Lesson Plan

A lesson plan is a detailed guide that a teacher prepares before conducting a class. It acts
like a roadmap or blueprint that outlines the steps and strategies the teacher will use to deliver a
particular lesson. The goal is to ensure that every part of the lesson, from the introduction to the
conclusion, is organized and effective.

Why is a Lesson Plan Important?

[1] A pupil's educational growth depends on the selection of subject matter, activities,
experiences and methods adapted to his interests, needs, abilities and level of maturity. The wise
teacher who plans his lesson well gets optimum results in his teaching.
[2] A lesson plan includes framing objectives and choosing subject matter, procedures, materials
and evaluation techniques. A teacher who has to do all these is forced to prepare and organize
his lessons well.
[3] Making a lesson plan involves foreseeing what is likely to happen and choosing experiences
that will change children for the better.
[4] A lesson plan serves as a guide to the apprentice teacher. With so many things on his mind,
the student teacher may forget the subject matter or its sequential organization. The lesson plan
serves as a reminder.
[5] Planning prevents waste of time that usually accompanies unorganized or haphazard
teaching. A lesson plan helps the teacher to be systematic and orderly. It also helps him
determine what is to be taken up so that it will neither be too broad nor too limited.
[6] A lesson plan prevents wandering away from the subject matter by making the teacher
conscious of what he has to accomplish for the day.
[7] A lesson plan gives a feeling of security especially to the beginning teacher who usually feels
nervous and tense.
[8] The principle of self-activity applies to the learning of both teachers and pupils. If children
learn by doing, so do teachers.
[9] Through lesson plans, principals and supervisors can trace what the teacher has taught and
what the class has covered.
[10] Past lesson plans will be of use to a substitute teacher who may take over in an emergency.

Definition of a Lesson Plan

What is a lesson plan? An engineer or an architect usually has a blueprint of the bridge or
building to be constructed. A teacher also needs a blueprint of what he intends to build whether
this be attitudes, habits, skills, or knowl edge. The lesson plan is the teacher's blueprint.

Nelson Bossing (1961) defines lesson plan as "a statement of achievements to be realized
and the specific means by which these are to be attained as a result of the activities engaged in
day by day under the guidance of the teacher.”

Today lessons are a means of acquiring desirable habits, attitudes, and skills that will lead to
the social and personal development of the individual.
Parts of a Lesson Plan

What are the important parts of a good lesson plan? Most lesson plans have the following
parts: (1) objectives, (2) subject matter, (3) materials, (4) procedure, and (5) assignment. A new
teacher cannot make a good lesson plan if he does not have a clear understanding of what each
part of the lesson plan is all about.

No lesson plan can afford to dispense with aims or objectives or to have them vague and ill
defined. Objectives provide goals to be attained, give direction to the class discussion, and call
for what outcomes to expect.

Objectives may be general or specific. A general aim is usually broad in scope and may be the
objective of a course, subject, or semester. It cannot be attained in one lesson. A specific aim is
usually attainable in a specific lesson and contributes to the accomplishing of the general aim.

From the foregoing aims, it is easy to see that behavioral objectives begin with verbs that
denote specific actions. Behavioral objectives are sometimes further broken down into cognitive,
psychomotor, and affective objectives. Cognitive objectives usually refer to learning facts and
information; psychomotor to habits and skills; and affective to attitudes and appreciations.

The specific subject matter and its sources-textbooks, library references, etc.-should be stated
in the lesson plan. Although less emphasis is placed today on facts and information as an
outcome of education, factual data are indispensable.

Materials are necessary aids to teaching and should be included in a lesson plan. Materials
include teaching aids and devices, such as maps, graphs, flash cards, pictures, objects, slides,
radio, TV, and movies. The various teaching aids are discussed in another chapter. The teacher
should weigh and carefully consider the kind of materials that will give maximum benefit.
Organization of these materials and the learning activities accompanying them count a lot toward
effectiveness in teaching.

Procedure is a very important part of the lesson plan. This includes both teacher and pupil
activity in the detailed plan. We know that individual differences exist. We also know that there
are different theories of learning, and that people learn in different ways; therefore, there should
be varied types of procedure. The definite steps of the method being used should be shown in the
procedure.

A lesson plan is incomplete without the assignment. A good assignment ensures a good
recitation because it tells what is to be done, how it is to be done, and why it must be done.
Another chapter discusses the assignment in detail.
Prerequisites to Lesson Planning

How does one go about preparing a lesson plan? This is the problem that has stumped many
student teachers. There are certain prerequisites to good lesson planning.

