PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS AND OPERATIONS

Operation
It involves the day-to-day processing activities/tasks that take place within a computer
room of a data processing department (DPD), and these operations relay upon a number
of specialist staff which includes:

Operations manager
Is the one responsible for all the operations in the computer room including (the smooth
running of machines, programs and correct use of ancillary equipment) and reports to the
IT manager.

Supervisor
The computer room is under the day to day control of a supervisor, and the supervisor
ensures that only authorized personnel are allowed entry to the computer room and they
are doing the correct job at the correct time, and he/she reports to the Operations
Manager. It is essential that anyone who has participated in the writing of the programs is
forbidden for security and audit reasons to interfere with the operational running of those
programs.

Operator(s)
Are responsible for:
 Handling of hardware in the computer room.
 Mounting of storage media onto drives.
 Loading of stationery on printers.
 Communicating with the operating system via a console.
 Keeping the installation running smoothly by correcting any problem
immediately.
 Performing routine housekeeping tasks, such as checking faulty hardware,
cleaning etc.

Librarian(s)
Are there to keep data safe and organized in the computer library. Also the librarian will
maintain a register of all tapes and disks, noting the particular generations required for
current use. Maximum security is observed and access is strictly limited.

Data control staff

Are responsible for:
 Responsible for the correct flow of and accuracy of jobs being done in the
computer room and to correct errors were possible.

Data preparation staff

 Preparing floppy disks from source documents or preparation by other means, e.g.
on line data entry.
 Operation of ancillary machines such as floppy disk units, paper busters , etc
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Programming
Is the development of a solution to an identified problem, and setting up of related
instructions which when directed through the computer will produce the desired results.

Programmers are people who are responsible for the development of software or the
actual coding of a program.
Programming tasks include:
 Analysis of the problem
 Designing and testing of the solution algorithm.
 Encoding of procedures detailed in the design, in a programming language.
 Testing of the program.
 Documentation (e.g. preparation of manuals)
 System installation assistance
 Maintenance of programs

.
DPD

A typical DPD is divided into 3 sections namely:

 The operations section – which carries out the day-to-day processing tasks in the
computer room.

 The software development (programming) section - which is responsible for the

designing of programs.

 The system development section – which is responsible for the designing of

information systems. An Analyst will be responsible for the analysis, design,
implementation, and maintenance of information systems.

Plus:
 Database administration section – which is responsible for the management and
administration of the database.
Both sections are headed by managers who report to the DP/IT/IS manager, who overseas
the entire IT department.
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Organizational chart

IT/DP/IS MANAGER

DATABASE OPERATIONS
ADMINISTRATOR
SYSTEMS MANAGER PROGRAMMING MANAGER
MANAGER

ANALYSTS PROGRAMMERS
SUPERVISOR

DATA DATA OPERATORS LIBRARIA

CAPTURE CONTROL N
STAFF STAFF

Computer room layout

The recommended layout is as follows:

Equipment must be conveniently lined-out to ensure free space for staff movements, and
to avoid unnecessary movements by, e.g. operators to equipment i.e. equipment must be
close together.

Cables must run along walls to protect them from wear and tear, and reducing the danger
of people tripping over them.

Fire fighting equipment must be available e.g. fire extinguishers.

CPU

Extinguisher

Tape drive Disc drive

Entry/exit
PABX Console Printer

Stationery cabinet Tape and disk library

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Environmental conditions
There are three major conditions which need to be controlled inside a computer room.
These are temperature, humidity, and air cleanliness.

Temperature
This refers to the degree of heat and coldness in the atmosphere.
The recommended up and lower limits are 26oc and 15oc respectively.
Thermostats and air conditioners may be used to control temperature.

Effects of temperature
Too high temperature may cause components (e.g. the c.pu.) to under perform due to
over heating.

Too low temperatures may cause media (e.g. Punched cards) to absorb moisture it
difficulty to fit onto drives or read. Moisture causes rust on components. Moisture may
cause short circuits

Humidity
Is amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, which should be from 40% to 60% in the
computer room. Humidifiers/Dehumidifiers are used to control humidity in the computer
room.

Effects of humidity
Dry conditions: increase chances of dust particles in the atmosphere. In this case dust
can corrupt data on storage media and also it can cause keys on the keyboards to stick.
And also chances of static electricity are increased.

Wet conditions: may lead to condensation. Moisture is not good on computer

components and equipment. Shot circuits and rust Stationery like printing paper absorb
moisture causing printing problems.

Air cleanliness
This refers to the amount of dust particles in the air. Using air-conditioners, electrostatic
carpets, etc reduce the amount of dust particles in the computer room. All equipment
should be covered after use to eliminate dust.

Effects of dust
Dust can cause sticky keys on keyboards. Dust can corrupt data on storage media. Dust
can cause read/write heads to crush. Dust is dirty.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Other conditions are:

Discipline – in the computer room there should be no drinking, no eating, and no

smoking.
Liquids may cause short circuits, food crumbs can cause keyboard keys to stick, and can
attract pests. Smoking may lead to fire.

Operating standards
These are established and maintained in order to control the organization and work of the
IT department to ensure that work is carried out in a uniform and orderly way, and
criteria are provided against which the performance of personnel and machines can be
measured.

Factors that aid control are:

 Organization. i.e. all staff should know what their duties are and where they fit in
the general picture.
 Staff training.
 Supervision and working to plans.
 The use of documentation to guide and assist work.
 Clear procedures for individuals to follow.

COMPUTER SECURITY
It is the protection of the computer’s system from threats (e.g. Unlawful access, viruses,
natural disasters, etc.), that could cause loss, damage, or destruction of hardware,
software, data/information, material, buildings, etc.)

Viruses
Viruses are parasitic programs which replicate or reproduce as does a normal disease
virus. It can be malignant and harmful in it’s’ actions. A virus can delete files, cause the
computer to behave erratically or freeze or even crush.

