds between
adjacent ……2…… groups, holding the ……3…… structure, are disrupted.
55
20. Lipase is a digestive enzyme produced by the pancreas that catalyses the hydrolysis of dietary lipids. The
3 table shows how the pH of a liquid food containing a high proportion of lipids decreases over time.
[N14/P12/14]
Which statements are possible explanations of the results of the experiment between 50 and 60 minutes?
1. Enzyme concentration becomes the limiting factor.

2. Substrate concentration becomes the limiting factor.
3. All the enzyme active sites are saturated.
4. Denaturation of the enzyme by the products.
5. Products are acting as competitive inhibitors.
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1, 4 and 5
C 2, 3 and 4 D 2, 4 and 5
21. The AIDS virus produces a long polypeptide that is hydrolysed by a protease enzyme, producing several
smaller peptides. This viral protease is the target of anti-AIDS drugs. [N14/P12/15]
Which feature is essential for the success of these drugs?
A a complex structure that inhibits many types of viral enzyme

B a molecule containing a heavy metal atom that is a non-competitive inhibitor of enzymes
C a protein that can act as a competitive inhibitor of protease enzymes
D a specific structure that inhibits only viral protease
22. Which statements are true about the optimum temperature of all enzymes? [J15/P12/14]
1. It is the temperature at which the enzymes work best.

2. It is the highest temperature at which the enzyme will work.
3. It is between 35 oC and 40 oC.

C 1 only D 3 only
56
23. Which statements describe some enzyme actions? [N15/P12/12]
1. Enzymes hold reacting molecules in such a way that their reactive groups are brought close together.
2. In an enzyme-catalysed reaction, more molecules have sufficient energy to react than in the absence of
the enzyme.
3. Reactions catalysed by enzymes take place at a lower temperature than they would without the enzyme.
3
24. The diagram shows the mass of product formed over time in three reactions using the same substrate and
enzyme. [N15/P12/13]
The volumes of substrate, enzyme and temperature were kept constant in each reaction.
Enzymes
Which statement explains the difference in these reactions?
A The pH in reactions 2 and 3 has denatured the enzyme.

B There is a non-competitive inhibitor present in reaction 3.
C There is the highest concentration of enzyme in reaction 1.
D There is the highest concentration of substrate in reaction 1.
25. Tyrosinase is an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine into the black pigment
melanin. It is responsible for the black fur colour of some rabbits. [N15/P12/14]
A group of rabbits kept at 30 °C resulted in 90% of the rabbits with light fur colour. A second group of rabbits
kept at 10 °C resulted in 90% of the rabbits with black fur colour.
Which hypothesis is supported by these results?
A An inhibitor is present in rabbit skin cells that can bind strongly to tyrosinase when the external
temperature is 30 °C.
B At 10 °C external temperature there are fewer tyrosinase-tyrosine complexes formed and less melanin
is produced.
C Tyrosinase is an enzyme that is coded for by a gene that is switched off when the external temperature
is 10 °C.
D Tyrosinase is a temperature-sensitive molecule that is only activated when the externaltemperature is
30 °C.
57
26. HIV-1 protease is an enzyme produced by the HIV virus. [N16/P12/13]
3 Two identical chains of 99 amino acids form the enzyme. In each chain, amino acids 25, 26 and 27 in the
sequence form part of the active site.
Which orders of protein structure control the shape of the active site?
A primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary

B primary, secondary and tertiary only
C primary and quaternary only
D quaternary only
27. The graph shows the results of an investigation into the effect of amylase on starch at three different
temperatures. [N16/P12/14]
Which statements are correct conclusions using these results?
1. The optimum temperature is 50 0C.

2. The initial rate of reaction is highest at 70 0C.
3. The higher the temperature the more quickly the enzyme denatures.

28. The enzyme invertase catalyses the breakdown of sucrose to glucose and fructose. [J17/P12/10]
Three different enzyme inhibitors of invertase X, Y and Z were investigated. The percentage inhibition of
invertase was measured at different concentrations of inhibitor.
The graph shows the result of the investigation.
58
Which are valid conclusions from these results?
1. The higher the concentration of inhibitor X, the less sucrose is broken down.
2. The production of glucose and fructose using inhibitor Y is higher than when inhibitor Z is used.
3. The production of glucose and fructose at an inhibitor concentration of 2 arbitrary units is lower than at
an inhibitor concentration of 4 arbitrary units, for all inhibitors.
3
A 1 and 2 B 1 only
C 2 and 3 D 3 only
29. The following statements are about enzymes. [J17/P12/11]
1. Folding of an enzyme molecule causes the formation of the active site.

2. The shape of the active site changes to enable the substrate to bind.
3. Temporary bonds hold the substrate in the active site.
4. More enzyme-substrate complexes are formed at the optimum temperature.
Which statements are correct for the induced fit hypothesis?
Enzymes
A 1 and 2 B 1 and 3
C 2, 3 and 4 D 2 and 4 only
30. How is the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) used? [J17/P12/12]
A to assess the efficiency of an enzyme in catalysing a reaction

B to compare the affinity of enzymes for their substrate
C to find the maximum velocity of an enzyme (Vmax)
D to find the rate at which substrate is loaded by an enzyme
31. Which of these statements describe the action of an extracellular enzyme? [N17/P12/14]
1. synthesis of a polynucleotide in the nucleus during DNA replication

2. digestion of macromolecules in the lumen of the small intestine
3. synthesis of ATP molecules in the mitochondria
A 1 and 2 B 1 and 3
C 2 and 3 D 2 only
32. An experiment was carried out in which the enzyme lipase was used to hydrolyse a triglyceride.
The pH was recorded at regular intervals during the reaction. [N17/P12/15]
The results are shown in the table.
time / minutes pH
0 7.0
2 6.2
4 5.6
6 5.1
8 4.7
10 4.6
12 4.6
14 4.6
59
At 14 minutes unreacted triglyceride was still present.
3
What explains the results after 10 minutes?
A The end-products acted as competitive inhibitors.

B The end-products acted as non-competitive inhibitors.

C The enzyme reaction had reached Vmax.
D The tertiary structure of the enzyme had been lost.
33. Which statement about the effect of substrate concentration on the activity of an enzyme is correct?
[N17/P12/16]
A Above a certain concentration of substrate an enzyme reaches its maximum rate of reaction.
B At high concentration of competitive inhibitor increasing the substrate concentration has no effect.
C At high substrate concentration a non-competitive inhibitor no longer affects the enzyme activity.
D The higher the concentration of substrate the faster an enzyme can catalyse a reaction.
34. A student investigated the hydrolysis of the lipid in high-fat milk, using the enzyme lipase. [J18/P12/12]
● 1 cm3 of enzyme solution was added to 10 cm3 of high-fat milk.

● The temperature was kept constant.
● The pH of the reaction mixture was recorded at time 0 minutes and every minute for 20 minutes.
Which statements could be supported by the results of the investigation?
1. Less product is made as time proceeds because the substrate is decreasing.

2. The pH of the reaction mixture changes more rapidly in the first few minutes and then changes less
rapidly.
3. The product gradually causes more lipase molecules to denature.

35. A student carried out an investigation into the effect of temperature on the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction.
[J18/P12/13]
At each temperature, the substrate concentration was measured after 10 minutes. All the other variables were
kept constant.
Which graph shows the effect of increasing temperature on the substrate concentration after 10 minutes?
60
36. The graph shows how the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction depends on the concentration of substrate.
[J18/P12/14]
What is the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) for this enzyme under these conditions?
A 0.19 mmol dm–3 B 0.38 mmol dm–3

C 1.5 mmol dm–3 D 5.0 mmol dm–3
Enzymes
37. Aspirin inhibits an enzyme by reacting with an amino acid that forms an essential part of the 3D structure of
the enzyme. Part of the aspirin molecule binds firmly with the amino acid. [N18/P12/14]
What describes this inhibition?
1. competitive inhibition
2. non-competitive inhibition
3. reversible inhibition
A 1 and 3 B 1 only
C 2 and 3 D 2 only
38. The table shows the Michaelis-Menten constant, Km, for three enzymes. [N18/P12/15]
Which interpretation of the information is correct?
A Enzyme C has a Vmax which is half that of enzyme P.

B Enzyme C will reach Vmax in the shortest time interval.
C Enzyme F has the greatest affinity for its substrate.
D Enzyme P has a Vmax of 6.0 X 10–3 mmoldm–3.
61
39. A fixed volume of the enzyme catalase was added to a fixed volume of hydrogen peroxide solution. The
3 diagram shows how the concentration of product changed over the course of the reaction. [J19/P12/10]
What explains the shape of this graph?
A The active sites become saturated.

B The enzyme was denatured.
C The hydrogen peroxide inhibited the reaction.
D The substrate molecules were used up.
40. A fixed volume and concentration of substrate and enzyme were mixed. All other variables were kept constant.
The enzyme-catalysed reaction was left until it was complete. [J19/P12/11]
Which graph shows how the rate of reaction changes with time?
62
1. Fig. 1.1 shows the primary structure of a lysozyme molecule, an enzyme found in tears, saliva and in 3
lysosomes.
Enzymes
Fig. 1.1
(a) (i) Explain what is meant by the term primary structure.
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(ii) The molecular structure of the first two amino acids of lysozyme, lysine and valine, is shown below.
Use the space to show how these amino acids become linked in a condensation reaction.
63
3
[3]
(b) Proteins, such as the enzyme lysozyme, have a secondary structure and a tertiary structure.
(i) Describe the secondary and tertiary structure of an enzymatic protein, such as lysozyme.
secondary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................
............................................................................
tertiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [5]
(ii) State why it is important for enzymes, such as lysozyme, to possess a tertiary structure.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(c) Some people have a rare disease caused by a single change in the DNA nucleotide sequence of the
gene coding for lysozyme. The change leads to the formation of an insoluble protein that has a different
structure to the normal soluble lysozyme molecule.
Suggest how a change in the gene can lead to the differences observed between the normal lysozyme
and the changed lysozyme.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
[Total: 13][J10/P22/4]
64
2. (a) Fig. 2.1 represents a molecule of a triglyceride.
Name the components A and C and name the bond B.
Write your answers on the dotted lines provided in Fig. 2.1.
Enzymes
Fig. 2.1
[3]
(b) A phospholipid is sometimes described as a modified triglyceride.
(i) State how the structure of a phospholipid differs from a triglyceride.
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
(ii) Explain how a phospholipid is suited to its role in cell membranes.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
65
A student carried out an investigation into the digestion of triglycerides using lipase.
3 Ten cm3 of olive oil, adjusted to pH 8.0, was added to a test-tube, which was then put in a water bath at 37 °C
for ten minutes.
One cm3 of lipase solution was incubated at the same temperature in a separate test-tube before being added
to the olive oil.
The initial pH of the reaction mixture was measured using a pH meter. The pH was recorded at five minute
intervals for 60 minutes.