1. Knowledge of the subject matter.

No teacher can expect to teach something he himself does not know. The B.S.E.Ed. the
curriculum prepares the student to teach the different subjects in the elementary school. New
fields of specialization are being offered in the B.S.E.Ed. course. In high school, the subjects are
comparatively more difficult and that is why the B.S.E.Ed. curriculum offers majors and minors.
The B.S.E.Ed. student specializes in an area that he expects to teach. Knowledge of subject
matter involves planning learning activities or experiences that may be taken up in the
classroom. It means anticipating difficulties that may arise and planning their solutions. It also
means knowing the information and understanding the skills and attitudes to be learned.

2. Knowing the children or the students. Good planning requires knowledge of what to teach
as well as of who should be taught. Knowing children means understanding their traits and
interests and planning for them. It is necessary for the teacher to know not only the history of
Philippine education but also the nature of children in order to plan activities and experiences for
them. Sometimes student needs and interests may be a strong factor in determining what subject
matter to teach. Thus, it is necessary for a teacher to understand the theories of learning and the
psychology of the mental process.

3. Familiarity with different strategies. The teacher must know various ways of imparting
learning in consonance with children's nature and with the type of subject matter. He must know
different approaches, methods, and techniques of teaching. Method, which includes all activities
taken up in the classroom, must consider group and indi- vidual interests, aptitudes, capacities,
and needs. It must also consider the environment that may influence the class, collec- tively and
individually.

4. Materials. A teacher needs materials that will facilitate the teaching process. He should know
the materials he will need in a learning situation. As mentioned before, another chapter discusses
the differ- ent kinds of teaching aids.

5. Understanding of objectives. This includes the aims of education espe- cially of Philippine
education, the aims of the course or subject, and the aims of the specific lessons. Otherwise, the
recitation will have no direction and not much will be accomplished.

Suggestions in Making Lesson Plans

Certain pitfalls in making lesson plans can be avoided. The student teacher should bear the
following suggestions in mind:

1. The lesson plan is an aid to teaching. It should not be a bible to be followed to the letter.
Otherwise, one will be teaching the lesson plan instead of teaching children. Sometimes there
may be a need to put aside the lesson plan to meet an emergency or to take advantage of a
learning situation that comes up.

2. A lesson plan should not be too detailed. Numerous details may obscure the main points and
cause confusion. Neither should a lesson plan be too skimpy and inadequate, especially for a
beginning teacher. A lesson plan that is too fragmentary will not be of much help.

3. Lessons should be planned within the time allotment for the subject. Beginning teachers
sometimes cover too much ground resulting in becoming superficial and the class does not learn
much. They are tempted to leave subject matter half taught to cover everything in the syllabus.

4. The textbook should not be regarded as infallible. After all, textbooks are made by human
beings who are also subject to mistakes. The teacher may consult other sources and persons of
authority in organizing lesson content. The present practice is to use several sources rather than
only one textbook.

5. The lesson plan may serve as a basis for future plans and a means of evaluating the success of
learning. A lazy teacher who teaches the same subject year after year may continue using the
same plan. But subject matter grows, the environment changes. How can the same lesson plan be
perennially used? However, one need not throw away an old plan. It can be improved and can
serve as the basis for measuring the results of teaching.

In lesson planning, problems will come up and errors will be committed. As one continues
making plans, these will disappear, for it is by continuous practice that one attains skill and
proficiency. Problems and errors should serve as bases for improvement.

Types of Lesson Plan

Bossing (1961) gives two types of lesson plans-the memorized and the written. It is obvious that
the written type has more advantages, among which are.
1. Expression in written form leads to clarity of thought.
2. Protection against forgetting is insured.
3. A written lesson plan is an aid to mastery.
4. A written plan forms the basis of later improvement.

Schorling gives three types of plans.

(1) the curriculum area or subject of the year,
(2) the unit plan, and
(3) the daily lesson.

Daily lesson plans may be classified as (1) detailed, (2) semi detailed, and (3) brief.

Student teachers are usually given training in all three types. The detailed lesson plan is
anticipatory teaching. It puts down the writing of the classroom activities that may occur. The
teacher writes down all the questions he is going to ask under the column Teacher Activity, and
the expected answers from the pupils under the column Pupil Activity. In planning the detailed
lesson plan, the teacher tries to visualize how the children will react, what difficulties they are
likely to encounter, and how they may be guided to achieve desired results.

A beginning teacher should be trained in writing detailed lesson plans for many reasons:
(1) it helps him master what he is to teach and gives him confidence.
(2) it helps him foresee children's reaction and forewarns him about problems that may arise.
(3) it gives critic teachers a chance to go over what the student teacher plans to do and to give
suggestions or to make corrections and thus prevents mistakes in actual teaching.