Viruses can be grouped in three:

1. File virus – it manifests in memory resides there until a certain date is reached, or
program activated.

2. Boot sector virus – insinuate onto the boot sector of disk. Everytime the computer
is switched on, the virus gains control of the system and copies itself onto other
media. If a virus infects the boot sector of a disk, it will be executed before any
other program, including virus detection utilities.
3. Link virus- attaches itself to the directory structure of the disk. In this way the
virus is able to manipulate file and directory information. Link viruses can be
difficult to remove, since they become embedded within the affected data
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Anti-virus precautions:
 Avoid downloading software and games from bulletin board systems.
 Avoid using illegitimate copies of software e.g. from friends.
 Avoid sharing diskettes.
 Install updateable anti-virus software on your computer.
 Do not open unrecognized email messages and strange email attachments.
 Scan the hard disk on regular intervals.
 Backup the contents of the hard disk on a regular basis.

Unlawful access
This is either gaining entry into the computer room, or access to the computer’s files
without authority, either to steal, damage, or destroy data, hardware, software, etc.

Prevention:
Physical and data access controls are designed to protect against intruders, disasters from
gaining physical access to the system, and to prevent unauthorized access to data files or
programs respectively.

Physical access control methods are:

 Use biometric identifiers, e.g. voice recognition systems, fingerprint scanners,
hand geometry systems.
 Place the computer room in upper floors of a building to avoid burglary and
natural disasters e.g. floods.
 Use alarm guards to attract attention.
 Use surveillance cameras
 Employ human security guards.
 Lock the computer room when not manned.
 Computer log – operators or security guards may use entry control and computer
usage log books to record information such as, who entered the computer room,
purpose, how much time was the computer in use, what jobs where run, and all
sorts of activities that took place in the computer room.
 Have a fire safety plan with security procedures, in order to prevent, detect, and
put out fire. Fire safety may state the following needs:
1. Extinguishers.
2. Lining computer equipment with fire resistant materials.
3. Installing fire alarms and smoke detectors
4. Cover all naked wires to eliminate short circuits.
5. Use inscriptions to warn people of environmental controls such as no eating, no
drinking, no smoking, no flammable substance is allowed in the computer room.
6. Backup and keep data offsite.

Data security controls are:

 Log on codes – a user name and a password can be used to protect
files/data from unauthorized viewers. The system will validate the two
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entries and if an entry is in-correct/invalid, then access to the data is

denied.
 Implementing anti-virus precautions
 Encrypting text – making text unreadable during transmission.
 Firewalls – programs (software) or devices used to protect the network
from hackers.
 Backup procedures, such as:
a) Internet hard disk – data or information can be automatically
backed up or saved on a secure website.
b) Maintaining three generations of important information, known
as the grandfather-father-son concept, and preserving two or
more disks containing the same information.
c) Keeping of backup copies away from the computer’s location
(offsite location)
d) Reciprocal data backup relationship.

System/hardware failure:
Power variations, poor environmental conditions, and natural disasters are major causes
of prolonged malfunctions of computer systems.

Hardware maintenance is important to prevent breakdowns of the system/hardware.

Uninterrupted power supply (UPS) gadgets are used to avert problems with power cuts,
or under voltage, while surge protectors (surge suppressors) avert problems with over
voltage. In both cases hardware fails to operate causing loss of data/information,
programs, and also losing the hardware itself.
Environmental controls, to maintain temperature, humidity, dust in the computer room,
are also important in caring for the hardware.

If a natural disaster (e.g. Fire) strikes, an organization should have a disaster recovery
plan, which states procedures taken to resume operations to normal after a disaster. A
company will follow the steps stated in the backup plan of a disaster recovery plan, which
may include the following:

 How a company will use backup copies that are kept on an offsite location.
 How a company will use an Internet website/hard disk to obtain stored
information.
 How a company will use reciprocal data backup relationship to obtain lost
information from another company.
 How the hardware can be obtained, e.g. through insurance.
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THE OPERATING SYSTEM

System software Application Software

Operating Utility System General Purpose Application

Development
System Software Software Software Specific Software

Software can be defined as a series detailed instructions that control the operation of a
computer. Software exists as programs which were developed by programmers.

System software: it manages and controls the operation of the computer system as it
performs tasks on behalf of the user. Systems software comes in three basic categories;
Operating systems, Development programs, and Utility programs.

Utility programs: provide a range of tools that support operation and management of a
computer system. Programs that monitor system performance or provide security controls
are examples of utility programs

Development Programs: they allow programmers to develop their programs/software in

order to carry out different processing tasks. These include different types of
programming languages e.g. QBASIC, Visual Basic, Java.

Application Software: can be defined as a set of programs that enable users to perform
specific information system activities and these can be divided into two:
1) Application specific
2) General purpose application

General Purpose
There are programs that can be used to carry out a wide range of tasks. A word
processor, for example, is capable of producing a variety or range of documents that are
suitable for many different purposes. This type of application is often called
productivity software since it helps one’s efficiency.

Application specific software: describe programs intended to serve a specific function or

to carry out a clearly defined information processing task.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

A program designed to carry out payroll processing will be an example of an application

specific software.

An Operating system is a suit of programs that take over the operations of a computer to
extend of allowing other programs to be run on the computer without human intervention.

Functions of the operating system

 Controls the input and output devices
 It is a user interface- allows communication between a user and the computer.
 Manages programs, memory, and files on the computer.
 Error detection and correction.
 Configuring devices- the operating system communicates with devices on the
computer using small programs called device drivers.
 Provides house keeping services – the OS contains a file manager, which
performs functions related to storage and file management tasks, such as:
1) Disk Formatting
2) Copying, displaying, organizing, renaming, deleting, sorting, etc.files on the disk.
3) Defragmentation, disk scanning.

Types of operating systems

 Multi-tasking/Multi-user OS – allows a user to work on two or more
applications that reside in main- store at the sometime. E.g. GUI (windows OS).
 Single-tasking/single-user OS – allows a single user to run one program at a
time. E.g. CDI (Dos OS).
 Embedded OS – found on most hand held computers and reside on a ROM chip.
E.g. Pocket P.C. 2002, Windows Ex.