(c) Suggest why the olive oil was adjusted to pH 8.0 before the lipase was added.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(d) Fig. 2.2 shows the results of the investigation.
Fig. 2.2
With reference to Fig. 2.2,

(i) describe the results of the investigation
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(ii) explain the results of the investigation.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[4]
[Total: 15][J11/22/5]
66
3. Polysaccharides are synthesised by condensation reactions between monosaccharide or disaccharide subunits
(monomers).
(a) Name the type of bond formed when polysaccharides are synthesised.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(b) Disaccharides are formed following synthesis from monosaccharides or as a result of polysaccharide 3
hydrolysis.
Cellobiose, maltose, sucrose and trehalose are four different disaccharides found in nature. Fig. 3.1
shows the molecular structure of these disaccharides.
Identify the disaccharides, labelled A to D, using the information below.
● The disaccharide cellobiose is formed from the hydrolysis of the polysaccharide cellulose.
● When cellobiose is hydrolysed, two β-glucose molecules are produced.
● One of the disaccharides is sucrose.
● Trehalose is a disaccharide that is synthesised from two α-glucose molecules.
● The disaccharide maltose is formed from the hydrolysis of amylose, a component of starch.
Write the name of the disaccharides in the spaces provided on Fig. 3.1.
Enzymes
Fig. 3.1
[3]
67
In some organisms, trehalose is used as an energy store and gives protection against the harmful effects of
3 very low temperatures. Trehalose is sometimes referred to as a cryoprotectant, allowing organisms to survive
in freezing conditions.
Freezing temperatures can damage the cell surface membrane and membranes within the cell.
(c) Explain the importance of the cell surface membrane to cells.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
(d) Freezing temperatures can also completely stop enzyme activity by causing the molecules to undergo
ʻcold denaturationʼ. Enzyme activity is not recovered when temperatures are increased to a normal
working temperature range.
(i) Explain the mode of action of enzymes.
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
(ii) Suggest how the molecular structure of the enzyme changes during ʻcold denaturationʼ.
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
(e) Cryoprotectants, such as trehalose, are of particular interest in their application to preserving cells, tissues
or organisms for future use.
An investigation was carried out to find the protective effect given by different concentrations of two
cryoprotectants, trehalose and glycerol, on a respiratory enzyme.
The enzyme was subjected to a freezing temperature and then returned to its optimum temperature. The
activity of the enzyme was measured at its optimum temperature.
Fig. 3.2 is a graph showing the results of the investigation.
Fig. 3.2
With reference to Fig. 3.2, describe the results of the investigation.
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[4]
[Total: 16][J13/P22/4]
68
4. Keratin and chitin are two important biological molecules. Keratin is found in hair, fur and skin.
Chitin is a modified polysaccharide found in a number of different organisms, for example in fungal cell walls
and the hard-outer skeletons of insects.
(a) Features of chitin and keratin are shown in the boxes in Fig. 4.1.
Enzymes
Fig. 4.1
Write, in each box, the biological molecules from the list below that have the same feature.
Each box may contain one, or more than one, biological molecule. The first box has been completed as
an example.
amylopectin
cellulose
collagen
haemoglobin
mRNA
triglyceride
[5]
69
(b) Chitin and the products of chitin hydrolysis have many useful medical and environmental applications.
3 Chitinase enzymes can be used commercially to hydrolyse chitin. Enzyme stability and activity are
important considerations in technological applications of chitinase.
Fig. 4.2 is a graph showing the effects of temperature on chitinase extracted from a soil bacterium.
The relative activity of the enzyme was measured at different temperatures, with 100% representing
maximum enzyme activity.
Fig. 4.2
(i) With reference to Fig. 4.2, state the optimum temperature for the chitinase enzyme.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
Fig. 4.3 is a graph showing how temperature affects the stability of chitinase. The activity of the
enzyme was measured over a time period of 72 hours at each of five different temperatures.
Fig. 4.3
70
(ii) With reference to Fig. 4.2 and Fig. 4.3, describe and discuss the effect of temperature on chitinase
activity and stability.
............................................................................
............................................................................
3
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[5]
[Total: 11][N13/P22/2]
5. Many microorganisms can digest cellulose by using a group of enzymes collectively known as cellulases.
Cellobiose is the disaccharide produced during cellulose digestion.
The cellulase known as β-glucosidase completes the digestion of cellulose by hydrolysing the cellobiose
molecule to produce two β-glucose molecules.
(a) Draw the ring structure of one β-glucose molecule in the space provided.
[2]
Enzymes
(b) β-glucosidase was extracted from two different bacteria, Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Thermotoga
maritima.
Fig. 5.1 shows the results of an investigation into the effect of temperature between 0 °C and 100 °C, on
the activity of each enzyme.
● L represents the lowest temperature at which activity of each enzyme was detected.
● H represents the highest temperature at which activity of each enzyme was detected.
Fig. 5.1
71
(i) With reference to Fig. 5.1, describe the differences in the results for the two enzymes, A and T.
3
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[4]
(ii) Both enzyme A and enzyme T act on cellobiose. They have a similar, but not identical, primary
structure.
Suggest how similarities and differences in the primary structure of the two enzymes could help to
explain the results obtained in the investigation.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[4]
[Total: 10][J15/P22/4]
6. Lipase is an enzyme with many commercial uses. Some species of bacteria are of great interest as they
produce large quantities of lipase.
(a) Complete Fig. 6.1 to show the hydrolysis of triglyceride by lipase.
Fig. 6.1
[2]
Researchers carried out investigations into lipase extracted from a bacterium found in hot springs.
(b) To measure the activity of the bacterial lipase during their investigations, the researchers used a method
based on the biological test for triglycerides.
Outline a biological test that could be carried out to show the presence of triglyceride in a liquid mixture
and describe the positive result for this test.
.................................................................................
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.................................................................................
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
72
(c) The researchers investigated the effect of pH values between pH 2.0 and pH 10.5 on the activity of
bacterial lipase in hydrolysing triglyceride at a temperature of 37 °C.
The results are shown in Fig. 6.2.
Enzymes
Fig. 6.2
With reference to Fig. 6.2, describe the effect of pH on the activity of bacterial lipase.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[4]
(d) A separate investigation into the effect of pH on the same bacterial lipase compared the enzyme free in
solution with the enzyme immobilised by physical attachment to a stable polymer.
At a temperature of 37 °C, the optimum pH of the enzyme free in solution was the same as that shown
in Fig. 6.2. The optimum pH of the immobilised enzyme was measured as pH 4.
(i) Suggest one reason to explain why the enzyme free in solution has a different optimum pH
compared to the immobilised enzyme.
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(ii) Suggest one advantage of immobilising the extracted lipase for commercial use.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
[Total: 11][J17/P22/2]
73
7. Catalase is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide, which is a waste product of cell
3 metabolism.
The reaction catalysed by catalase is shown in Fig. 7.1.
Fig. 7.1
(a) A student carried out two experiments to investigate the progress of the reaction shown in Fig. 7.1. Potato
tissue was used as the source of the enzyme.
Six pieces of potato were cut, each measuring 20 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm.
In the first experiment, hydrogen peroxide solution was added to three of the pieces of potato tissue and
the progress of the reaction was measured.
Fig. 7.2 shows how the first experiment was set up.
Fig. 7.2
(i) Suggest how the progress of the reaction could be measured.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
74
(ii) In the second experiment, the student cut each of the three remaining pieces of potato to obtain
six pieces, each measuring 10 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm.
Using exactly the same conditions, the student measured the progress of the reaction and obtained
different results to the first experiment.
Explain why the results of the second experiment were different from the results of the first
experiment. 3
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(b) The student then investigated the effect of temperature on the activity of catalase.
Enzymes
On Fig. 7.3, sketch a curve to show how temperature affects the activity of an enzyme such as catalase.
Fig. 7.3
[1]
[Total: 5][J19/P22/6]
75
CHAPTER 4 CELL MEMBRANES
AND TRANSPORT
Learning
Learning objectives
objectives
1. describe and explain the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure, including an outline of the roles of
phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, proteins and glycoproteins
2. outline the roles of cell surface membranes including references to carrier proteins, channel proteins, cell
surface receptors and cell surface antigens
3. outline the process of cell signalling involving the release of chemicals that combine with cell surface
receptors on target cells, leading to specific responses
4. describe and explain the processes of diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis
and exocytosis (no calculations involving water potential will be set)
5. investigate simple diffusion using plant tissue and non-living materials, such as glucose solutions, Visking
tubing and agar
6. calculate surface areas and volumes of simple shapes (e.g. cubes) to illustrate the principle that surface
area to volume ratios decrease with increasing size
7. investigate the effect of changing surface area to volume ratio on diffusion using agar blocks of different
sizes
8. investigate the effects of immersing plant tissues in solutions of different water potential, using the results
to estimate the water potential of the tissues
9. explain the movement of water between cells and solutions with different water potentials and explain the
different effects on plant and animal cells
1. The diagram shows the transport of ions across the cell surface membrane. Inside the cell there is a low
concentration of sodium ions (Na+) and a high concentration of potassium ions (K+). [N10/P12/13]
Outside the cell there is a low concentration of K+ and a high concentration of Na+.
The carrier molecule is a pump which exchanges Na+ for K+ ions.
Which ionic movements are represented by the arrows?
76
2. Plant cells were immersed in solutions of different water potential and left for one hour. [N10/P12/14]
Which row shows the effect of the different solutions on the plant cells?
3. Which molecules, found in cell surface membranes, contribute to cell recognition? [N10/P12/15]
Cell Membranes and Transport

1 glycolipids
2 glycoproteins
3 phospholipids

4. The diagram shows part of a cell surface membrane. [J11/P12/15]
Which molecules have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions?
A 1 and 5 only B 1, 3 and 5 only

C 1, 2, 4 and 5 only D 2, 3 and 4 only
5. Increasing which type of bond helps to increase the fluidity of the cell surface membrane? [J11/P12/16]
77
6. When cylinders of potato tissue were immersed in a 0.35 mol dm–3 sucrose solution, they showed no change
4 in mass. [J11/P12/17]
What will happen when cylinders are immersed in a 0.1 mol dm–3 sucrose solution?
A The pressure potential of the cells will become more positive.

B The solute potential of the cell will become more negative.