In the classroom, teachers do not make detailed lesson plans. They make semi detailed or brief
lesson plans. The semi detailed lesson plan omits pupil activity. It contains only the lesson
procedure or the steps of the lesson. A few of the pivotal questions may be included.
The brief lesson plan is even shorter than the semi detailed. Teachers who have taught the same
subject for years usually make brief plans. Although the parts of a lesson plan are present, they
do not write them out every day.
Student teachers should also learn how to write semi-detailed and brief lesson plans. The critic
teacher may decide when the student is adept enough at writing detailed plans and therefore can
shift to the writing of semi detailed plans.
At most, student interns teach only one subject at a time, but there is a day when they are
assigned to teach all the subjects. On the day they do straight teaching, they should make brief
lesson plans for each subject. Time thus saved may be devoted to the preparation of materials
and other teaching aids.
What follow are samples of a detailed, a semi detailed, and a brief lesson plan based on the
same subject matter?
 The Inductive Method

Nature

The inductive method is in reality a discovery method. Through the inductive procedure, one
may arrive at a fact, principle, truth, or generalization. Many instances or cases are studied,
observed, and compared and the common elements in them discovered and generalized. A lesson
that utilizes the inductive method usually calls attention to distinct but related details that lead to
the formation of a conclusion, a definition, a rule, a principle, or a formula.
.
The inductive method aims.
1. To help pupils discover important rules or truths for themselves through careful observation of
enough specific examples that will support the generalization.
2. To make meanings, explanations, and relationships of ideas clear to pupils.
3. To enable pupils to carry out investigations by themselves, independent of the teacher.

Values

The greatest value of the inductive method lies in the fact that the child learns chiefly through his
own activity. He observes the cases, compares them, analyzes them, and then draws his own
conclusion. Whatever he learns through induction is more permanently retained because it
utilizes repetition, and many examples are taken up.

The inductive method is used in mathematics, language, and the laboratory subjects, either as the
main method or as a subsidiary method. However, since it is time consuming, it should be used
in lessons where the generalizations to be arrived at are important but simple enough to be
framed by the pupils. It would be a waste of time to use the inductive method where the telling or
demonstration method would do as well. For instance, showing many cases involving liquids of
different densities just to illustrate the principle of osmosis would waste precious hours.
Likewise, many health facts can just be told instead of taught inductively. If the rule or
generalization is too long or too difficult for the pupils to state, then it would be useless to use
the inductive method since the aim is defeated.

When to Use It

The inductive method should, therefore, be used when.

(1) the rule, concept, truth, principle, fact, or generalization is important enough to justify the
time devoted to the lesson and
(2) the pupils can state the rules, fact, principle, truth, or generalization by themselves. This
means that they have the ability to do so, and the lesson is adapted to their mental level.

Procedure
The steps in the inductive method are (1) preparation, (2) presentation, (3) comparison and
abstraction, (4) generalization, and (5) application.
Preparation. This step involves (a) apperception, (b) motivation, and (c) statement of the aim.
The apperceptive basis may be a review of old facts or lessons that can be utilized as
background for the new, or it may recall information that can establish the proper mind-set
before the new lesson is introduced. The motivation sets the goal to be achieved and gives
direction to the activities to be accomplished. It is also the motivation that arouses interests. The
statement of the aim, which may be in the form of a problem, simply makes the goal clear to
the class.

Presentation. Specific cases or instances are presented to the class. There should be enough
cases from which to draw a generalization. It is better to have too many cases rather than too
few. Otherwise, students may get into the habit of drawing conclusions from very few instances.

Comparison and abstraction. In this step, the common element among the specific cases is
deduced. Each case should be evaluated thoroughly. Teachers sometimes hurry through this part,
thinking that the children's minds are as mature as theirs and have already perceived the common
element.

Generalization. The common fact deduced from the specific instances is stated as a
generalization, a rule, a definition, principle, or formula. The children's ability to state the rule in
their own words is the test of the success of the lesson. The success of the inductive method
depends on the clear organization of the lesson, and for this, the teacher is responsible.

Application. This step tests the child's understanding of the rules or generalization just
developed. If he understood it, he should be able to apply it to other problems or exercises.

The advantages of using the inductive method are.

(1) whatever is learned through induction is learned thoroughly and retained longer.
(2) pupils are provided with means of solving concrete problems later;
(3) pupils are trained to think logically and scientifically; and
(4) pupils go through a method of work that is psychologically right.

The disadvantages of the inductive method are as follows:

(1) it is not suited to all subject matters, as not all of what is taught has logical value. Some may
have value but of temporary duration only. Others may have aesthetic rather than logical value;
(2) many teachers cannot master the technique because it requires much clear thinking; (3) it is
sometimes too lengthy and thus tires the undisciplined; and
(4) it tends to make the lesson too formal, which is undesirable.