Methods of operating and communicating with the computer

Operating systems are often described in terms of the methods in which they operate the
system and the modes of the system access they provide. The common alternatives are as
follows:

 Multiprocessing – these are named from the situation which occurs if two or
more processors are present in the computer system. In such cases two programs
may be processed at the same time.
 Multiprogramming – this occurs when more than one program in main memory
is being processed apparently at the same time. This is accomplished by programs
taking turns at short bursts of processing time. The kernel program will transfer
control from one program to another, so that when one is using the processor,
another is making use of the peripherals. In its more advanced form
multiprogramming is sometimes called multitasking which usually implies a level
of scheduling capable of supporting multi-users or simply multiple programs
simultaneously.
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 Time-sharing - processor time is divided into small units called time slices and
shared in turn between users to provide multi-access.
 Multi-access – this occurs when the computer allows interactive facilities to more
than one user at a time.
 Interactive computing – takes place if the computer and terminal user
communicate with each other and also communication of the computer with other
devices. Also known as online communication.
 Conversational mode – this is interactive computer communication where the
responds to the user’s message is immediate.
 Remote job entry – refers to batch processing were jobs are entered at a terminal
remote from the computer and transmitted to the computer via telecommunication
links.
 Batch processing – jobs are entered and stored on a disk in a batch queue and
then run one or more at a time under the control of the operating system.
 Real-time processing – is the processing of data so quickly that the results are
available to influence the activity currently taking place.
 Buffering – is a technique used by an input/output handler program, of the
operating system, to transfer data into temporary storage prior to processing or
output, thus enabling the simultaneous operation of devices online. This can only
be archived because of the autonomous operations of peripherals, which leaves
the processor free from other work.
 Spooling – means simultaneous peripheral operations online, archived through
buffering, which is sending the output to the disk prior to printing, or processing.

Single user/single tasking operating system (Dos)

Allow a user to run one program at a time in a conversational mode. That is the operator
can key in responses to prompts from the system and also key in commands available in
the command language.
Msdos provides a command line interpreter, which is a prompt where the user types in a
command, as opposed to using the mouse to perform a command. For example, a root
MS-DOS command line is generally C :\>. Unlike a GUI Operating System, a
command line Operating System only uses a keyboard to navigate and does not utilize a
mouse.

Because command line Operating Systems requires commands to be used, these types of
Operating Systems are much more difficult to learn for new users and can take time.
However, a command line Operating System can be a very valuable resource and should
not be ignored. For example, users who have Microsoft Windows may find trivial tasks
such as renaming 100+ files in a folder a very difficult task; however, this is something
that can be done in a matter of seconds through a simple command at the command line.

Commands can be categorized into INTERNAL (memory resident) and EXTERNAL

(utilities / programs) types.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

INTERNAL commands- Internal commands are memory resident commands. They are
resident in the memory when the COMMAND.COM is loaded in the boot up process.

Brief Description of Internal MS-DOS commands

CHDIR/ CD Displays the name of or changes the current directory.

CLS Clears the screen.

COPY Copies one or more files to another location.

DATE Displays or sets the date.

DEL/ ERASE Deletes one or more files.

DIR Displays a list of files and subdirectories in a directory.

EXIT Quits the COMMAND.COM program (command interpreter).

MKDIR/ MD Creates a directory.

RENAME/ REN Renames a file or files.

RMDIR/ RD Removes a directory.

TIME Displays or sets the system time.

TYPE Displays the contents of a text file.

EXTERNAL commands

External commands are MS-DOS utilities / programs. These are the .EXE or .COM
programs located on your hard drive. They are normally placed under C:\DOS, the
default directory. MS-DOS will load external commands if and only if you instruct to
execute them at the DOS prompt.

Brief Description of External MS-DOS commands

ATTRIB Displays or changes file attributes.

CHKDSK Checks a disk and displays a status report.

 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

DEFRAG Reorganizes the files on a disk to optimize the disk.

DELTREE deletes a directory and all the files and subdirectories in it.

DISKCOPY Copies the contents of one floppy disk to another.

EXPAND Decompresses one or more compressed files.

FDISK Configures a hard disk for use with MS-DOS.

FIND Searches for a text string in a file or files.

FORMAT Formats a disk for use with MS-DOS.

HELP Provides complete, interactive Help information for MS-DOS commands.

LABEL Creates, changes, or deletes the volume label of a disk.

MODE Configures a system device.

MOVE Moves one or more files. Also renames files and directories.

MSBACKUP Backs up or restores one or more files from one disk to another.

MSD Provides detailed technical information about your computer.

POWER Turns power management on and off.

PRINT Prints a text file while you are using other MS-DOS commands.

QBASIC Starts the MS-DOS QBasic programming environment.

REPLACE Replaces files.

RESTORE Restores files that were backed up by using the BACKUP command.

SCANDISK Checks a drive for errors and repairs any problems it finds.

SYS Copies MS-DOS system files and command interpreter to a disk you specified.
you

TREE Graphically displays the directory structure of a drive or path.

UNDELETE Restores files previously deleted with the DEL command.

UNFORMAT Restores a disk erased by the FORMAT command.

 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

XCOPY Copies files (except hidden and system files) and directory tree.

NB: A typical operating system command is made up of the following parts: computer
name; drive letter (c); colon; back slash (\); prompt (>); reserved word; directory
name; and a file name with an extension.

Wildcard commands
To copy, etc. several similarly named files with one command, we include wildcard
characters namely ‘asterisk’, and ‘question mark’, naming the command a wildcard
command.
A wildcard in MSDOS matches certain characters in certain positions depending on how
it is used.
They can be used in the find and replace dialogue boxes, or in the msdos commands.
They can be used to (e.g. copy, display, delete, etc.) a value that you know part of the
value, or to specify values that start with a specific letter or matches a certain pattern.

The asterisk (*)

Is used to find or match any number of characters in the same position as the asterisk
e.g.’*. East’ finds ‘northeast’ and ‘southeast’ (using windows ops.)
At the command prompt (c :\>), type:
Copy a: *.* c: -to copy all files from a floppy to a hard disk.
Dir a: *.*.txt -to display all files with the extension ‘txt’.