C The water potential of the cells will become more negative.
D The water potential of the solution will become less negative.
7. Red blood cells were placed in a solution of sodium chloride with a less negative water potential than the cell
contents. Haemoglobin was released from the cells. [N11/P12/14]
By what process was the haemoglobin released?
A. active transport B. exocytosis

C. facilitated diffusion D. lysis of cell
8. The table shows three processes that contribute to transport across cell surface membranes. [N11/P12/15]
Which processes are the result of random movement of molecules?
9. The cell surface membranes of plants adapted to cold conditions change as the weather gets colder, allowing
the plants to carry out exocytosis. [N11/P12/16]
Which change occurs?
A a decrease in the ratio of proteins to saturated phospholipids

B a decrease in the ratio of unsaturated phospholipids to saturated phospholipids
C an increase in the ratio of proteins to unsaturated phospholipids
D an increase in the ratio of unsaturated phospholipids to saturated phospholipids
10. What is the role of cholesterol in the cell surface membrane? [J12/P12/14]
A to assist active transport B to assist facilitated diffusion

C to provide hydrophilic channels D to regulate fluidity of the membrane
78
11. The following are all processes by which substances can enter a cell. [J12/P12/15]
1 endocytosis
2 facilitated diffusion
3 osmosis
Which processes are passive?
A 2 only B 3 only 4
C 2 and 3 only D 1, 2 and 3
12. The diagram shows the water potential of three adjacent plant cells. [J12/P12/16]

In which directions will there be net movement of water by osmosis?
13. Which role of the cell surface membrane is not a result of the properties of the phospholipids?
[N12/P12/15]
A to allow cytokinesis to occur in mitotic cell division
B to allow entry and exit of the water-soluble gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide
C to allow phagocytosis of a bacterium into cells
D to allow surface membranes to stabilise by binding with water molecules
14. An increase in which component would make the cell surface membrane more fluid? [N12/P12/16]
A cholesterol B glycolipids
C glycoproteins D proteins
15. Which processes that move substances across cell surface membranes result in an equilibrium?
[N12/P12/17]
1 active transport
2 diffusion
3 facilitated diffusion
4 osmosis

79
16. Which of the following can increase the fluidity of the cell surface membrane? [J13/P12/16]
4
1 single bonds between carbon atoms in the fatty acid chains
2 cholesterol
3 fatty acids having longer chains

17. The diagram shows a cell that produces protease enzymes. [J13/P12/17]
18. The diagram shows two identical plant cells. [J13/P12/18]
One plant cell is put into a solution with a water potential less negative than the cell contents. The other is put
into a solution with a water potential more negative than the cell contents.
What will happen to the appearance of each cell?
80
19. Which is correct for components of a cell surface membrane? [N13/P12/13]
20. A method called freeze-fracture can be used to study the structure of cell membranes. The membrane is frozen
and then split down the middle, separating the two layers of phospholipids from each other. Any proteins

contained within one layer remain in that layer. Proteins which span the membrane can be found in either layer
after freeze-fracture, depending on the proteinʼs properties. [N13/P12/14]
Which statement(s) about the results of freeze-fracture studies are correct?
1 It provides evidence for the bilayer nature of membranes.

2 It provides evidence for the arrangement of proteins.
3 It shows that the proteins in the membrane do not contribute to its strength.

21. Which statements are descriptions of both facilitated diffusion and active transport? [N13/P12/15]
1 moves substances against a concentration gradient

2 requires ATP
3 transports charged ions across the cell surface membrane
4 uses proteins
A 1, 2, 3 and 4 B 1, 2 and 4 only

22. Which statement about the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure is correct? [N13/P12/16]
A The less unsaturated the fatty acid chains of the phospholipids, the more fluid the membrane.
B The more unsaturated the fatty acid chains of the phospholipids, the more fluid the membrane.
C The higher the temperature, the less fluid the membrane.
D The lower the temperature, the more fluid the membrane.
81
23. The diagram shows the fluid mosaic model of a section of a cell surface membrane. [J14/P12/14]
4
What is the role of each of the components labelled 1 to 3?
24. Proteins in the cell surface membranes of human cells and mouse cells were labelled with red and green
fluorescent dyes respectively. [J14/P12/15]
When a human cell and a mouse cell were fused together the red and green fluorescent labels were at first
found in different regions of the cell surface membrane of the hybrid cell, but after 40 minutes they were evenly
distributed in the entire cell surface membrane.
What explains this observation?
A All protein molecules in the cell surface membrane are fixed to structures within the cell, but phospholipid
molecules move freely between them.
B Groups of protein and phospholipid molecules in the cell surface membrane are attached to each another
and move together.
C Only protein molecules in the outer layer of the cell surface membrane can move freely between
phospholipid molecules.
D Protein molecules in the outer layer of the cell surface membrane and those which span the bilayer can
move freely between phospholipid molecules.
25. What is the width of the cell surface membrane? [N14/P12/16]
A 0.5 – 1.0 nm B 5 – 10 nm
C 50 – 100 nm D 0.5 – 1 μm
82
26. Some functions of molecules found in cell surface membranes are listed. [N14/P12/17]
1. cell recognition
2. ion transport
3. maintaining fluidity
4. mechanical stability
Which are functions of cholesterol?

4
A 1 and 2 B 1 and 4
C 2 and 3 D 3 and 4
27. Which description of cell surface membrane permeability is correct? [J15/P12/15]

A An increase in the concentration of cholesterol molecules in the cell surface membrane can increase its
permeability to hydrophilic substances.
B Cell surface membrane permeability to large hydrophilic molecules is high and can be increased by
membrane transport proteins involved in facilitated diffusion.
C The permeability of the cell surface membrane to ions is increased with an increase in the proportion of
saturated fatty acids in the phospholipids.
D Without the presence of carrier and channel membrane proteins, the cell surface membrane has a low
permeability to large polar molecules.
28. The diagram represents a cell surface membrane. [J15/P12/16]
Three pathways through the membrane are shown.
Which process is represented by each arrow?
83
29. Which set of factors will produce the most fluid cell surface membrane? [J15/P12/17]
4
30. Which descriptions are correct for transport across cell surface membranes? [N15/P12/15]
31. The stages of an investigation using plant tissue are listed below.
● A freshly cut slice of plant tissue was rinsed in distilled water, dried and weighed.
● This slice was placed in a solution with a water potential of – 4 arbitrary units for thirty minutes.
● The slice was removed from the solution, dried and reweighed.
● The mass of the slice was the same as its original mass.
Which conclusions can be drawn from this investigation? [N15/P12/16]
1. The water potential of the cells of the plant tissue is – 4 arbitrary units.
2. The cell sap of the plant tissue has a lower water potential than the surrounding solution.
3. There has been no net movement of water.
4. The cell wall of the plant tissue will not be in contact with the cell membrane.
A 1 and 2 B 1 and 3
C 2 and 4 D 3 and 4
32. What explains the effect on a red blood cell of being placed into pure water? [N15/P12/17]
A Less water leaves the cell than enters it, so the cell shrinks.
B More water enters the cell than leaves it, so the cell swells and bursts.
C Water enters the cell and none leaves it, so the cell swells and bursts.
D Water enters the cell and more leaves it, so the cell shrinks.
33. What is a function of the cholesterol in a cell surface membrane? [J16/P12/12]
A acting as a membrane-bound receptor

B controlling active transport
C helping cells join together
D regulating the flexibility of the membrane
84
34. Which roles of the cell surface membrane are a result of the properties of the phospholipids? [J16/P12/13]
1. to allow cytokinesis to occur in mitotic cell division

2. to allow entry and exit of oxygen and carbon dioxide
3. to allow the phagocytosis of a bacterium into a cell

4
35. There is a high concentration of molecule X outside the cell which enters the cell by facilitated diffusion. The
results of measuring the concentration of X inside the cell at 30 s intervals are shown by the graph.
[J16/P12/15]

Why does the concentration of X inside the cell remain constant after 150 s?
1. There is no more of X outside the cell.

2. The number of carrier proteins is limiting.
3. There is no net movement of X.
A 1 and 2 only B 1 and 3 only

36. Which observations support a link between active transport and ATP production? [N16/P12/16]
1. Active transport occurs only in living cells.

2. The rate of active transport decreases in low oxygen concentrations.
3. Companion cells have large numbers of mitochondria.

37. A method called freeze-fracture can be used to study the structure of cell membranes. The membrane is frozen
and then split down the middle, separating the two layers of phospholipids from each other. Any proteins
contained within one layer remain in that layer. Proteins which span the membrane can be found in either layer
after freeze-fracture, depending on the properties of the protein. [N16/P12/17]
Which statement about the results of freeze-fracture studies are correct?
1. It provides evidence for the bilayer nature of membranes.

2. It provides evidence for the arrangement of proteins.
3. It shows that the proteins in the membrane do not contribute to its strength.

85
38. The stalk of a dandelion is a hollow tube. Pieces of the stalk are cut as shown and placed in sucrose solutions
4 of different water potentials. [N16/P12/18]
Which diagram shows the piece that is placed in the sucrose solution with the highest water potential?
39. Three of the molecules found in prokaryotes are listed below. [N16/P12/19]
1. phospholipid
2. protein
3. peptidoglycan
Which of these molecules are found in prokaryotic cell surface membranes?

40. Proteins in the cell surface membranes of human cells and mouse cells were labelled with fluorescent dyes.
The human cells were labelled with a red dye and the mouse cells were labelled with a green dye.
[J17/P12/13]
A human cell and a mouse cell were then fused to form a hybrid cell.
At first the different dyes remained separate. After 40 minutes the two dyes were evenly distributed in the
hybrid cell surface membrane.
What explains this observation?
A All protein molecules in the cell surface membrane are fixed to structures within the cell, but phospholipid
molecules move freely between them.
B Groups of protein and phospholipid molecules in the cell surface membrane are attached to each other
and move together.
C Only protein molecules in the outer layer of the cell surface membrane can move freely between
phospholipid molecules.
D Protein molecules in the outer layer of the cell surface membrane and those which span the bilayer can
move freely between phospholipid molecules.
86
41. The diagram shows a plant cell. [J17/P12/14]
The plant cell is put into a solution with a water potential less negative than the cell contents.
What will happen to the appearance of the cell? 4

42. The diagram shows the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure. [J17/P12/15]
Which molecules in the membrane are identical?
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1 and 4
43.1 Which row shows a correct function of the components of the cell surface membrane? [N17/P12/17]
phospholipids cholesterol proteins glycoproteins
A prevent the entry of regulates allow exchange allow cell-to-cell

non-polar molecules permeability of the of ions communication
membrane between the cell and
its environment
B prevent the entry of stabilises the allow cell-to-cell provide sites
polar molecules membrane by communication of attachment
binding to water for hormones
molecules
C regulate the prevents the entry allow exchange stabilise the
flexibility of protons of gases membrane by
of the cell between the cell and binding to water
membrane its environment molecules
D regulate the fluidity stabilises the form channels for allow cell-to-cell
of the cell membrane over a polar molecules recognition
membrane range of
temperatures
87
44. The graph shows how the rate of entry of substance X into a cell changes as the concentration of substance
4 X outside the cell increases. [N17/P12/18]
rate of entry of
substance X
concentration of
substance X outside the cell
The diagram shows part of a cell surface membrane.

1 2 3
Which pathways could substance X use to enter the cell?
A 1 and 2 B 1 only
C 2 and 3 D 2 only
45. The formula shows how the rate of diffusion across a cell surface membrane can be calculated.
[J18/P12/15]
Which row shows how the fastest rate of diffusion can be achieved?
88
46. The diagram shows part of the cell surface membrane of an active animal cell. [J18/P12/16]

Which statements correctly describe the net movement of molecules across this membrane?
1 Oxygen diffuses through molecules M from X to Y.