Conditions necessary to effective induction are.

(1) there must be a problem that can be solved by a study of many specific cases.
(2) the fact to be generalized must be pointed at in each case and separated from other facts;
(3) there must be enough cases to make the conclusion valid; and
(4) the generalization or rule must be carefully worded.
 The Deductive Method

Nature

The deductive method is the reverse of the inductive procedure. Where induction starts with a
study of specific cases and ends with a generalization or rule, deduction starts with a
generalization that is applied to specific cases. Deduction is a process of reasoning from the
general to the particular. The deductive procedure starts with a rule that is applied to specific
cases for the purpose of testing the rule, illustrating or further developing it, or solving the
problem to which it applies.

The organization of subject matter begins with a law, rule, definition, formula, or concept.
Then individual cases are studied. The cases are exam- ined to verify the generalization. If the
generalization or rule holds, then one can conclude that it is valid. For mastery of the formula or
rule, further application to cases may be made until the rule is memorized. In short, deduction is
a process of solving a problem or overcoming a difficulty by applying to the problem or
difficulty a generalization already formed.

In short, deduction is a process of solving a problem or overcoming a difficulty by applying to

the problem or difficulty a generalization already formed.

Relation of Induction to Deduction

It is hard to separate deduction from induction. The inductive method usually goes on to the
deductive, as shown in the following diagram:

An example of how the child's mind goes from inductive to deductive reasoning and back to
inductive may be illustrated in this way. A boy sees farmers plowing a field. He notices that all
the farmers' carabaos are black. He makes the statement, "All carabaos are black." He goes to
town and sees that carabaos pulling carts are black. His observations hold true. He goes to a
mudhole where several carabaos are wallowing. When the carabaos come out, he sees one that is
light-skinned. He revises his observation and says, "Most carabaos are black."

The boy's thinking has gone through the following steps:

Induction:

1. Observation.

2. Comparison of cases and notation of common fact.

3. Statement of common fact as a generalization.

Deduction:

1. Beginning with generalization.

2. Applying generalization to specific cases to test it.

3. Revision of generalization on basis of test.

•Induction and deduction are just different ways of organization.

Aims

The deductive method aims at the following:

1. To teach pupils to master difficulties by utilizing truths or rules established by others.

2. To teach pupils to delay judgment until truth is proven and not to judge even in the face of
seeming certainty until analysis is complete.

3. To remedy or overcome pupil's tendency to jump to conclusions at once.

Types of Deduction

There are two types of deduction: the anticipatory and the explanatory Anticipatory deduction
forecasts details that will be found in a particular situation, while explanatory deduction connects
facts at hand with principles that interpret them. This type is often used in the classroom when
the teacher asks for the principle that explains this or that phenomenon. Most textbook teaching
makes use of explanatory deduction. The principles or rules are given in the book and what
remains is to explain them.
The teacher often resorts to deduction when he asks pupils to answer questions, to solve
problems, or to master puzzling situations which they encounter by referring to laws, principles,
axioms, or other general conclusions already in their possession.

Steps

The steps of the deductive method are: 1) statement of the problem, 2) generalization, 3)
inference, and 4) verification.

Statement of the problem. The problem should be stimulating and should arouse a desire to
solve it. As much as possible, it should be related to a life situation and should be real and vital.
It should also be within the ability and maturity of the child.

Generalization. Two or more generalizations, rules, definitions, or principles may be recalled.

One of these will be the solution to the problem.

Inference. This is choosing the generalization, rule, or principle that will fit the problem.
Sometimes it may be through trial and error that one arrives at the right conclusion. Application
to a few cases may be necessary.

Verification. This is trying out and securing the successful generalization. It is determining the
validity of the inference by consulting accepted authorities such as the teacher, the textbook,
dictionaries, encyclopedias, or other books. The emerging conclusion after verification becomes
accurate knowledge.

Conditions for Effective Deduction

For effective use of the deductive method, certain conditions are necessary, such as: 1) starting
with a rule or principle that will fit the conditions, 2) applying the rule or principle to enough
cases to prove or develop the rule or to make the illustration clear, and 3) at the conclusion,
restating the rule or principle used.

Evaluation

The deductive method has its advantages and disadvantages.

1) The deductive method is much simpler than the inductive method and takes less time. 2)
Ordinary subject matter and principles in textbooks lend themselves well to the deductive
method. 3) Already established principles are made more meaningful through deduction. 4) In
the anticipatory form, a very good motive is furnished for seeking evidences that will support the
inferences made, thus arousing the puzzle instinct which is a valuable aid.