The question mark (?)

Refers to any character in a position in which it was used eg.sm?th, finds

‘smith’and’smyth’ (using windows ops).
At the command prompt, type:
Copy sm?th a: c: -to copy ‘smith’ and ‘Smyth’
Dir sm?th -to display ‘smith’ and ‘Smyth’

MS-DOS error messages

A duplicate file name exists, or the file cannot be found

When attempting to rename a file, the file does not exist or there is already a file
with that name. Verify no other file exists with the same name in the current
directory and/or that you're typing the file you wish to rename correctly.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Abort, Retry, Fail?

This error is commonly encountered when attempting to read a diskette that is not
readable or if no disk or disc in the drive trying to be read.

Access denied

Often caused when the file or directory has read-only attributes, is being modified
by another person or program on the computer, and/or other network permissions
that prevent it from being deleted or modified.

Bad command or file name

Usually caused by a wrong spelling or typing error when entering a command

and/or when the command attempting to be used is not a valid command for your
version of MS-DOS or Windows.

Bad or missing command interpreter

The computer cannot locate the command.com, an important file that that enables
the computer to boot into the operating system.

Cannot perform a cyclic copy

This error occurs when you're trying to copy or xcopy all directories and files and
that directory also contains the directory you're copying all the files to. If this
command were to be allowed it would get into a loop and would never stop
copying the same files over and over. When using the xcopy command if you're
copying all subdirectories you must copy those files and folders to a completely
separate directory or drive.

Divide overflow

Program has attempted to divide something by zero. This error is often caused by
an error in the program you're running on your computer. Verify there are no
available patches or other updates for the software you're using on your computer.

Drive not ready error

Disk or disc in the drive is not readable.

Duplicate file name or file not found

When attempting to rename a file, the file does not exist or there is already a file
with that name. Verify no other file exists with the same name in the current
directory and/or that you're typing the file you wish to rename correctly.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

File cannot be copied onto itself

An attempt to copy a file could not be completed because the file already exists or
same source and destination. Copy the file to an alternate drive or directory.

File creation error

Directory could be full because of the DOS limitation of files in one directory, the
file already exists, and/or the file was not copied correctly. Try to create or copy
the file to a different directory.

File not found

The file you attempted to list, copy, or edit does not exist in the directory you're in.
Verify you're in the correct directory and that the file exists in that directory.

This error may also occur if you're using a back slash instead of a forward slash for
switches on commands. For example, “dir \p" instead of "dir /p".

General Failure

An unknown error has occurred that is not known by MS-DOS. If this is given
when trying to read the hard drive, you may need to format the hard drive as it
could be failing or already bad.

Insufficient disk space

Disk is full or, if you are trying to copy a file to a disk, the file is too big to fit on
the disk.

Internal stack overflow

The MS-DOS internal storage areas are full. You may need to go into your
config.sys and increase the STACKS=0, 0

Invalid directory

The directory or path you attempted to enter does not exist in the directory or drive
you're currently in.

Invalid drive specification

The drive letter you're typing does not exist on the computer.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Invalid file name or file not found

This error occurs when attempting to rename, copy, or otherwise manipulate a file
the file does not exist. Verify you're typing the file you wish to rename correctly.

Invalid media, track 0 bad or unusable

Format command cannot format the specified disk or the disk capacity is invalid or
bad disk.

Invalid number of parameters

When the command was typed, something was left out that DOS needed by the
command, it was mistyped, or a space was placed where one was not needed.

This error commonly occurs when you're typing a directory in the MS-DOS or the
Windows command line that has spaces in it. For example, using the xcopy
command to copy files in the Documents and Settings folder. When typing a
directory with spaces in MS-DOS make sure to surround the path with quotes. For
example, instead of typing: c:\documents and settings type: "c:\documents and
settings".

Invalid parameter

Typed a command correctly but specified the incorrect parameter, such as format
/z.

Invalid Switch

The wrong slash was typed, for example: cd/ instead of cd\.

Non-System disk or disk error

The disk doesn’t contain startup file

Not ready, reading drive X

The drive letter you're typing does not exist on the computer or there is no disk or
disc in the drive.

Parse error

This error occurs when the command you're typing in has invalid syntax. For
example, if you're surrounding your path in quotes and leave out the ending quotes.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

The system cannot find the drive specified.

The drive letter you're typing does not exist on the computer.

The system cannot find the file specified.

This error occurs when attempting to rename, copy, or otherwise manipulate a file
the file does not exist. Verify you're typing the file you wish to rename correctly.

The system cannot find the path specified.

The directory or path you attempted to enter does not exist in the directory or drive
you're currently in.

Write fault error

Tried to reroute text to a device that is not connected, is not valid or not hooked up.

Write protect

Tried to write to a disk that is write protected.

Graphical User Interface

A graphical user interface (GUI) is designed to simplify the work of the user
whether they are using the operating system or an application package. The interface
consists of a screen with a number of icons or menus. Functions are executed by
pointing and clicking with the mouse.

Some advantages of using a GUI are:

 Less work for the user. To execute a function all you have to do is point and
click on an icon instead of typing out an instruction.
 Quicker/easy to learn.
 Easy access to the basic functionality of the operating system or application
package.
 Hides the underlying complexity from the user.
 Simplifies and integrates multitasking. Multitasking refers to using several
applications at the same time. Opening a new application or document
involves a couple of mouse clicks. Likewise switching between tasks also
involves only a couple of mouse clicks.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Some disadvantages of using a GUI based operating system.

 Not all the functionality is available. The icon represents the most commonly
used form of a function. A text based system gives you access to all the
options associated with a function. Power users tend to switch between the
GUI and the system prompt as needed.
 Being graphics based, a GUI runs more slowly than a text based system..
 Trivial tasks such as renaming 100+ files in a folder is a very difficult task,
using GUI; however, this is something that can be done in a matter of seconds
through a simple command at the command line

Elements of a GUI

Desktop

Your workspace on the computer screen

Dialog box

A window in which you provide information to a program.