2 Carbon dioxide diffuses through molecules M from X to Y.
3 Water moves from Y to X through molecule L.

47. Some epidermal cells from a well-watered plant are placed in three solutions which have different water
potentials. [J18/P12/17]
Which row correctly shows the state of the plant cells in each of the solutions?
48. The diagram is a drawing from an electron micrograph of a typical animal cell. [N18/P12/16]
How many layers of phospholipids will a molecule of oxygen cross to travel directly from X, outside the cell, to
Y, the matrix of the mitochondrion?
A 3 B 4
C 5 D 6
89
49. How could water molecules cross the cell surface membrane of animal cells? [N18/P12/17]
4
1 carrier proteins
2 channel proteins
3 cholesterol molecules
A 1 and 2 B 1 and 3
C 2 and 3 D 2 only
50. The diagram shows a xylem vessel in a root and four adjacent parenchyma cells. [N18/P12/18]
As water moves up the xylem vessel, it is replaced by water from cell D. Water in cell D is replaced by water
in cell C, resulting in a flow of water from cell A to the xylem.
Which cell has the least negative water potential?
51. Agar cubes can be used to demonstrate the effect of changing surface area to volume ratio on diffusion.
[N18/P12/19]
Three different agar cubes made using a dilute acid were placed into an indicator solution that diffused into
the cubes. When the indicator came into contact with the acid it changed colour.
The cubes were 1 cm3, 2 cm3 and 3 cm3 and were left in the indicator solution for 10 minutes. All other variables
were kept the same. The results were recorded as diagrams.
The results for the 2 cm3 cube are shown.
Which diagrams represent the results for the 1 cm3 and the 3 cm3 cubes?
90
52. The fatty acids elaidic acid and oleic acid have exactly the same structural formulae, with one double bond in
the chain. [J19/P12/12]
However, the shapes of the chains are different, as shown in the diagram.

Which row shows the effect of the presence of these fatty acids on the structure and behaviour of a cell surface
membrane?
53. The diagram shows a cell surface membrane. [J19/P12/13]
Which is a correct role for a labelled molecule?
A W is involved in controlling membrane stability.

B X is involved in active transport.
C Y is involved in cell signalling.
D Z is involved in diffusion of ions.
91
54. The diagram shows a simple cell signalling pathway in which a signal molecule leads to a response, such as
4 a secretion. [J19/P12/14]
Which row identifies P and Q?
92
1. (a) Enzymes are globular proteins that catalyse metabolic reactions.
Describe the features of globular proteins. 4
.................................................................................
.................................................................................

.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
(b) Enzymes can be used to remove cell walls from plant and fungal cells. The cells are incubated in a
solution that contains a mixture of enzymes.
(i) Suggest an explanation for the fact that a different mixture of enzymes is required to remove the
walls of plant cells compared to the walls of fungal cells.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(ii) Explain why, when plant cells are incubated with enzymes to remove their cell walls, it is important
to maintain an optimum pH.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
93
(c) A student carried out an investigation into osmosis using red blood cells.
4 Red blood cells were placed in sodium chloride (salt) solutions at five different concentrations. For each
concentration, a sample was added immediately to a microscope slide and the cells were viewed using
a light microscope for a period of time.
The observations recorded are shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Explain, in terms of water potential and osmosis, the results that the student obtained.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [4]
(d) The student also carried out a similar investigation using plant cells with cell walls removed. These cells
were suspended in a 12% mannitol solution so that the water potential inside and outside of the cells
was equal.
Fig. 1.1 is a photomicrograph of these cells.
Fig. 1.1
The student removed a sample of these cells. The sample was placed into distilled water and was viewed
using a light microscope.
Describe what you would expect the student to observe and explain why this would not occur with normal
plant cells.
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
[Total: 14][N10/22/3]
94
2. Fig. 2.1 is a diagram of a cell surface membrane.

Fig. 2.1
(a) Use a label line and the appropriate letter to label each of the following on Fig. 2.1.
P protein for active uptake of potassium ions
Q protein for facilitated diffusion of polar molecules
R receptor site for a hormone
S hydrophilic heads of phospholipids on the internal surface of the membrane
T molecule that modifies the fluidity of the membrane
[5]
(b) Some cells take in bacteria by endocytosis.
Explain how endocytosis occurs at a cell surface membrane.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
[Total: 8][N11/21/1]
95
3. One role of the cell surface membrane is to control the entry and exit of substances.
4 (a) Complete Table 3.1 to show the transport mechanisms across cell surface membranes and examples of
materials transported.
Table 3.1
[2]
(b) Each transport mechanism across cell surface membranes has a characteristic set of features.
In each of the boxes below, state one example of a transport mechanism that matches the pathway
shown.
[4]
[Total: 6][J12/22/1]
96
4. Fig. 4.1 shows a section of a cell surface membrane.

Fig. 4.1
(a) State the functions of structures P, Q and R.
P ...............................................................................
.................................................................................
Q ...............................................................................
.................................................................................
R ...............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
(b) Circle the width of the membrane shown as W in Fig. 4.1.
[1]
(c) Membranes, such as the cell surface membrane, are described as having a fluid mosaic structure.
Explain what is meant by the term fluid mosaic.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
97
(d) Aquaporins are membrane channel proteins in plant and animal cells. They permit the movement of
4 water across membranes. Explain why they are necessary.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
[Total: 9][J13/21/5]
5. Fig. 5.1 is an electron micrograph of part of a eukaryotic cell.
X Y
mitochondrion
×47 000
Fig. 5.1
(a) State how it is possible to deduce that Fig. 5.1 is a transmission electron micrograph and not a scanning
electron micrograph.
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(b) Both the Golgi body and the rough endoplasmic reticulum are part of the internal network of membranes
in cells.
Outline structural features shown in Fig. 5.1 that identify G as the Golgi body and not the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
98
(c) Calculate the actual diameter, X–Y, of the mitochondrion labelled in Fig. 5.1.
Write down the formula that you will use to make your calculation. Give your answer to the nearest whole
nanometre (nm).
formula

actual diameter ................................... nm
[2]
(d) The inner and outer membranes of the mitochondrion have a fluid mosaic structure similar to other cell
membranes. They are both approximately 6 to 7 nanometres (nm) thick.
(i) Outline the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure.
There is space below for a diagram.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
(ii) The inner and outer membranes of the mitochondrion differ in the detail of their membrane
components. The inner membrane is also much less permeable than the outer membrane.
Suggest one way in which the structure of the inner membrane may differ from that of the outer
membrane to produce a less permeable inner membrane.
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
[Total: 9][M18/P22/1]
99
CHAPTER 5 THE MITOTIC
CELL CYCLE
Learning objectives
1. describe the structure of a chromosome, limited to DNA, histone proteins, chromatids, centromere and
telomeres
2. explain the importance of mitosis in the production of genetically identical cells, growth, cell replacement,
repair of tissues and asexual reproduction
3. outline the cell cycle, including interphase (growth and DNA replication), mitosis and cytokinesis
4. outline the significance of telomeres in permitting continued replication and preventing the loss of genes
5. outline the significance of mitosis in cell replacement and tissue repair by stem cells and state that
uncontrolled cell division can result in the formation of a tumour
6. describe, with the aid of photomicrographs and diagrams, the behaviour of chromosomes in plant and
animal cells during the mitotic cell cycle and the associated behaviour of the nuclear envelope, cell surface
membrane and the spindle (names of the main stages of mitosis are expected)
7. observe and draw the mitotic stages visible in temporary root tip squash preparations and in prepared slides
of root tips of species such as those of Vicia faba and Allium cepa
1. The cell cycle includes mitosis. [N10/P12/16]
Which are features of nuclear division?
1 forms cells of equal size to the parent cell

2 forms genetically identical cells
3 semi-conservative replication of DNA

2. In which process does mitosis not have an important role in living things? [N10/P12/17]
A asexual reproduction
B growth of cells
C increase in size
D repair to damaged tissues
100
3. The diagram shows the chromosomes of a typical plant cell at the metaphase stage of mitosis.
[N10/P12/18]
Which row describes this cell during metaphase?

5
The Mitotic Cell Cycle

4. The graph represents the changes in the quantity of DNA present in one nucleus at different stages in the life
cycle of a mammal. [J11/P12/18]
Which stage takes place at X?
A interphase B metaphase
C prophase D telophase
5. At which stage of mitosis do these events occur? [J11/P12/19]
101
6. During which process does only mitosis occur? [J11/P12/20]
5
A the production of antibodies from B-lymphocyte memory cells
B the production of cancerous tissue in alveoli
C the production of gametes
D the production of root hairs
7. Meiosis and mitosis are two types of cell division. [N11/P12/18]

A cell has 20 chromosomes before it divides.
How many chromosomes will it have after dividing by meiosis or mitosis?
8. The graph shows the length of the spindle fibres during mitosis. [N11/P12/19]
Which region of the graph shows when the centromeres detach from the spindle fibres?
9. Immediately after which stage in mitosis in an animal cell does the cytoplasm start to divide? [N12/P12/19]
A anaphase B metaphase
10. The diagram shows a cell of an organism formed by reduction division. [N12/P12/20]
What is the diploid number for this organism?
A 10 B 20
C 40 D 46
102
11. The diagram shows a cell nucleus in prophase of mitosis. [J13/P12/20]
5
Which statement describes the chromosomes found in each daughter nucleus immediately following division
of this cell by mitosis?
A 8 chromosomes, each consisting of 4 chromatids

B 8 chromosomes, each containing 1 molecule of DNA

C 4 chromosomes, each consisting of 4 chromatids
D 16 chromosomes, each containing 1 molecule of DNA
12. Which features of mitosis ensure that the genetic constitution of the cell is maintained? [J13/P12/21]
1. the position of the chromosomes on the equator of the spindle

2. the longitudinal division of the centromeres
3. the DNA of the parent cells replicates before mitosis begins
4. the pulling apart of the chromatids to opposite poles

C 2, 3 and 4 only D 1, 2, 3 and 4
13. Which statements about cancer are correct? [N13/P12/17]
1. Exposure to UV light from the sun always causes skin cancer.

2. Some viruses can cause cancer.
3. The mutation of genes controlling the cell cycle may cause cancer.

103
14. The diagram represents the life cycle of a sexually reproducing animal. [N13/P12/18]
5
Which row correctly identifies meiosis and mitosis?
15. The cell cycle includes mitosis. [J14/P12/17]
1. forms cells of equal size to the parent cell

2. forms genetically identical cells
3. semi-conservative replication of DNA
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1 and 2 only C 1 and 3 only D 2 only
16. Which is the correct statement concerning cell and nuclear division? [J14/P12/18]
A Haploid eukaryotes can reproduce by mitosis whereas diploid eukaryotes can reproduce by mitosis or
meiosis.
B Just before prophase, the mass of DNA is double the normal mass. Following anaphase, this mass is
reduced by half and following cytokinesis this mass halves again.
C Mutagens can cause mutations whereas carcinogens can cause cancer. This means that all mutagens
are carcinogenic.
D Some of the roles of mitosis are growth, asexual reproduction, cell repair following tissue damage and
cell replacement.
17. Diploid (2n) organisms that reproduce sexually produce haploid (n) gametes. [J14/P12/19]
Some plants, such as wheat, can produce diploid or haploid gametes. These gametes can fertilise other diploid
or haploid gametes.
Which statements are correct for plants like these?
1. Diploid gametes may be produced by a fault in the reduction division (meiosis).