Disadvantages: 1) Some pupils cannot profit from deductive thinking. 2) It is criticized for
encouraging guessing which, however, may be allowed within certain limits. 3) It is restricted to
certain topics and is of no value in securing drill or emotional outcomes.
 The Problem Method

Nature

What is a problem? The dictionary defines a problem as any question or matter involving
doubt, uncertainty, or difficulty and therefore requiring solution. An obstructed activity presents
a problem. A situation in which a difficulty occurs presents a problem. The individual who meets
it, however, must recognize that it needs to be solved and must feel it as a challenge. The
difficulty may be either mental or physical.

In science, problems often arise from phenomena or questions about the natural world that
require explanation, investigation, or experimentation. These problems can range from
understanding why a certain chemical reaction occurs, to explaining the behavior of a biological
system, to solving an engineering design challenge.

Types of Problems

Problems may range from the simplest to the most complex. They may be practical or
speculative, easy or difficult, natural or artificial, final or preliminary, empirical or scientific, real
or imagined. They may be problems involving skills or information. Problems occur when one
does not know what to do, when one knows what to do but not how to do it, and when one
knows what to do and how to do it, but lacks the proper skill to do it.

Yoakam and Simpson cite intellectual, social, manual, puzzle or play problems, and those
present in every subject. Physics and mathematics present many manual problems. There are a
number of social problems in history and geography, as for example, 'Why is the development of
Makati faster than that of Quezon City?" Puzzle problems which children enjoy may be given
during the recreatory period. Practical problems may also arise, such as how to keep the campus
clean and attractive, thus giving opportunities for collective thinking. Problems in school may be
classified as:

1 Mental. These are problems that are contemplative, reflective, academic, reconstructive, or
imaginative. Arithmetic problems fall under this category.

2 Symbolic. These are problems that require written language. drawing, modelling, or
construction for solution.

3 Real. These are material, physical, or practical problems.

Value

The problem method can have an incalculable value for children. Life is full of problems.
There will always be problems. If a child knows the technique of problem-solving, he will be
able to tackle whatever difficulties he meets. The subject matter he studies now may be obsolete
ten years hence, but he will still be able to use problem-solving techniques.
 The problem method gives direction to a discussion and prevents wandering. It stimulates
reflective thinking and furnishes a guide for organizing ideas. It directs attention to the task to be
done and encourages concentration.

It contributes to the development of personality. The child develops independence and

initiative. Since the problem is usually adapted to his level, he looks for his own solutions. He is
encouraged to think for himself and thereby develops self-reliance. Success in solving problems
gives him confidence.

It builds proper attitudes, among which is the scientific attitude of considering all data
accurately and objectively and testing the conclusion carefully. Not only does the pupil improve
his ability to solve his own problems, but he also learns to evaluate the thoughts and solutions of
others.

Because the problem method is based on psychological drives, like curiosity, the child's
attitude toward schoolwork is improved. The problem becomes a stimulus and its solution, the
goal. The child is aroused to work on his own power and the teacher ceases to be a taskmaster. If
the child does not feel this way and thinks of the problem as a "job," then the teacher has failed
in presenting the problem.

Too often, children can recite facts but cannot apply them to situations Experience in
problem-solving will provide opportunities to utilize these facts, to acquire new meanings, and to
gain new insights.

Use of the Problem Method

The problem method may be used in two ways. A whole unit of subject matter may be
presented as a problem. Or problem-solving may be one of the methods utilized in a unit of
work. A word of caution, however: Some teachers try to look for problems in every subject so
that they can present the lesson in problem form. This will make learning too stilted and formal.
Besides, a problem will be considered as such by the pupils only if it is real and worthwhile.

Steps

The essential steps in problem-solving, according to Risk, are the following:

1. Recognition and statement of the problem, originating in a difficulty or perplexing

situation.

2. Statement of hypothesis inspection and proposal of solution or solutions.

3. Critical evaluation of suggested solution.

4. Verification of accepted solution.

In the classroom, the procedure is much more detailed and the teacher has to guide the pupil's
learning Pupils will probably not be able to recognize the problem without the teacher's
guidance. To raise the problem, the teacher must set the stage. The teacher should assist them by
directing their observation to related data and recalling past experiences that have a bearing on
the problem. It will be better if the pupils were to state the problem themselves.

The next step is working on the problem. This involves organization of facts, principles, and
ideas pertinent to the problem, selecting a hypothesis and trying it out, gathering data through
reading, observing, etc., evaluating the solution, and forming a conclusion. Although the pupils
do the work, the teacher directs it. He assists the pupils to learn procedures in 1) selecting a
hypothesis, 2) gathering and organizing data or materials to be used in the solution, 3) evaluating
hypothesis or data used in solving the problem, and 4) formulating conclusions or summarizing
findings. Before the work begins, however, the teacher motivates the class so that they will
develop favorable attitudes.

