PORTFOLIO TASKS OF CLASSROOM

MANAGEMENT
NO. OF TASKS #18
Task #1
Management :
According to Harold Koontz the definition of Management are follow:
“Management is the art of getting things done through and with people in formally organized
groups.”

Administration:
According to Haimann the definition of Administration are follow:
“Administration means overall determination of policies, setting of major objectives, the
identification of general purposes and lying down of broad programs and projects”.

What is Educational Administration:

Educational administration refers to the process of managing and leading educational
institutions, systems, and organizations to ensure effective operation and the delivery of quality
education. It involves the coordination of various elements, such as planning, organizing,
directing, and evaluating, to create an environment conducive to teaching and learning.
Educational administration plays a critical role in shaping the vision, policies, and practices that
drive educational excellence.
(Educational technology)

Leadership :
According to M Chemers the definition of Leadership is follow:
Leadership is the process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support
of other in the accomplishment of a common task.

Supervision :
According to B.Procter the definition of supervision is follow:
“A working alliance between a supervisor and a worker in which the worker can reflect on
herself and her working situation…the object of this alliance is to maximize the competence of
the worker in providing a helping service.”

Governance :
According to College Mission the definition of Governance is follow :
“The use of the institution’s structure of authority and collaboration of its employees to allocate
fiscal and personnel assets to accomplish the mission of the college district.”
Task #2
Learning pyramid:
According to Education corner the definition of The Learning Pyramid follow :
The “learning pyramid”, sometimes referred to as the “cone of learning”, developed by the
National Training Laboratory, suggests that most students only remember about 10% of what
they read from textbooks, but retain nearly 90% of what they learn through teaching others. The
Learning Pyramid model suggests that some methods of study are more effective than others and
that varying study methods will lead to deeper learning and longer-term retention.
Task #3
Are Leaders Born or Made?
“Leaders aren’t born, they are made. And they are made just like anything else, through hard
work.”
In this quote, the belief that true leadership comes through experience, determination, and
passion surfaces. Others will contend, however, that many leaders are born with leadership
characteristics. These “natural-born leaders,” as they’re sometimes called, rise to the occasion
because that’s just who they are.
Research from the University of Illinois shows people can be molded into leaders. If this is
true, that means anyone can become a leader if they want to be.
What Does Science Say About It?
One famous debate at the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy in 2016 took two
groups from the Academic Fellows Program and had them argue over which side had the most
evidence in their favor.
These groups looked at several studies of twins to compare leadership traits. The findings were
not as conclusive as they likely hoped. The side which argued that leaders are born, not made,
showed examples of twins who demonstrated impressive leadership capabilities, such as
astronauts Mark and Scott Kelly. The side which favored the “leadership is learned” argument
showed examples of leadership principles and traits that cannot be genetic, such as a passion for
helping others, integrity, and a vision for the future. The two groups concluded that the answer
likely involved some element of both nature and nurture.
Task #4
Elements of management :
The five fundamental elements of the management process include:
1)Planning
Planning is the first and foremost function of the management process. It is the thinking process
to determine the proposed course of action, what, how, when, where and who has to perform the
work or things to be done.
2)Organizing
Organization as a process institutes the harmonious adjustment between the different
factors of production as land, labor, capital of the business enterprise, so that ultimate goal is
achieved.
3)Staffing
Staffing is the process of deciding the number and quality of manpower needed by an
organization. To achieve its objectives efficiently recruiting, selecting, training, developing
and appraising the newly recruited as well as the existing staff is the main focus of the unit. It
can be seen as the function of ‘Human Resource Manager’ but at a very smaller level.
4)Directing
Directing is primarily concerned with supervision, regulation, inspiration, inspection and
guidance of the activities of the employees in such a manner so as to achieve the pre-determined
goals of the organization smoothly.
5)Controlling
Control is that process which keeps the whole system in check so that it moves as per the pre
designated parameters or verifying the total movement of the business enterprise as per the plan
and adopting corrective measures thereon for any deviation.
Task #5
Management theories:
Three Types of Management Theories are following:
While ideas overlap between the categories, these three classifications differentiate management
according to their focus and the era they came from:
Classical management theory: emerged from the Industrial Revolution and revolves around
maximizing efficiency and production.
Behavioral management theory: started in the early 20th century and addresses the