2. The offspring will always show an increased chromosome number.
3. The offspring could be either 2n, 3n or 4n.
4. The chromosome number could, in theory, increase with each generation.
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1, 2 and 4
C 1, 3 and 4 D 2, 3 and 4
104
18. A student examined the cells in the growing region (meristem) of an onion root and obtained the data below.
[N14/P12/19]
What percentage of cells contain chromosomes that appear as two chromatids?

5
A 97.5 % B 95.9 %
C 8.9 % D 7.3 %
19. Which definitions of diploid and haploid are true for typical eukaryotic cells? [N14/P12/20]
1. diploid – any cell with an even number of homologous chromosomes

2. diploid – any cell with two copies of each homologous chromosome
3. haploid – any cell with half the diploid number of homologous chromosomes
4. haploid – any cell with one copy of each homologous chromosome
A 1 and 3 B 1 and 4
C 2 and 3 D 2 and 4
20. The protein p53 is produced in a cell in response to DNA damage. [J15/P12/18]
A scientist exposed three groups of cells, X, Y and Z, to different conditions.
In which groups of cells would the scientist find large quantities of p53 mRNA?
A X, Y and Z B X and Y only

C Y and Z only D Y only
105
21. Which row is correct? [J15/P12/19]
5
22. Which statements about a diploid cell are correct? [N15/P12/18]
1. can divide by mitosis to repair itself

2. has two complete sets of chromosomes
3. can undergo a reduction division to form haploid cells
4. can undergo mitotic division to allow growth to occur
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1, 2 and 4
C 1, 3 and 4 D 2, 3 and 4
23. Which metabolic processes will be very active in a cell that has just completed cytokinesis?
[N15/P12/19]
1. ATP formation
2. DNA replication
3. protein synthesis

C 2 only D 3 only
106
24. The photomicrographs show cells in various stages of the cell cycle. [J16/P12/16]
Which cells contain twice as many DNA molecules as a cell from the same organism after cytokinesis? 5
A 1, 2, 3 and 4 B 1, 2 and 4 only
25. A group of chemicals used to treat cancer prevents the formation of the spindle during mitosis. [J16/P12/17]
Which phase of mitosis is the first to be affected?

A anaphase B metaphase
26. Mitosis is an important process for organisms. [J16/P12/18]
Which features of mitosis are important for single-celled organisms?
1 asexual reproduction
2 growth
3 production of genetically identical cells

27. Which row correctly shows the behaviour of the nuclear envelope, the centrioles and the spindle during a stage
of mitosis? [N16/P12/20]
28. Which group of cells can all divide by mitosis? [N16/P12/21]
A bacterial cells, cancer cells, stem cells

B bacterial cells, lymphocytes, stem cells
C cancer cells, lymphocytes, red blood cells
D cancer cells, lymphocytes, stem cells
107
29. The photomicrograph shows a stage of mitosis. [J17/P12/16]
5
What would be correct for the next stage in mitosis?
30. The diagram shows part of the organisation of a DNA molecule and the associated histones. [J17/P12/17]
Which statement about the features labelled P, Q and R during prophase of mitosis is correct?
A The coiled DNA molecule forms Q and wraps around the histones of R to form small clusters held in
place by histone P.
B The groups of histones, P, and its associated DNA, Q, move closer together as the chromosome
condenses around R.
C The histones P and R are made of protein around which the DNA molecule, Q, is wrapped so that the
DNA molecule can fit inside the nucleus.
D The linked groups of histones P and R and the associated DNA, Q, form strands that fold and twist
together to form a chromatid.
31. The photomicrographs show cells in various stages of the cell cycle. [N17/P12/19]
In which stage does semi-conservative replication of DNA take place?

A B C D
108
32. The diagram shows the structure of one chromosome. [N17/P12/20]
number of
1 2
DNA strands
A centromere chromatid 2 5
B centromere telomere 4
C chromatid telomere 2
D telomere chromatid 4
33. Cancer cells may divide by far more divisions than other cells found in humans. [N17/P12/21]
Which statement about cancer cells is correct?

A They are able to synthesise the enzyme telomerase.
B They have a mutation in the telomeres so DNA is not hydrolysed.
C They have DNA polymerase so can replicate their DNA without telomere loss.
D They increase the number of copies of repeated DNA sequences in the telomeres.
34. One of the chromosomes in a nucleus has a telomere which contains many repeats of the base sequence
TTAGGG. [J18/P12/18]
This chromosome was extracted from four different cells and the total number of bases in the telomere was
determined.
Which total number of bases was found in the cell that had undergone the most mitotic divisions?
A 5548 B 5580
C 5645 D 5700
35. The chromosome content of each daughter cell must be identical to that of the mother cell for successful cell
replacement when repairing tissues. [J18/P12/19]
Which stages of mitosis make sure that each daughter cell receives one chromatid from each chromatid pair?
A prophase and metaphase B metaphase and anaphase

C anaphase and telophase D telophase and interphase
36. Which of these statements about cytokinesis is always true? [J18/P12/20]
1. Cell structures replicate.

2. Cell structures are shared between two cells.
3. Nuclear envelope reforms.

C 2 only D 3 only
109
37. Which statement is correct about the number of telomeres present in prophase of a human body cell?
5 [J18/P12/21]
A 46 as there is one telomere at the end of 46 chromosomes
B 92 as there is one telomere at each end of 46 chromosomes
C 92 as there is one telomere at the end of 92 chromatids
D 184 as there is one telomere at each end of 92 chromatids
38. The photomicrograph shows cells in different stages of mitosis. [N18/P12/20]
Which statements are correct?
1. Cell T shows metaphase.

2. DNA replication occurs in cell R.
3. The amount of DNA in cell P is the same as in cell T.
4. The correct order for the stages is S " R " T " P " Q.
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1, 2 and 4
C 1, 3 and 4 D 2, 3 and 4
39. Which changes in a group of mammalian cells, dividing by mitosis, would be necessary for the formation of a
tumour? [N18/P12/21]
1. Mitosis is no longer inhibited by cell to cell contact.

2. Cells acquire the ability to migrate and set up new colonies.
3. Cells become able to divide indefinitely.
A 1 and 2 B 1 and 3
C 1 only D 2 and 3
40 Which row shows some of the events during a mitotic cycle in the correct time sequence? [N18/P12/22]
110
41. Three parts of a chromosome and their functions are listed. [J19/P12/15]
Which part is matched with its correct function?
A P1 and F1 B P2 and F1 5
C P2 and F3 D P3 and F2
42. The enzyme telomerase prevents loss of telomeres after many mitotic cell cycles. [J19/P12/16]
Which cells need to transcribe telomerase enzyme?
1. cancer cells
2. stem cells

3. activated memory B-lymphocytes

43. The diagram shows some of the stages which take place during the cell cycle. [J19/P12/17]
Which two stages take place during interphase?
A 1 and 2 B 1 and 3
C 2 and 4 D 3 and 4
111
44. Which row shows the correct number of each component of a single chromosome during prophase of mitosis?
5 [N19/P12/20]
45. The cell cycle includes mitosis. [N19/P12/21]
1. forms cells of equal size to the parent cell

2. forms genetically identical nuclei
3. semi-conservative replication of DNA

112
1. Fig. 1.1 is a photomicrograph of a root tip of onion, Allium cepa, showing cells in interphase and in stages of
mitosis.

Fig. 1.1
(a) Name the stages of mitosis shown in cells A, B and C.
A ...............................................................................
B ...............................................................................
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
(b) Suggest why the cells labelled D are smaller than most of the other cells in Fig. 1.1.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(c) Interphase is often described as a ʻresting stageʼ.

Explain why the term ʻresting stageʼ is not an appropriate description for cells in interphase.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
[Total: 6][J11/22/1]
113
2. (a) The cells in Fig. 2.1 are from the same organism and look the same. The cells in Fig. 2.1(a) have been
5 produced by mitosis and the cells in Fig. 2.1(b) have been produced by meiosis.
Fig. 2.1(a) Fig. 2.1(b)
(i) Complete the table to show two differences between cells that have been produced by mitosis
compared to cells that have been produced by meiosis.
[2]
(ii) Explain why the organism produces cells by meiosis.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
114
(b) Fig. 2.2 is a transmission electron micrograph of a dividing cancer cell.
Fig. 2.2

(i) Calculate the actual width of the cell shown in Fig. 2.2 at X-Y.
Show your working and give your answer to the nearest micrometre (μm).
answer .......................................... μm [2]
(ii) The cancer cell shown in Fig. 10.2 has more mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticula (RER)
compared to the non-cancerous cell from which it originated.
Suggest why this is so.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
[Total: 8][J13/P22/1]
115
3. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a bacterium that can enter plants through wounds and cause a disease known
5 as crown gall disease.
The bacterium attaches to the surface of cells and inserts a small circular DNA molecule, known as a plasmid,
into the cell. Some of the genes on the plasmid code for proteins that cause changes in the plant cell and
result in the formation of a plant tumour, or gall.
(a) Outline the changes that occur during tumour formation.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [4]
(b) Bacteria that enter the stem through a wound can reach the root of the plant to cause damage.
Suggest how the bacteria are able to reach the root of the plant.
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(c) Fig. 3.1 shows A. tumefaciens on the surface of cells of a tobacco plant, Nicotiana plumbaginifolia.
The cells X and Y are newly formed cells.
Fig. 3.1
Calculate the actual length of cell X in micrometres.

Show your working.
answer .................................................. μm
[2]
[Total: 7][N14/P22/6]
116
4. The photomicrographs in Fig. 4.1 show stages of the mitotic cell cycle occurring in the root tip of the onion,
Allium sp. They are all of the same magnification. Stages A to C are in the correct sequence and stages K to
N are not in the correct sequence.
Fig. 4.1
(a) Name stages A and C.
A ...................................................................
C ...................................................................
[1]
(b) Put stages K to N in the correct sequence, starting with the stage that immediately follows stage C.
[1]
117
(c) Explain how the behaviour of the chromosomes and spindle during stage L in Fig. 4.1 ensures that the
5 two daughter cells will be genetically identical.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
[Total: 5][N15/P22/3]
5. Fig. 5.1 shows plant cells in stages of mitosis.
Fig. 5.1
(a) Individual chromosomes cannot be seen in the cell at the start of prophase. Changes to the chromatin
occur so that by late prophase chromosomes are clearly visible.
(i) Outline what occurs during early prophase so that chromosomes become visible in late prophase.
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(ii) Describe the structure of the chromosome in late prophase.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
118
(b) State two differences between the chromosome at metaphase and the chromosome at late anaphase.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2] 5
(c) One of the functions of a plant hormone known as cytokinin is to act as a cell signaling molecule and
promote cytokinesis.
Suggest how cytokinin acts as a cell signalling molecule.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................