Icon

A picture representing a program, disk drive, file, folder, or other item

Menu

A list of commands that appears at the top of most windows.

Mouse pointer

An icon, typically an arrow that appears on your screen and is controlled by the
movement of the mouse. You use the mouse pointer to work with menus, icons, links,
and other screen objects.

Window

The rectangular portion of your screen that displays an open program or the contents of a
folder or disk. You can have multiple windows open at the same time.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

A typical desktop diagram

pointer

open
window
Icons copy

cut
Menu
paste

start 12.000

Basic desktop icons

 Recycle bin – contains deleted files you can permanently delete or restore.
 My computer – displays the contents of your computer.
 My documents – stores your documents, graphics, and other files.
 Network neighborhood – displays all computer on your network.
 Internet explorer – displays pages on the (www) or your corporate intranet, or
connects you to the Internet.
 Outlook Express/Ms Outlook – displays your e-mail calendar, contacts, and other
important personal information.

Starting a computer (booting)

Booting (cold boot) is the process of starting a computer, turning on the computer power.
Rebooting (warm boot) is the process of restarting the computer that already is powered
on.
When the system or program hangs or freezes (stops execution), i.e., it has stopped
responding, the solution is to reboot/restart the computer by pressing the ‘control (ctrl)’,
‘alternate (alt)’, and ‘delete (del)’ keys on the key board at the same time.
In the ‘close program’ dialogue box, click the program that is not responding, and then
click ‘end task’ option.

Formatting a disk
Involves the writing of blank sectors onto every track on a disk in a regular pattern after
initialization (the elimination of traces of existing data i.e. the writing of zeroes on every
track).
NB.1. formatting a disk removes all information from the disk.
2. Formatting prepares the disk for writing and reading.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Organization of a floppy disk

A floppy disk stores data in tracks and sectors. A track is a narrow recording band that
forms a full circle on the surface of the disk. The disk storage locations consist of pre-
shaped sections, which break the track into small arcs called sectors. A sector can store
up to 512 bytes of data. A typical disk stores data on both sides of the disk, has 80 tracks
on each side of the recording surface, and 18 sectors per track. You compute the disk’s
storage capacity by multiplying both the number of side, sectors/track, bytes in a sector,
and the, number of tracks/side.

A track is made up of a group of sectors called a cluster or allocation units.

A floppy disk stores 1,474,560 bytes (1.44 megabytes).

Track

A pie with 4sectors …..

Tree structure

Directory, sub-directories, and file are organized on disk, in a hierarchical manner, called
a tree structure. A directory can contain 12 entries, which may be either sub-directories or
files. The main directory is known as the root directory.

Root directory

Sub-directory

File

Paths and path names:

Each directory has a unique path from the root to it self. In Dos we specify the path by
the path name. E.g. \Protheta\courses\VB.

Windows applications ‘accessories’

Imaging
Kodak Imaging enables you to view, annotate, and perform basic tasks with image
documents, including fax documents and scanned images.
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Notepad
You can use Notepad to create or edit text files that do not require formatting and are
smaller than 64K
Paint
You can use Paint to create, edit, and view pictures.
WordPad
WordPad is a text editor for short documents.

Telecommunications features:

Dial-Up Networking
If you have a modem, you can connect to another computer or to your corporate network
by using your phone line.

Direct Cable Connection to connect to another computer

With Direct Cable Connection, you can gain access to shared folders on another
computer, even when your computer is not on a network. If the other computer is
connected to a network, you can also gain access to that network.

HyperTerminal
You can use HyperTerminal and a modem to connect to a remote computer, even if the
remote computer isn't running Windows.

Phone Dialer to dial from your computer

Using Phone Dialer, you can place telephone calls from your computer by using your
modem or another Windows telephony device.
Network Connections
Network Connections provides connectivity between your computer and the Internet, a
network, or another computer. With Network Connections, you can gain access to
network resources and functionality, whether you are physically located at the location of
the network or in a remote location.

The New Connection Wizard

Helps you create Internet connections using your dial-up modem, ISDN, DSL or cable
modem.
Computer terms:

Defragmentation
A process of rewriting a file to adjacent sections of a hard disk, which may help improve
disk performance.

Desktop
Your workspace on the computer screen.

Disk drive
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Hardware on which you can store files. Disk drives are assigned a letter. For example,
most users store their files on their hard disk, which is typically labeled "C".

File
A program or document stored on a disk

Folder
A location in which you can store files and other folders.

Icon
A picture representing a program, disk drive, file, folder, or other item

Path
The means of navigating to a specific location on a computer or network. A path can
include a computer name, disk drive label, folder names, and a file name.

Link
Text or a picture that you click to jump from one location to another. The mouse pointer
usually changes to a hand when positioned over a link.

Menu
A list of commands that appears at the top of most windows.

Mouse pointer
An icon, typically an arrow that appears on your screen and is controlled by the
movement of the mouse. You use the mouse pointer to work with menus, icons, links,
and other screen objects

Window

The rectangular portion of your screen that displays an open program or the contents of a
folder or disk. You can have multiple windows open at the same time

Computer data processing methods

There are two types of data processing methods namely batch, and real-time. Which are
used in an electronic/computerized data processing system, to obtain information, using
interactive devices. Such systems are referred to as online data processing systems.

Online processing system:

The term online is used to describe a situation which occurs when peripheral devices eg.
Tape units, are connected to and under the control of the CPU, thus data can be directly
sent into or out of main memory, from or to a device which is online.

Advantages:
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

 There is no physical transportation of data, therefore speeding up entry of data

into the computer and the return of processed information if need be.
 Data transcription can be eliminated.
 Cuts down delays in dealing with errors.
 Data is less out of date on arrival in the computer as a result files reflect a much
more up to date or real picture of particular circumstances.

Disadvantages:
It is costly in terms of the resources requirements.