The last step is checking or verifying results and applying these, if necessary. The teacher
also aids the pupils in learning how to check or verify and summarize results. Exercises or
problems must be provided by the teacher for practical application of the understanding gained.
If the teacher. has stimulated a desire on the part of the class to use the knowledge gained. The
lesson was successful.

Evaluation

The advantages of the problem method have been discussed under value. Some of the
disadvantages and dangers may arise from 1) superficial thought, 2) over-rationalization, 3)
forming hasty conclusions, and 4) losing sight of the main thought. The problem method is one
that the children should master.

The problem method may be used in teaching a lesson. Sometimes it may be one of many
methods used as in teaching a unit. Below is a lesson plan showing the use of the problem
method.
 The Laboratory Method

Nature

Originally, the term laboratory referred to a place for experimental study in natural science
where various chemical materials were tested, analyzed, and prepared. The laboratory method
was used to designate a teaching procedure that uses experimentation with apparatus and
materials to discover or verify facts and to study scientific relationships. Later, the laboratory
method was used not only in the physical sciences but also in home economics and manual arts.
Since then, the laboratory method has been tried in all other subjects physical and biological
sciences, social sciences, English, mathematics, vocational, and commercial subjects.

Relation to Other Methods

The above definition makes the laboratory method similar to supervised study. In fact,
laboratory work now is supervised study. It is also synonymous with the experimental method
because pupils do the experiment in the laboratory, as differentiated from the demonstration
method where the teacher alone performs the experiment while the class observes. The
laboratory method is also called a research method because the science classroom offers many
opportunities for scientific investigation. Learning activities dealing with original data that lead
to the solution of problems are planned in the laboratory.

Aims

John Walton (1966) gives the following aims of the laboratory method:

1. To give firsthand experience in the laboratory which may increase student interest

2. To provide student participation in original research

3. To develop skill in the use of laboratory equipment and instruments

Use

The laboratory method can be used in various ways, but it is usually planned for the
individual. Group laboratory work is less satisfactory. In the past, laboratory work supplemented
class work, resulting in the lack of correlation between the two. The trend today is to merge the
two and make each supplement the other.
Types

There are two types of the laboratory method: (1) the experimental and (2) the
observational. The experimental type aims to train pupils in problem solving with incidental
acquisition of information and motor skill. The emphasis is on discovery, original procedure,
analysis, and solution of problems. In the observational type, the acquisition of facts is the
dominant aim of the method. Facts can be acquired through activities such as visits to museums,
exhibits, and art galleries, watching demonstrations, listening to lectures, viewing films, and
going on field trips.

Steps

Risk (1965) gives the following steps of the laboratory method: (1) introductory step, (2) work
period, and (3) culminating activities.

Introductory step for orientation and motivation. This step includes determination of the work to
be done.

Work period. When all the pupils may be working on the same problem or on different problems
on their own, this becomes a supervised work period. The nature of the work will determine the
length of the work period.

Culminating activities. After completion or near completion of the work, the class may get
together to discuss and organize their individual findings.

They may also decide on how to present results of their individual work which may take any of
the following forms:

1. Explaining the nature and importance of the problem the group had worked on

2. Reporting data gathered or other findings

3. Presenting illustrative material or special contributions

4. Special reporting and exhibition of work by those with individual projects

5. Exhibiting various projects and explanation by their sponsors

Suggestions

In using the laboratory method, it would be well for the teacher to remember a few things.
1. Laboratory exercises should be adapted to broader social needs and should be adjusted to the
needs, interests, and capacities of the students.

2. For reflective thinking, laboratory exercises must grow out of problems.

3. The laboratory manual should be chosen with care.

4. The teacher must be a skillful director of problem solving and of study.

Evaluation

Advantages claimed in favor of the laboratory method are

(1) it is learning by doing;

(2) impressions through several senses make learning more effective;

(3) undergoing actual experience is more vivid and what one learns by the laboratory method is
retained longer. Reality is more vivid than any symbol; and

(4) it is a direct preparation for life.

The disadvantages are

(1) it is an uneconomical way of learning-the lecture-demonstration may be substituted for better

results;

(2) it becomes mechanical at times;

(3) the expensive apparatus sometimes does not justify results; and

(4) loss of time occurs due to indiscriminate overuse of the method.