.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
[Total: 9][J16/P22/5]
6. The root apical meristem is a region of undifferentiated cells in the root tips of plants. Mitosis occurs in this
region.
(a) Fig. 6.1 is an image of the root tip of Allium as observed using a microscope with a low-power objective
lens.
Fig. 6.1
119
State which region, B, C, or D, should be chosen in order to observe the highest proportion of cells in
5 stages of mitosis.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(b) (i) Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of a chromosome at late prophase of mitosis.
[3]
(ii) Describe the behaviour of the nuclear envelope during mitosis.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
[Total: 6][N17/P22/1]
120
7. Fig. 7.1 is a photomicrograph showing some cells in interphase and some cells in stages of mitosis.

Fig. 7.1
(a) Choose from the cells labelled 1 to 5 in Fig. 7.1 to identify the cell in which:
● the nuclear envelope is reassembling ..............................
● the spindle begins to form ..............................
● there is a high rate of transcription and translation ..............................

[3]
(b) Cell 2 is in a stage of mitosis that occurs before the stage of mitosis shown in cell 1.
Outline the changes that would occur from the stage of mitosis shown in cell 2 to the stage shown in cell 1.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(c) Suggest why some cells in Fig. 7.1 appear empty, with no nucleus or chromosomes.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
[Total: 6][J18/P22/4]
121
8. The response of the human body to tissue damage depends on the types of tissues involved.
5 Epithelial tissue, liver tissue and cardiac muscle tissue each respond differently to damage.
● Epithelial tissue of the gas exchange system contains stem cells.

● Liver tissue contains cells in a non'dividing state that can enter a cell cycle when stimulated.
● Cardiac muscle tissue contains cells that cannot divide at all. Damage is permanent and is associated
with scar tissue formation.
(a) Explain the importance of mitosis in the repair of damaged tissue.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(b) Explain why stem cells are important in tissue repair.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(c) Following liver tissue damage, chemicals are produced and released into the circulation.
These chemicals are able to stimulate the liver cells to help tissue repair.
Explain how this is an example of cell signalling.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
[Total: 7][N18/P22/3]
122
9. Telomerase is an enzyme that is important in maintaining the telomeres that are located at the ends of
chromosomes.
(a) Explain the importance of telomeres.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2] 5
(b) Suggest why telomerase is present in much higher quantities in stem cells and cancer cells than in other
cell types.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(c) Studies suggest that telomerase is a flexible molecule when binding its substrate. The active site changes
its shape slightly to allow the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex.
Name the theory that describes this mode of enzyme action.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(d) An investigation was carried out into the effect of substrate concentration on the activity of telomerase.
The results are shown in Fig. 9.1.
Fig. 9.1
123
With reference to Fig. 9.1, explain the difference in the rates of reaction obtained for telomerase at a
5 substrate concentration of 0.2 μmol dm−3 compared with a substrate concentration of 1.6 μmol dm−3.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
[Total: 6][N19/P22/6]
124
CHAPTER 6 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
} Learning objectives
1. describe the structure of nucleotides, including the phosphorylated nucleotide ATP (structural formulae are
not required)
2. describe the structure of RNA and DNA and explain the importance of base pairing and the different
hydrogen bonding between bases (include reference to adenine and guanine as purines and to cytosine,
thymine and uracil as pyrimidines. Structural formulae for bases are not required but the recognition that
purines have a double ring structure and pyrimidines have a single ring structure should be included)
3. describe the semi-conservative replication of DNA during interphase
4. state that a polypeptide is coded for by a gene and that a gene is a sequence of nucleotides that forms part
of a DNA molecule
5. state that a gene mutation is a change in the sequence of nucleotides that may result in an altered
polypeptide
6. describe the way in which the nucleotide sequence codes for the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide
with reference to the nucleotide sequence for HbA (normal) and HbS (sickle cell) alleles of the gene for the
β-globin polypeptide
7. describe how the information in DNA is used during transcription and translation to construct polypeptides,
including the role of messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and the ribosomes
1. What is the minimum number of base substitutions required to change the nucleotide sequence of the HbA
(normal) allele to the HbS (sickle cell) allele? [J10/P12/23]
A 1 B 2
C 3 D 4
2. In a DNA molecule, the base sequence AGT codes for the amino acid serine. [J10/P12/24]
What is the base sequence of the anti-codon on the tRNA to which serine becomes attached?
A AGU B GAU
C TCA D UCA
3. Which row shows the correct combination? [N10/P12/20]
125
4. S and T are products of a biochemical pathway. A different enzyme, coded for by different specific genes,
6 catalyses each step in the pathway. [N10/P12/22]
What is the possible outcome to the pathway if a mutation in gene 3 leads to an inactive enzyme?
A There is a decrease in the activity of gene 1 and gene 2.

B There is an accumulation of product S.
C There is an increase in the rate of reaction of enzyme 4.
D There is an increase in the production of T.
5. The table shows the tRNA anticodons for four amino acids. [J11/P12/21]
A cell makes a polypeptide with the following amino acid sequence.
glutamic acid – asparagine – threonine – proline
What was the sequence of bases on the DNA from which this was formed?
A GGA AAT ACC CTT

B CAA AAT ACC CCT
C CTT TTA TGG GGA
D CTT TTA TCC GGA
6. What does the enzyme RNA polymerase synthesise? [J11/P12/22]
A a polypeptide from an mRNA template

B a strand of DNA from an mRNA template
C mRNA from a DNA template
D mRNA from a tRNA template
126
7. The diagram shows part of a DNA molecule. [J11/P12/23]
How many hydrogen bonds are involved in holding these strands of DNA together?
A 11 B 9 6
C 8 D 4
Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

8. In a genetic engineering experiment, a piece of double-stranded DNA containing 12 X 103 nucleotides coding
for specific polypeptide is transcribed and translated. [N11/P12/20]
What is the total number of amino acids in this polypeptide?
A 6 × 103 B 4 × 103
C 2 × 103 D 1 × 103
9. What is the correct sequence for the processes involved in the formation of an enzyme in a cell?
[N11/P12/21][J14/P12/21]
A transcription ! condensation ! translation ! ionic bonding
B translation ! hydrogen bonding ! transcription ! condensation
C transcription ! translation ! condensation ! ionic bonding
D translation ! transcription ! ionic bonding ! hydrogen bonding
10. The diagram shows part of a DNA molecule. [N11/P12/22]
Which row correctly identifies the structures labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4?
127
11. A peptide consists of ten amino acids of four different kinds. [J12/P12/20]
6
What is the theoretical minimum number of different tRNA molecules required to translate the mRNA for this
peptide?
A 4 B 10
C 12 D 30
12. Which statements about tRNA structure are correct? [J12/P12/21]
1. There is a binding site for the attachment of a specific amino acid, as well as a different binding site for
the attachment to the ribosome, in order to allow translation to occur.
2. There is a ribose-phosphate backbone with strong covalent phosphodiester bonds and areas within the
polynucleotide chain where base-pairing by hydrogen bonding occurs.
3. There is a section known as an anticodon that contains the same triplet of bases as the triplet of DNA
bases that has been transcribed to produce the mRNA codon.

13. Which is not a description of a gene? [N12/P12/21]
A a length of DNA which carries coded information as a sequence of nucleotides that can result in the
formation of a polypeptide chain
B any section of a molecule that has two strands, each with a sequence of nucleotides that are
complementary to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonding
C a sequence of nucleotides which can be copied by complementary base pairing and then be translated
at a ribosome
D a sequence of nucleotides that can be transcribed using a polymerase enzyme and free activated
nucleotides and which results in the formation of a messenger RNA molecule
14. Which row in the table correctly shows situations in which both DNA and RNA are both involved?
[N12/P12/22]
15. The diagram shows the stages in the production of a polypeptide. [N12/P12/23]
128
Which feature of the triplet code is illustrated by the information given?
A An amino acid can be coded for by more than one triplet.

B The triplet code is non-overlapping and is only read in one direction.
C The triplet code is universal for the DNA of all organisms.
D There are some triplets that code for ʻstartʼ and ʻstopʼ.
16. What is the maximum number of hydrogen bonds in a length of DNA containing 700 nucleotides?
[J13/P12/22]
A 350 B 700
C 1050 D 2100
6
17. Which type of molecule is the end product of translation? [J13/P12/23]
A amino acid

B mRNA
C polypeptide
D tRNA
18. A polypeptide molecule contains the amino acid sequence: [J13/P12/24]
glycine – leucine – lysine – valine.
The table shows DNA codes for these amino acids.
Which tRNA anticodons are needed for the synthesis of this polypeptide?
A CCC GAA TTT CAA

B CCC GAA UUU CAA
C GGG CUU AAA GUU
D GGG CUU UUU GUU
19. The following statements describe events that take place during DNA replication and transcription.
[N13/P12/19]
Which row is not correct?
129
20. Which statements about complementary base pairing are correct? [N13/P12/20]
6
1. Purines and pyrimidines are different sizes.
2. It occurs during translation.
3. The base pairs are of different length.
4. Uracil forms two hydrogen bonds with adenine.

21. What is the minimum number of base substitutions required to change the nucleotide sequence of the HbA
(normal) allele to the HbS (sickle cell) allele? [N13/P12/21]
A 1 B 2
C 3 D 4
22. Which nucleic acid bases are pyrimidines? [J14/P12/20]
A adenine and guanine

B adenine, cytosine and thymine
C cytosine, thymine and uracil
D guanine, cytosine and uracil
23. A short piece of DNA fifteen base pairs long was analysed to find the number of nucleotide bases in each of
the polynucleotide strands. Some of the results are shown below. [J14/P12/22]
How many nucleotides containing adenine (A) were present in strand 2?
A 2 B 3
C 4 D 6
24. Which type of sugar and types of bonds are found in a DNA molecule? [N14/P12/21]
130
25. Which nucleic acid bases are purines? [N14/P12/22]
A adenine and cytosine

B cytosine and thymine
C guanine and adenine
D uracil and cytosine
26. A short piece of DNA 15 base pairs long was analysed to find the number of nucleotide bases in each of the
polynucleotide strands. Some of the results are shown below. [N14/P12/23]

How many nucleotides containing guanine were present in strand 1?
A 2 B 3
C 4 D 6
27. What is needed to transcribe DNA? [J15/P12/20]
A DNA ligase
B DNA polymerase
C ribosomes
D RNA polymerase
28. In a ribosome, which bond holds together two adjacent amino acids? [J15/P12/21]
A disulfide
B hydrogen
C ionic
D peptide
29. What occurs during DNA replication and transcription and translation? [N15/P12/20]
1. ATP provides energy.