Typical online system diagram:

FEP
M.FRAME
T

DISK TAPE PRINTER

T

Key:
 Arrow – to represent electronic data transmission
 T - terminals at remote locations used by agencies
 F.E.P. – front-end- processor for handling I/O to and from the mainframe, and
localized processing.
 Main frame – computer handling centralized processing.
 Disk – for random access
 Tape – for bulky data storage

Characteristics/features of online systems:

 Distributed processing, communication, and data/information
 Use of different types of software to support varied processing needs, e.g. payroll,
stock control, bookings, enquiries, e.t.c.
 Exploit integrated files or databases, which are updated simultaneously, i.e. stock
file and customer file, can be processed by both programs, (e.g. enquiry and
updating programs).
 Use a combination of different processing methods, i.e. batch and real-time
methods.

Application area:
Large corporate organizations, e.g. banks form part of a distributed data processing
system in which workstations are multi-purpose devices and facilities were data storage
and transmissions are varied and flexible. Large volumes of data can be stored on tape for
faster, bulky input to update the master file. Customers enquire for balances, and use
ATMs to withdraw money.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Batch processing.
Involves the immediate storage of transactions on tape or disk before processing. That is
data coming from hundreds of terminals, once stored, is then sorted and processed after
an interval of time.

Characteristics:
 Accumulation of transactions into batches.
 Transactions are sorted then processed.
 There is a degree of delay in the production of individual results only to be known
when the whole batch has been processed.
 Use of tape to store large amounts of data before processing.

Advantages:
 A more controlled and organized method, where controls are used to prevent
document loss.
 Processing data in batches is more efficient and economical than processing
single transactions.
 Processing can be left until slack times.

Disadvantages:
 Delay in obtaining information;
 Uneven load on the processing facility;
 An error in a transaction is not corrected until the batch is processed.

Application area:
Batch method is used to update a sequential master file. Transactions a entered, stored,
and then sorted to suit the order of the master file prior to processing.

Real-time processing:
A transaction is entered as it occurs and immediately processed so fast that the results are
available to influence any activity currently taking place.

Characteristics:
 Transactions can be dealt with individually.
 Delays in processing of data can be largely eliminated.
 Results of processing each data item are available once the data item has been
processed.
 Direct access storage system is available to speed up access to data.

Advantages:
 It shows a more up to date, real picture of any situation currently taking place.
 There is no delay in the processing and production of results, thus aiding in
decision-making capabilities.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Disadvantages:
 Processing single transactions is less efficient and uneconomical than processing a
batch.
 Because of the complexity of resources needed, it tends to be more expensive than
batch.

Application area:
Real-time processing method is appropriate for enquiries or bookings because, e.g. when
an individual makes an enquiry, or a booking, that becomes a transaction, which is
processed immediately to provide the information, required by the individual.

Computer consumables
A computer consumable is any computer usable equipment/resource that can be used to
exertion or otherwise.

Types of consumables: -
Serial consumables:
These are any consumable that can be recycled for use, e.g.. Floppy disk, hard disk,
magnetic tape, main memory, printer ribbons, printer cartridges, printer toners, laser jets,
etc.

Non-serial consumables:
These are any consumable that can be used only once. Once used up, they can not be
recycled or reused. E.g. printed stationary, cartridges (that cannot be reused), optical disk
(worm), Microfilm, DVD, CD-ROM.

Concept of recycling
Equipment concept
Floppy disk deleting, formatting
Hard disk deleting, formatting
Tape overwrite
Main memory continuous usage, upgrade
Printer ribbon re-ink
Printer cartridges refill
Printer toners refill
EPROM overlay by burning
Optical Disc (recordable) overlay

Stationery
It is paper that is used to produce output through the use of a printer. It includes the
flowing: -
1. Pre printed stationery: -are forms with pre printed common details, leaving only
variable data to be entered.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

2. Multipart sets: -it is where more than one document is to be raised at the same
time, considerations should be given to the method employed in carrying the
image through all copies, e.g. Carbon, no carbon required paper, carbon patches,
etc.

3. Continuous: -an endless unbroken, continual form, which may require perforation
for subsequent filing.

Ancillary (offline equipment)

This is computer equipment which work offline, and is operated by staff who work in the
job assembly work area of a computer department
Guillotines: -they is multipurpose machines used for trimming, bursting, decorating
decollating, etc of stationary.
Decollators: -machines responsible for splitting stationery into individual sheets.
Busters: -machines which does the cutting of paper into single sheets.
Shredders: -equipment used to slice unwanted paper.
Decorator: -equipment that does the trimming or garnishing of stationery.
Disk units: -for recording data on storage media from source documents before
processing (data preparation)

Hardware maintenance

1. Review (routine maintained): -involves running routine jobs to check whether

the hardware is working at its optimum. E.g. a printer should print well as expected. The
computer should shut down properly. The mouse should click properly etc.

2. Repair maintenance: -is fixing hardware components not working properly, e.g.
sticking keys on the keyboard.
3. Replace maintenance: - when an item of hardware is beyond repair, it must be
replaced, that is you can remove the non-functioning with a function one.
4. Upgrade: -is the replacement of hardware components by one of a higher version,
replacing a Pentium 1 by a Pentium 4.

Precautions in handling magnetic media:

1. Do not expose them to the sun or a hot environment.
2. Keep them away from moisture or hot environment.
3. Keep them away from magnetic fields i.e. phones, speakers, tops of some monitors,
and other magnetized items.
4. Do not touch the actual tape.
5. Keep them away from dust.
6. Do not place heavy objects on them.
7. Use a felt-tip pen when writing on the floppy disk label, or write before sticking the
label.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

8. Avoid using rubber bands, paper clips, and erasers on the disk.
9. Keep the diskettes in a storage tray when note in use.
10. Use the write protect notch on the outer plastic cover of the disk to protect data from
accidentally being erased.