 The Discovery Approach

The Discovery Approach

Nature

The discovery approach refers to an inductive method of guiding pupils to discuss and
organize ideas and process by themselves. It means helping them use ideas already acquired as
a means of discovering new ideas. It is the process by which the children under subtle direction
go through the logical process of observation, comparison and abstraction, generalization, and
application. Instead of “telling” either by the teacher or a textbook explanation, self-discovery
sets up learning situations whereby children are encouraged to explore a process or discover
rules. The primary concern is with developing a pattern of thinking instead of merely arriving at
an answer.

The discussion, question and answer, and other methods become subsidiary when the
discovery approach is used. The child learns by observing and experiencing from the day he is
born. He develops techniques of discovery which will help him meet the challenge of his
environment. The method is so natural that pupils find it enjoyable and teachers find it
rewarding.

Types of Self-discovery
Self-discovery as a learning process is figuring out things for oneself. The teacher, in
employing this process as he provides the proper learning situation within which the pupils
can discover solutions to their problem, actually resorts to the use of two types of discovery –
the guided discovery and the pure discovery.
Guided Discovery is an approach to instruction by which the teacher tries to draw out
from his pupils certain bits of information through properly organized questions and
explanations leading them to the eventual discovery of particular concepts or principles

Pure Discovery is an approach where the pupils are expected to arrive at certain
concepts and principles completely by themselves, i.e., with little or no guidance from the
teacher expect for the explanation of particular terms or references.

Principles Underlying the Discovery Process

The success of the discovery approach entails following certain principles the more
fully the teacher understands and applies the principles that underlie the discovery approach,
the more success he can expect from its use. Such principles are as follows:
 1. The learning process moves from a hunch or intuition to a storage of in-depth analysis
and then to the point where knowledge claims are based on concrete, documentary
evidence.
2. The classroom serves as a miniature laboratory for exploration and discovery.
3. Children learn as a result of their observations and the experiences they undergo.
4. Children discover relationships and make generalizations in their own individual ways.
5. Learning through self-discovery is enhanced by individualized and small-group
explorations.
6. The methods used by children in learning through self-discovery are similar to the ways
in which scientists think, work, and organize knowledge.

Steps in Self-discovery as a Teaching Approach

The process brings the learner into more intimate contact with essential, concrete
experiences and with the actual operations of abstracting and generalizing from empirical
data. As the learner goes through the process, he uses his own “steps”; this should not alarm
the teacher as no two minds function exactly in the same manner.
Evaluation
Children’ s ability to employ methods of self-discovery can be evaluated by the following
means: (1) record observations of children’s performance as they conduct their
demonstrations, experiments, and other creative work, check hypotheses, and form
conclusions; (2) make children prepare diaries or logbooks of consecutive class activities; (3)
analyze methods of inquiry employed by pupils who have engaged in creative activities; (4)
evaluate tape-recorded class activities for evidence of critical thinking in children’s oral
contributions; and (5) use recommendations made by specialists to define behavior patterns
indicating children's ability to use methods of inquiry.

Competent teachers and specialists in learning theory have recognized the value of self-
discovery by pupils. The techniques of discovery developed by pupils will enable them to meet
the needs of our technological age, which requires more than mere mastery of information and
skills.

The advantages of the discovery method when consistently and carefully used are as
follows: (1) more permanent, meaningful, and useful learning is achieved when pupils are
actively involved than the learning brought about as a result of teacher direction and control; (2)
a sense of freedom prevails as children are encouraged to discover and test generalizations and
to search out new ways of solving problems; (3) new topics become new opportunities as
children are encouraged to approach new topics with confidence rather than apprehension. This
confidence comes with the knowledge that they have at their command techniques for
discovering new ideas or for applying old ideas in new situations; and (4) excitement pervades
the classroom. The discovery has highly motivating effects on the learner. It releases the pupil’s
energy and enthusiasm and helps develop in him a more favorable attitude toward work.

The discovery approach is an important classroom tool. Like all tools, it must be
carefully used. Its use does not rule out the other valuable tools for the following reasons:
 1. It is not feasible as a primary means of teaching subject matter content because of the
time and cost involved.
2. Children can be subjective in their evaluation of external events and are likely to jump
to conclusions.
3. Few learners of average ability can discover solutions to problems by themselves.

The Process Approach

Actually, there is no difference between the process approach and the discovery approach
because they mean the same thing. Only the terminology differs, but the substance is the same.
We go through a series of processes and finally discover something. The term discovery
connotes something new, something yet unknown.

The basic philosophy of the “discovery” method is that the child learns by firsthand
experience and progresses at his individual rate of learning while he finds out concepts for
himself.

The Process Approach to Science Instruction

Problems in science will always arise as a child observes nature. One may wonder or be
so astonished over a certain phenomenon that it may even be called a miracle. It may lead to
frustration when the child fails to find an adequate explanation. The demand for sense in this
state of confusion is the beginning of scientific inquiry.