2. Condensation reactions occur to form a polymer.
3. Hydrogen bonds form between purine and pyrimidine bases.
A 1, 2 and 3
B 1 and 2 only
C 2 only
D 3 only
131
30. Ricin is a toxic protein which inactivates ribosomes. [N15/P12/21]
6
Which effect will this have on protein synthesis?
A Amino acids will be unable to bind to the binding sites on specific tRNA molecules.
B Anticodons on mRNA molecules will not base pair to codons on tRNA molecules.
C Peptide bonds will not form between adjacent amino acids in the growing polypeptide.
D RNA nucleotides will be unable to join by condensation reactions to form rRNA.
31. Which row shows two pairs of nucleotide bases in a molecule of DNA? [N15/P12/22]
32. Bacteria were grown in a medium containing 15N. After several generations, all of the DNA contained 15N. Some
of these bacteria were transferred to a medium containing the common isotope of nitrogen, 14N. The bacteria
were allowed to divide once. The DNA of some of these bacteria was extracted and analysed. This DNA was
all hybrid DNA containing equal amounts of 14N and 15N. [J16/P12/20]
The remaining bacteria were left in the medium with 14N and allowed to divide one more time.
The DNA of some of these bacteria was extracted and analysed.
What is the composition of this DNA?
A 25% hybrid DNA B 50% hybrid DNA

C 75% hybrid DNA D 100% hybrid DNA
33. Which statements about tRNA are correct? [J16/P12/21]
1. It contains base pairing.

2. It contains hydrogen bonds.
3. It contains uracil.
4. It is single stranded.
A 1, 2, 3 and 4 B 1, 3 and 4 only

132
34. The diagram shows the nucleotide sequence of a small section of a gene which is transcribed. [J16/P12/22]
TTCTTCCCGTTC
The table shows the amino acids coded for by 10 mRNA codons.

What is the order of the four amino acids in the polypeptide translated from this small section of a gene?
A Cys-Cys-Gly-Cys B Lys-Lys-Gly-Lys
C Lys-Lys-Pro-Lys D Thr-Thr-Pro-Thr
35. Which row represents the correct features of the nitrogenous base cytosine? [N16/P12/22]
36. Bacteria were grown in a medium containing 15N. After several generations, all of the DNA contained 15N. Some
of these bacteria were transferred to a medium containing the common isotope of nitrogen, 14N. The bacteria
were allowed to divide once. The DNA of some of these bacteria was extracted and analysed. This DNA was
all hybrid DNA containing equal amounts of 14N and 15N. [N16/P12/23]
In another experiment, some bacteria from the medium with 15N were transferred into a medium of 14N. The
bacteria were allowed to divide three times. The DNA of some of these bacteria was extracted and analysed.
What is the composition of this DNA?
133
37. The bacterium Escherichia coli divides once every 50 minutes at 36 °C. [J17/P12/18]
6
E. coli were grown on a medium containing only heavy nitrogen, 15N, until all of the bacterial DNA contained
heavy nitrogen (0 minutes).
Some of the bacteria were moved from a heavy nitrogen medium and cultured in a medium with only light
nitrogen, 14N.
Some bacteria were collected after each of three generations. Their DNA was extracted and centrifuged.
Hybrid DNA contains heavy and light nitrogen.
The diagram shows the possible positions (upper, middle and lower) of the bands of DNA. The actual positions
of bands in the first two samples are shown.
Which proportion of the DNA of the sample taken at 150 minutes will be at the upper position?
A 25% B 50%
C 75% D 100%
38. Different tissues in a plant were supplied with a radioactively labelled substance to identify which tissues were
actively synthesising mRNA. [J17/P12/19]
Which radioactively labelled substances would be most suitable for this experiment?
1 adenine
2 ribose
3 inorganic phosphate
4 uracil
A 1, 2, 3 and 4
B 1, 2 and 3 only
C 2 and 4 only
D 4 only
134
39. Electron micrographs may show large numbers of ribosomes forming chains along mRNA molecules.
[J17/P12/20]
What is the advantage of this arrangement, compared to when ribosomes appear singly on the mRNA?
A Different polypeptides can be produced simultaneously.

B Fewer tRNA molecules are required to translate the polypeptide.
C Large polypeptide chains can be produced.
D Polypeptides can be produced more rapidly.
40. Which row is correct for adenine? [J17/P12/21]

6

41. What is the maximum number of hydrogen bonds in a length of DNA containing 700 nucleotides?
[N17/P12/22]
A 350 B 700
C 1050 D 2100
42. Which statements concerning DNA and RNA are correct? [N17/P12/23]
1. Adenine and guanine are bases that have a double ring structure; cytosine, thymine and uracil are bases
with a single ring structure.
2. An adenine nucleotide from DNA is the same as an adenine nucleotide from RNA; DNA adenine pairs
with thymine and RNA adenine pairs with uracil.
3. The base pairing that occurs in a double DNA helix and when RNA is synthesised during transcription is
always according to the rule that a purine pairs with a pyrimidine.
4. The two polynucleotides on a DNA molecule run in opposite directions so that the double helix formed
has two strands that are parallel to each other.
A 1, 2 and 3
B 1, 2 and 4
C 1, 3 and 4
D 2, 3 and 4
135
43. Two sets of bacteria were grown using different types of nitrogen-containing growth media. [N17/P12/24]
6 One set was grown in a medium containing the ʻheavyʼ isotope of nitrogen, 15N, until all the DNA was labelled.
The other set was grown in a medium containing the ʻlightʼ isotope of nitrogen, 14N, until all the DNA was
labelled.
The DNA from each set of bacteria was extracted and centrifuged. The diagram shows the position in the
centrifuge tubes of this DNA.
DNA with 14N
DNA with 15N
Bacteria with 15N labelled DNA were transferred to a medium containing 14N and allowed to reproduce once.
The DNA of the new generation of bacteria was extracted and centrifuged.
Which tube shows the position of DNA from this new generation of bacteria?
A B C D
44. The diagram shows the nucleotide sequence of a small section of a gene which is transcribed.[N17/P12/25]
2
GCGCGCGGCGCG
The table shows the amino acids coded for by 10 mRNA codons.
mRNA codon amino acid
AAG Lys
ACG Thr
CGG CGC CGU Arg
CCG Pro
GCC GCG Ala
GGC Gly
UGC Cys
What is the order of the four amino acids in the polypeptide translated from this small section of a gene?
A Ala-Ala-Cys-Ala
B Ala-Arg-Gly-Ala
C Arg-Ala-Pro-Arg
D Arg-Arg-Thr-Arg
136
45. Which statement explains why DNA replication is described as semi-conservative? [J18/P12/22]
A Half of each original strand is conserved in each new molecule of DNA.

B Half of the base sequence of each strand is conserved in each new molecule of DNA.
C Only one strand of DNA is used as a template during replication.
D The template for each new molecule of DNA is one strand of the original molecule.
46. A section of a DNA molecule has the coding sequence: AGGCAATGGC. [J18/P12/23]
Which statements are correct?
1.
2.
This coding sequence contains 3 pyrimidines.
The double-stranded DNA of this section contains 26 hydrogen bonds between complementary bases.
6
3. The double-stranded DNA of this section has 20 sugar-phosphate bonds.

47. XNA is a laboratory-made nucleic acid made of nucleotides in which one component has been replaced by
chemical X. The chemical X is not found in nature. The part of the molecule responsible for coding is not
changed. [J18/P12/24]
Which organic component of a DNA or RNA nucleotide has been replaced by X?
A five-carbon sugar B phosphate group

C purine base D pyrimidine base
48. Which statements about tRNA are correct? [J18/P12/25]
1. Hydrogen bonds between bases temporarily hold tRNA against mRNA.

2. The base sequences in the tRNA molecules are the same as the base sequences in the mRNA that is
being translated.
3. The specificity of the tRNA molecule for glycine and the specificity of the enzyme that loads glycine are
both necessary for correct loading.

49. What is the maximum number of hydrogen bonds in a length of DNA containing 700 base pairs?
[N18/P12/23]
A 350 B 700
C 1400 D 2100
50. What is the common component of the three molecules RNA, DNA, and ATP? [N18/P12/24]
A adenosine B hydrogen bonds

C phosphate D ribose
137
51. Which statement correctly describes the base pairing in a molecule of DNA? [J19/P12/18]
6
A The purine adenine forms bonds with the pyrimidine thymine.
B The purine adenine forms bonds with the pyrimidine uracil.
C The purine cytosine forms bonds with the pyrimidine guanine.
D The purine guanine forms bonds with the pyrimidine thymine.
52. Which statements about complementary base pairing are correct? [J19/P12/19]
1 It allows translation to occur.

2 Purines and pyrimidines are the same size.
3 The base pairs are of equal length.
4 Uracil forms two hydrogen bonds with adenine.
A 1, 2, 3 and 4
B 1, 3 and 4 only
C 1 and 4 only
D 2 and 3 only
53. The diagram shows the possible organisation of DNA molecules after one replication. [J19/P12/20]
Which organisation is correct?
54. The diagram shows part of the DNA sequence of a gene and a mutated sequence of the same gene.
[J19/P12/21]
What are possible effects of the mutated sequence?
1 the presence of mRNA stop codons, UAG, UAA or UGA

2 a change in the sequence of amino acids
3 a non-functional protein
4 ribosomes cannot translate the mRNA
A 1, 2 and 3 B 1, 3 and 4
138
1. Protein production involves a complex sequence of events and a number of cell structures.
(a) The first column in Table 1.1 shows some of the events that occur in the production of a protein in a cell
and its eventual release from the cell.
Table 1.1
6

(i) In Table 1.1, write the sequence in which the events occur, using 1 as the first process in the
sequence.
[2]
(ii) From the list A to F below, choose one cell location for each event and write the letter in Table 1.1.
Each letter may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
A Golgi apparatus
B lysosome
C nucleus
D rough endoplasmic reticulum
E smooth endoplasmic reticulum
F plasma (cell surface) membrane
[3]
(b) Describe the process of exocytosis.
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139
(c) One example of protein modification is the removal of the first amino acid, methionine, from a newly
6 formed polypeptide chain to make a functioning protein.
(i) The DNA nucleotide sequence that specifies the amino acid methionine is TAC.
State the mRNA nucleotide sequence that is complementary to the DNA sequence for methionine.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(ii) Suggest two other ways in which the polypeptide chain is modified to produce the functioning
protein.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
[Total: 11][N10/22/1]
2. (a) Fig. 2.1 shows the structure of deoxyribose sugar.
Fig. 2.1
State the differences between the structure of deoxyribose shown in Fig. 2.1 and the ring structure of
α-glucose.
You may use the space below to help you in your answer.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
(b) Match the biological macromolecule with the type of bond that is formed when the molecule is
synthesised. Choose from the list below.
amylose, cellulose, triglyceride, protein, amylopectin, mRNA
[4]
140
Semi-conservative replication of DNA and transcription involve the formation of polynucleotide chains.
(c) State the type of reaction that occurs in the formation of a polynucleotide chain.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(d) Complete Table 2.1 to show four differences between DNA replication and DNA transcription.
Table 2.1

[4]
[Total: 12][N11/22/4]
3. DNA and RNA are important biological molecules that are involved in the production of polypeptides.
(a) Fig. 16.1 shows two nucleotides joined by a covalent bond.
Fig. 3.1
(i) Fig. 3.1 represents part of a DNA molecule, not part of an RNA molecule.
Explain why.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
141
(ii) Name the covalent bond between the two nucleotides.
6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(iii) Name component X.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(b) Outline the role of transfer RNA (tRNA) in the production of a polypeptide.
.................................................................................
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(c) Describe how a peptide bond is formed between two amino acids during polypeptide production.
You may use the space below to help with your answer.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
[Total: 8][J12/22/4]
142
4. One of the enzymes involved in glycogen synthesis is glycogen synthase. The monomer of the glycogen
polymer is α-glucose.
(a) (i) Draw the ring form of α-glucose in the space provided.
[2]
(ii) Glycogen synthase catalyses the formation of a covalent bond between two α-glucose molecules
during glycogen synthesis.
Name the type of bond formed. 6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]