Text processing package:

Word processing programs or software allow the user to, create, edit, store, and print text
documents. Nowadays many are using Word Processing software to develop documents
such as letters, memos, reports, newsletters, web pages etc

Examples of text/word processing programs in use today are:

Word-perfect WordStar

Ms-Word WordPro

Notepad WordPad

Common features offered by word programs are:

Margins – a portion of the page outside the main body of the text including the top and
the bottom, and both sides of the paper.

Columns – allows arranging text into two or more columns to look similar to a newspaper
magazine.

Find/search – allows you to locate occurrences of certain characters, words, or phrases.

Replace – substitutes existing characters or words with new ones.

Spell checker – reveals the spelling of individual words in sections of a document, or the
entire document. It compares the word in the document with the electronic dictionary that
is part of word processing software.

Auto-correct – as you type the auto-correct feature corrects common spelling errors as
well as capitalization.

Language Thesaurus (Tools menu) - Replaces a word or phrase in the document with a
synonym, antonym, or related word.

Footer – text that can appear at the bottom of each page.

Header – text that can appear at the top of page.

Center (Formatting toolbar) - Centers the selected text, numbers, or inline objects.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Font Size - Changes the size of the selected text and numbers. In the Font Size box, enter
a size. The sizes in the Font Size box depend on the selected font and active printer.

Align Right (Formatting toolbar) - Aligns the selected text, numbers, or inline objects to
the right with a ragged left edge.

Align Left (Formatting toolbar) - Aligns the selected text, numbers, or inline objects to
the left with a ragged right edge.

Justify (Formatting toolbar) - aligns the selected paragraphs to both the left and right
margins, or indents.

Overtype - Turns overtype mode on or off. In overtype mode (OVR appears on the status
bar), Word replaces existing text as you type, one character at a time.

Insert - Turns insert mode on or off. In insert mode (OVR disappears on the status bar),
Word adds new text to existing text as you type, one character at a time, at the insertion
point.

Tabs (Format menu) - Sets the position and alignment of tab stops and determines the
type of leader character for each tab stop.

Special effects - are animated text effects (e.g. Blinking background) you can apply to the
selected text.

Hyphenation - You can use the hyphenation feature to give your documents a polished
and professional look. For example, hyphenation helps eliminate gaps or "rivers of white"
in justified text. Hyphenation also helps maintain even line lengths in narrow columns.

Superscript - Raises the selected text above the baseline and changes it to a smaller font
size, if a smaller size is available

Subscript - Lowers the selected text below the baseline and changes it to a smaller font
size, if a smaller size is available. If you want to lower the selected text without reducing
the font size, click the Character Spacing tab, and then click Lowered in the Position box.

Block move – you select text you want to move, and use the cut command to move the
text to the clipboard, then use the paste command to place the text into your document.

Block copy – you select text you want to copy, and use the copy command to copy the
text to the clipboard, then use the paste command to place the text into your document

Fixed pitch – sets the point size of spaces between characters. If you change the character
pitch, the number of characters per line will automatically change to fit the changed
setting.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Proportional spacing - Stretches or compresses text horizontally as a percentage of its

current size. Enter any percentage between 1 and 600.

Mail merge - You can use the Mail Merge Helper to create form letters, mailing labels,
envelopes, or catalogs. The Mail Merge Helper guides you through organizing the
address data, merging it into a generic document, and printing the resulting personalized
documents.

1. Open or create a main document, which contains the generic information that you
want to repeat in each form letter, mailing label, envelope, or catalog.

2. Open or create a data source, which contains the data that varies in the merged
documents — for example, the name and address of each recipient of a form
letter. The data source can be an existing spreadsheet, database, or text file, or a
Word table that you create by using the Mail Merge Helper.

3. In the main document, insert merge fields, which are placeholders that tell
Microsoft Word where to insert data from the data source.

4. Merge data from the data source into the main document.

Advantages:
 Ability to store typed words in the computer’s memory;
 Ability to view the document on the screen before printing;
 Ability to correct mistakes;
 Ability to insert or delete text;
 Ability to move sections of text without having to retype;
 Ability to incorporate other text without having to retype;
 Ability to change the layout of the document;
 Ability to print document more than once;

Disadvantages:
 It is expensive in terms of the resources needed to install and maintain the system.
 Computer viruses can infect the system.

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Software should be produced methodically in clearly defined stages, which are as

follows:
1) Analysis
2) Design
3) Development
4) Testing
5) Documentation and program review
6) Maintenance

1. ANALYSIS
The first step in the PDLC is to analyze the problem the problem should solve. First the
programmer reviews the program specification package, which identifies the inputs,
outputs, processing, and data requirements. It also shows relationships among programs.
The program specification package contains numerous deliverables such as charts,
diagrams and reports, which document various aspects of user requirements.
For example, screen and layout charts show input and output requirements. System
flowcharts and structured English, decision tables and trees convey program design
(processing) requirements. Data dictionaries identify the data requirements.
The programmer uses an IPO chart to define the inputs, processing, and the output
requirements for each program.

IPO chart:

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

Regular time hours worked Read regular time hours Reports and Pay slips
worked, overtime hrs,
hourly pay rate
Overtime hours worked Calculate regular time pay.
Hourly pay rate Calculate overtime pay.
Calculate gross and net pay

2. DESIGN STAGE:
Designing programs involves three tasks:
 Grouping each program activity into modules.
 Devising a solution algorithm for each module.
 Testing the solution algorithm.

The first part is called top down design. The last two tasks are part of a process called
structured design.

Top-down design
It breaks down the original set of the program specification into smaller more
manageable sections. It is easier to design smaller section one at a time than to design
the entire program at once.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

The first step in top-down design is to identify the major function of a program,
sometimes called the main module.
Next you break down the main module into smaller sections (sub-routines).
Then each sub-routine is broken down to determine if it can be decomposed further.
You continue breaking down sub-routines until each one performs a single function.
Programmers use hierarchy or structure charts to show program modules graphically.

Payroll

Process Output
Input

Hrs.
. Hourly Read a Calculate Report Slip
worked rate record

Structured design:
Using top-down design, the programmer identifies the modules for a program (the what).
The next step is to use structured design to identify the logical order of the task required
to accomplish the function of each module (the how).
Structured design is a technique that builds all program logic from a combination of three
control structures namely sequence, selection, and repetition.