An attempt to solve the problem is the introduction of the so-called approach to science
instruction. The process approach to science teaching is not new. It is not an educational fad that
may sooner or later become obsolete. Teachers have long been using the different processes in
their classroom activities.

One misconception of many teachers about the process approach is that. it is a method of
teaching, which is not the case. The processes are used in the question-and-answer method and in
the unit, the project, the inductive, or other methods. The only difference is in the amount of
emphasis on the processes used in teaching procedures. The process approach allows the children
to:

1. Understand that change, a cause-and-effect relationship, has been, is, and will continue to
be a fundamental phenomenon in our universe.
2. Attain their maximum potential for effective thinking and action.
3. Increase understanding of themselves and of their relationships to the universe.
4. Retain the enthusiasm of seeking more and more knowledge.
5. Accept the challenge that society needs their best talents and wisdom.

Why Use the Process Approach?

 The new curriculum emphasizes science as a process whereby the child learns to
understand his environment and simultaneously develops scientific skills through personal
experience with materials and phenomena.

In view of the many new discoveries and inventions which have caused the proliferation
of knowledge, it is impossible to learn everything in one's field of specialization. This knowledge
explosion poses the problems of what science concepts to teach and how to teach them
effectively.

Process and intellectual development. The interrelated nature of intellectual

development is explicitly recognized in the kinds of activities undertaken in the different grades
or years, sometimes referred to as “integrated processes”. These processes include controlling
variables, defining operationally, formulating hypotheses, interpreting data, and as an ultimate
form of such integration, experimenting. These processes can be used in other subjects on all
levels of education. A brief description of the expected sequence of development in both simple
and integrated process categories follow:

Observation:

Observing is the process of noting the characteristics of an object or objects. It involves

sensory perceptions such as taste, sight, hearing, smell, and touch. Lessons should start from
simple observations to more complicated empirical observations.

Description or communication:

Describing or communicating is the process of telling what was perceived. It requires

precise verbal and written communication. The children should be taught enough descriptive
vocabulary to enable them to give accurate descriptions of colors, shapes, sizes, weights,
volumes, etc.

Classification:

Classifying is the process of sorting and arranging objects into meaningful groups. The
aim of providing experiences in classification is to develop the skills in showing relationships,
identifications, and noting similarities and differences.

Measurement:

Measuring is the process of determining length, weight, depth, width, area, volume, time,
and temperature of objects or things. Mathematics is the language of science. The aim of
providing experiences in measurement is to develop the skills in the use of different methods of
measuring and to give the children the idea of standard measurement.

Inference:
 Inferring is the process of arriving at a tentative conclusion. Inferring is thinking about a
fact based on observations or experiments. The aim of providing experiences in inferring is to
train the children in suspended judgment, which is a characteristic of a scientific mind.

Hypotheses:

Hypothesizing is the process of giving a tentative explanation, which is yet to be tested

for validity. A hypothesis is an educated guess. Hypotheses are often followed by
experimentation.

Prediction:

Prediction is the process of foretelling probable consequences based on observable and

patterned facts. The process itself is projection or prognosis. Prediction develops analytical
thinking and guessing approximately what will happen next.

Control of variables
Controlling variables is the process of setting up the same conditions, properties, or
factors which may influence the end result of the experiment. To develop the skill in identifying
the cause of errors in the procedures of the experiment, variables may be in the form of size,
time, distance, kind, and weight.

Experimentation
Experimenting is the process of discovering concepts, principles, conclusions, or testing
hypotheses.

Teaching Procedure Involved in the Process Approach

Researchers in science teaching are trying to find out how science can be taught in such a
way that children will learn the fundamental concepts of both the physical and biological
sciences, and at the same time, learn that while scientific ideas are based on the observation of
natural phenomena, these ideas are also the product of human inventiveness and imagination,
and that for any idea to persist and be fundamental in science, it must be tested against many
observations and experiments. The following are steps followed in the approach:

Selected materials, living and nonliving, are brought into the classroom for
children to observe or manipulate in their own way or under the guidance of the
teacher. The nature of the material and the objective of the experiences determine to
what extent the pupils' activity will be guided. Through manipulation, the pupils gain
direct physical and mental contact with the natural world from these preliminary
explorations.
 The teacher introduces the scientific concept that describes or explains what the
pupils have observed. This is called the invention lesson. This is necessary because
one cannot expect children to produce out of their minds the concepts that have been
invented by the scientific "greats" of the past.

“Discovery lessons” are provided to present further examples of the concept. Here
the child is expected to recognize that the new concept has applications to situations
other than the initial example presented. In short, these experiences reinforce, refine,
and enlarge the content of the concept.