(iii) Glycogen branching enzyme is another enzyme that is required for glycogen synthesis.
Suggest why glycogen branching enzyme is needed in addition to glycogen synthase.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(b) The gene coding for glycogen synthase in muscle cells is known as GYS1.
(i) Explain what is meant by a gene.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(ii) There are a number of known mutations for GYS1.
Outline how a mutation in GYS1 can lead to the formation of an altered polypeptide where one
amino acid is replaced by a different amino acid.
............................................................................
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[3]
143
(c) Table 4.1 shows three functions of cell structures that are involved in the synthesis of glycogen synthase.
6 Complete Table 4.1 by naming the cell structure that carries out the function listed.
Table 4.1
[3]
[Total: 12][J16/P22/6]
5. High fructose corn syrup, made from maize, can be used as a replacement for sucrose to sweeten food and
drink products.
Commercial production of high fructose corn syrup involves the enzyme glucose isomerase, extracted from
bacteria.
(a) Fructose and sucrose are both sugars.
State two structural differences between fructose and sucrose.
1. ............................................................................
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2. ............................................................................
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(b) The glucose isomerase used in the production of high fructose corn syrup is extracted from a strain of a
bacterium, Thermus thermophilus, which is found in hot springs. The enzyme has an optimum
temperature of 95 °C.
Suggest and explain the advantages of using glucose isomerase from T. thermophilus to produce high
fructose corn syrup, rather than using glucose isomerase that has an optimum temperature of 37 °C.
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[3]
144
(c) The commercial production of high fructose corn syrup uses immobilised glucose isomerase.
Fig. 5.1 shows the effect of pH on the activity of immobilised glucose isomerase compared to glucose
isomerase free in solution.

Fig. 5.1
With reference to Fig. 5.1, describe the differences shown between the immobilised enzyme and the
free enzyme as pH changes.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
(d) The amino acid sequence of the enzyme glucose isomerase has been determined. The first five amino
acids of this sequence are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.2 shows the genetic code (mRNA codons).
A student was asked to use Table 5.2 to work out an mRNA nucleotide sequence that would correspond
to the first five amino acids of glucose isomerase. The studentʼs sequence is shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
145
(i) Complete Table 5.1 using a # or a $ to indicate whether the student has used Table 5.2 correctly
6 to identify the codons for each amino acid in the nucleotide sequence.
[1]
(ii) Discuss, with reasons, how an mRNA nucleotide sequence worked out to correspond to the first
five amino acids using Table 5.2 may not be the same as the mRNA nucleotide sequence for those
amino acids present in the bacterial cell.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
Table 5.2
[Total: 12][N16/P22/3]
146
6. As a result of transcription and translation, a polypeptide chain is produced. Proteins with quaternary structure
contain two or more polypeptide chains.
An antibody molecule and a haemoglobin molecule both show quaternary structure.
(a) Table 6.1 shows some features of an antibody molecule and a haemoglobin molecule.
Complete Table 6.1 to produce a summary of the features of the two molecules.
Table 6.1

(b) The base sequence shown in Fig. 6.1 is a short section of a longer length of DNA that is transcribed to
produce mRNA. When translated, this short section produces the amino acid sequence threonine (Thr),
proline (Pro), cysteine (Cys).
Fill in the two unshaded boxes in Fig. 6.1 to show:
● the mRNA codon for Cys
● the tRNA anticodon for Thr.
You do not need to give the codon and anticodon sequences in the shaded boxes.
Fig. 6.1
[2]
[Total: 5][J17/P22/6]
147
7. Hydrolytic enzymes can function within the cell or can be secreted by the cell, where they are able to catalyse
6 reactions.
(a) State the term used to describe an enzyme that functions within the cell.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(b) The rates of reaction of two different hydrolytic enzymes, enzyme G and enzyme H, were measured at
different substrate concentrations. The results are shown in Fig. 7.1.
The two enzymes have different values of the Michaelis–Menten constant (Km).
Fig. 7.1
(i) The Km value of enzyme G is 5 mmol dm–3.

Use Fig. 7.1 to derive the Km value for enzyme H.
Show your working.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
(ii) With reference to Fig. 7.1, explain how the values of Km for these enzymes provide information
about the relationship between the enzyme and their substrates.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
Cells can break down an old or damaged organelle, such as a mitochondrion, by enclosing the organelle in a
membrane formed from the endoplasmic reticulum. This forms a vacuole. Vesicles containing hydrolytic
enzymes fuse with the vacuole and the organelle is then digested.
148
(c) Name the vesicles in the cell that contain hydrolytic enzymes.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(d) The cell has internal chemical messengers that signal when an old or damaged mitochondrion should
be broken down.
Suggest one feature involving mitochondrial structure or function that could lead to the release of these
internal signals.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [1]
(e) Glucocerebrosidase is an enzyme synthesised by macrophages to hydrolyse glucocerebroside, a

glycolipid found in cell membranes.
The GBA gene codes for glucocerebrosidase. There are a number of different mutations of the GBA 6
gene. Some mutations result in a single amino acid change in the enzyme molecule produced, and this
causes a disorder known as Gaucherʼs disease. Two of these mutations, at different positions in the GBA

gene, are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1
With reference to Table 7.1,

● outline how a mutation leads to a single amino acid change in the enzyme glucocerebrosidase and
● suggest why the two different amino acid changes, Asn to Ser and Leu to Pro, will result in
differences in the tertiary structure of the enzyme.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [5]
[Total: 12][N17/P22/3]
149
8. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick published details about the structure of DNA. They used
6 experimental results from other scientists to help them work out the structure and then built a model of a section
of a DNA molecule, using pieces of wire and metal, with clamp stands to hold the model in place. This is shown
in Fig. 8.1.
Fig. 8.1
(a) Watson and Crick used results from work carried out by Erwin Chargaff. He found that the proportions
of the bases A, T, C and G were different in different species, but within each species:
● the proportion of A was equal to the proportion of T
● the proportion of G was equal to the proportion of C.
(i) Name the bases A, T, G and C.
A ..........................................................................
T ..........................................................................
G ..........................................................................
C ..........................................................................
[2]
(ii) Suggest and explain how Chargaffʼs findings helped Watson and Crick work out the structure of
DNA.
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
............................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[3]
150
(b) Phoebus Levene isolated the nucleotides of DNA and identified the carbohydrate component of each
nucleotide.
State the name of this carbohydrate component.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[1]
(c) Before the discovery of the structure of DNA as the molecule of inheritance, scientists thought that
proteins were most likely to be the molecules that carried information.
Suggest how the structure of proteins made scientists think that these were the molecules that carried
information.
.................................................................................
................................................................................. 6
.................................................................................

.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
[Total: 8][J18/P22/2]
9. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids.

(a) Explain why RNA can be described as a polymer and as a macromolecule.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2]
(b) The sugar component of DNA is a reducing sugar.

Outline the test for reducing sugars and describe the observations for a positive result.
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2]
151
(c) Nucleotides are structural components of nucleic acids. Each nucleotide consists of a pentose sugar, a
6 phosphate group and a nitrogenous organic base.
Complete Table 9.1 to compare DNA nucleotides with RNA nucleotides as structural components of
nucleic acids.
Table 9.1
[3]
[Total: 7] [N18/P22/5]
10. Cells contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.

(a) Fig. 10.1 is a list of biological molecules, some of which are components of larger molecules.
Fig. 10.1
152
Complete Table 10.1 by using only the molecules listed in Fig. 10.1.
● Each example can be written under one or more correct headings.
● All the examples in Fig. 10.1 should appear at least once in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1

(b) Explain how the structure of phospholipids allows the formation of the phospholipid bilayer of cell
membranes.
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.................................................................................
.................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [3]
[Total: 8][J19/P22/5]
153

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4 CELL MEMBRANES AND TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

5 THE MITOTIC CELL CYCLE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

6 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

7 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

8 TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

9 GAS EXCHANGE AND SMOKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

10 INFECTIOUS DISEASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

ANSWERS - MCQ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

1. The following are all features of eukaryotic cells. [N12/12/3]

Which of these has a single membrane?

A cristae of mitochondria B grana of chloroplasts

3. Which size range would include most prokaryotic cells? [N12/12/5]

What is the diameter of the cell marked Z?

6. The electron micrograph is of a chloroplast.

8. Which features enable an organism to be identified as a prokaryote? [J13/P12/4]

9. The diagram shows an electron micrograph of a typical animal cell. [J13/12/5]

What is the function of the membrane system labelled X?

The student observed:

A 1, 2 and 3 only B 1, 2 and 4 only

13. Which row shows features of a typical eukaryotic cell? [N13/P12/4]

A 1.0 × 101 μm B 4.0 × 102 μm

A Golgi apparatus B lysosome

A Golgi apparatus ! ribosome ! rough endoplasmic reticulum ! mRNA

20. What is the diameter of a typical plant cell? [J15/P12/1]

A 4.0 × 101 μm B 1.0 × 100 μm

21. What is the function of plasmodesmata in plant cells? [J15/P12/3]

A to act as a barrier to water soluble substances

How many 70S ribosomes were there in the E. coli cell?

A endoplasmic reticulum B mitochondria

What is the actual length along the line X–Y?

A nucleolus " ribosome " Golgi body " vesicle

A π × 12.5 × 12.5 = 4.9 × 102 μm2

What is the function of the organelle extracted in pellet 2?

A digestion of old organelles B production of ATP

A endocytotic vesicles B Golgi body

32. The DNA of prokaryotes is naked and circular. [J17/P12/2]

A It has a nuclear envelope around it and is a double helix.

33. The recently discovered Pandoravirus measures 1000 nm in diameter. [J17/P12/3]

A both the Mimivirus and the Pandoravirus

polio virus Mimivirus Pandoravirus

A lysosome nucleolus nucleus

cell surface endoplasmic

A 1, 2 and 3 B 1 and 3 only

A cell wall B circular chromosome

40. Which statement is correct? [N17/P12/6]

A A virus is composed of a protein coat which may surround RNA or DNA.

41. Some features of cells are listed.

Which features can be found in plant cells and in prokaryotic cells?

A 1, 2 and 3 B 1 and 2 only

A 1, 2, 3 and 4 B 1, 3 and 4 only

46. What is the diameter of a typical prokaryote, such as Streptococcus? [N18/P12/1]

A 7.5 × 101nm B 7.5 × 102 nm

Which statement explains why protoplasts are easily damaged?

A Mitochondria stop producing ATP to maintain membrane integrity.

50. Which statements are correct for a green plant? [N18/P12/5]

1. ATP is produced by mitochondria.