Sequence:
Show one or more actions following each other in order. Actions include inputs,
processes, and outputs.

ACTION

ACTION

ACTION

Selection:
Tell the program which action to take based on a certain condition.
The two types are the IF…THEN…ELSE and the CASE.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

The IF…THEN…ELSE control structure directs the program to one course of action or
another based on the evaluation of a condition.

Y N
ACTION CONDITION ACTION

The CASE control structure allows for more than two alternatives when a condition is
evaluated

Y ACTION
CONDITION

N
Y ACTION
CONDITION

CONDITION Y ACTION

Repetition:
Is used when a program performs one or more action repeatedly as a condition is met.
The two forms, DO…LOOP…WHILE and DO…UNTIL

Do…while construct (loop)

Repeats one or more times as long as a condition is true. This loop continues until the
condition being tested becomes false. Then the program stops looping and proceeds to
another set of actions.

CONDITION

Y ACTION

Do the actions while a condition exists.

Do…until control structure

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The do…until control structure tests the condition at the end of the loop. The actions in
the do…until will always execute at least once.
The loop in do…while, by construct, may never execute at all. That is if the condition
immediately is false, the actions never execute.

The do…until continues looping until the condition is true and then stops. This is
different from the do…while which loop while the condition is true

ACTION

CONDITION
N

Do the actions until a condition is met.

Design tools:
Solution algorithm (program logic) – is a graphical or written description of the step-by-
step procedures in a module.
The two main tools are flowcharts and pseudo code.

Flowcharts:
Graphically shows the logic in a solution algorithm.

Pseudo code:
It explains the logic of a solution algorithm in words, not in graphics. It uses condensed
form of English statements to convey program logic. It uses indentations to identify the 3
basic constructs. The beginning and end of the module start at the left margin. You indent
the actions within the module. The actions within a selection or repetition construct are
indented again. This allows you to identify the beginning and end of the construct.

Dry run (quality review technique):

The two techniques carried out by programmer to check for the logical correctness of a
program are a desk check and a walkthrough.
A logic error in a program is flow in the program that causes incorrect results.

Desk checking:
You use test data to step through its logic.
Test data is sample data that mimics data the program might process once it is in
production.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

5 steps involved in desk checking are:

I. Developing sets of test data, e.g. invalid, normal, and extreme.
II. Determining the expected results for each set of test data without using the
solution algorithm.
III. Stepping through the solution algorithm using one set of test data and writing
down the actual results obtained using the solution algorithm.
IV. Comparing the expected results in step(ii) to the actual results from step (iii).
V. Repeating steps (ii) and (iv) for each set of test data.

If the results don’t match, then the program has a logic error.

Walkthrough:
It is when a programmer explains the logic of the algorithm while members of the
team step through program logic.
Coding involves two things:

4. PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT (CODING):

I. Translating the solution algorithm into a programming language.

II. Transcribing the code into the PC.
Program codes are documented externally in the form of flowcharts, etc, and
internally when you include both global and internal comments.
Global comments explain the purpose of the program, the author, date of
notification, etc.
Internal comments explain the purpose of a statement in a program.

5. TESTING:
Once the program in entered into the computer, the next step is to test the program.
The goal of testing is to ensure the program runs correctly, i.e. it is error free, and
that the program meets the user’s requirements.

Types of program errors are:

1) Syntax errors – which occur when the code violates the grammar of a
programming language, e.g. misspelling a command, or leaving out required
punctuation in a programming statement.
2) Logic errors – occurs if a program accepts invalid data, and if valid data is
input, the results produced should match the expected results, if not, then the
program has a logic error.
3) Run-time error – occur when the program has performed an illegal
operation, as the program is executing, e.g., reading from a non existing file
or device, or dividing a number by zero.

Types of data errors:

These originate at data entry and normally logic errors are a result.
 PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE

Transcription – occurs when wrong and completely different text/data is entered, e.g.
mistyping a spelling, or leaving out other text.
Transposition – exchanging character positions, e.g. typing 34 instead of 43.
Omission – occurs when text is totally left out.
Commission – occurs when a figure is wrongly allocated to a person.
Missing source documents – occurs when documents with important data are not
entered.
Hardware failures – are caused by faulty devices resulting in data loss/corruption.

Program errors and data errors are classified as computer errors.

Types of test data:

Normal/typical – it is data that lies within the required range, e.g. 1 to 10.
Extreme/boundary – it lies at the ends of a given range, eg 1 and 10.
Invalid – it lies outside a given range, e.g. –1, 11, etc.

Types of tests performed are:

Unit testing – testing modules or sub-programs singly
Integration – testing sub-programs when linking/combining one by one.
System – testing the entire system/program as a whole after combining.
User acceptance – carried out by users of the system/program to ensure the program
meets their needs.

5. PROGRAM REVIEW AND DOCUMENTATION:

First programmers review the program for any dead codes and remove them. Then the
program is run one final time to see if it still performs as required.

Documentation becomes especially valuable if the program requires changes in future.

Sometime later a new programmer needs to update a program. With proper
documentation the amount of time a new programmer spends learning about an existing
program, is reduced.
Program documentation will include IPO charts, hierarchy charts, algorithms, test plans
containing test data, effects tables, coding sheets, screen formats, program listings. After
documentation review, the programmer hands-over the program with its associated
documentation to the Analysts.

6. MAINTENANCE:
This involves activities such as correcting errors and adding enhancements. Once
programs are implemented or placed for production, they will process live or actual
transactions. During the course of their use, they will require maintaining. One type of
maintenance occurs when users encounter program errors. It is known as corrective
maintenance. Another common maintenance known as adaptive maintenance occurs
when users want a new feature or functionalities to be added on the program.
When the user identifies errors or enhancements, they typically notify the analyst who
contacts and meets with the programmer. The two will begin analyzing the problem or
enhancement, which is step one of the PDLC.
PROTHETA COMPUTING INSTITUTE