organization’s human and social elements.
Modern management theory: followed on the heels of World War II and combines
mathematical principles with sociology to develop holistic approaches to management.
The origin of one movement doesn’t indicate the conclusion of the previous one. All three of
these approaches still exist in contemporary practice.
Newer is not always better either. Each philosophy was born out of changing ideals and
emerging possibilities, but today’s business world is complex. Different theories better suit
different needs.
1)Classical Management Theory
Classical management theory prioritizes profit and assumes that personal gain motivates
employees. It aims to streamline operations and increase productivity.
Major concepts include specialization, incentivization, and hierarchical structure.
The following management approaches belong to the overarching category of classical
management theory:
Scientific Management Theory
Scientific management theory is sometimes called Taylorism after its founder Frederick Winslow
Taylor, a mechanical engineer. Taylor employed scientific methods to develop organizational
principles that suited mass production needs. After creating and proving his theory as a manager
and consultant, he wrote ” The Principles of Scientific Management” in 1911.
Taylor wanted to replace outdated, “rule-of-thumb” methods with more efficient process .
Bureaucratic Management Theory
Max Weber was one of the foremost scholars of the late 19 th and early 20th century. He strongly
influenced — and continues to influence — economic, religious, and political sociology. He
explains bureaucratic management theory in “Economy and Society,” published posthumously in
1922.
Weber believed that standard rules and well-defined roles maximize the efficiency of an
organization. Everyone should understand the responsibilities and expectations of their position,
their place within a clear hierarchy and general corporate policies. Hiring decisions and the
application of rules should be impersonal, guided only by reason and established codes.
Administrative Management Theory
Just as scientific management theory is sometimes called Taylorism, administrative management
theory is sometimes called Fayolism.
Henri Fayol was a mining engineer who sought to codify the responsibilities of management and
the principles of effective administration. He outlined these in “General and Industrial
Management” in 1916.
2)Behavioral Management Theory
Behavioral management theory places the person rather than the process at the heart of business
operations. It examines the business as a social system as well as a formal organization.
Therefore, productivity depends on proper motivation, group dynamics, personal psychology,
and efficient processes.
Behavioral management theory humanizes business. Feelings have a practical impact on
operations. Team spirit, public recognition, and personal pride encourage employees to perform
better. Individual relationships also play a role. Employees are more likely to go the extra mile
for a boss they respect and who respects them.
Common behavioral management theories include the following:
Human Relations Theory
The fundamental texts on human relations theory evolved from an experiment following classical
theory. Elton Mayo worked as part of a team evaluating the impact on the productivity of various
workplace conditions at the Hawthorne Works, a large factory complex. Early results were self-
contradicting; changes in opposite directions both improved productivity.
Mayo realized that the researchers’ attention to the workers was the common factor. It instilled
pride and fulfilled particular social needs of the workers. This led to the development of the
“Hawthorne effect,” a principle of research that suggests researcher attention affects the subjects
in a study and impacts the results.
Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor primarily investigated the way managers motivate their employees. The same
tactics don’t work across the board, and individuals require different types of oversight or
encouragement. In 1960, McGregor developed Theory X and Theory Y in response, laid out in
“The Human Side of Enterprise.”
This management theory divides workers into two camps that require two leadership styles.
Theory X workers lack drive. Managers need to provide large amounts of structure and direction
to get them to accomplish the necessary work. These workers demand an authoritarian style of
management.
Theory Y workers are self-motivated individuals who enjoy their work and find it fulfilling. They
benefit from a more participative environment that fosters growth and development.
3)Modern Management Theory
Modern management theory adopts an approach to management that balances scientific
methodology with humanistic psychology. It uses emerging technologies and statistical analysis
to make decisions, streamline operations and quantify performance. At the same time, it values
individual job satisfaction and a healthy corporate culture.
This category of theories is more holistic and flexible than its predecessors. Data-driven
decisions can remove human bias while still accommodating employee health and happiness
indicators. Modern management theory also allows organizations to adapt to complex, fluid
situations with local solutions instead of positing a single, overriding principle to drive
management.
Two popular strains of modern management theory are systems theory and contingency
theory:
Systems Management Theory
It’s no surprise that Ludwig Von Bertalanffy, who developed systems management theory, was a
biologist. This theory borrows heavily from that discourse. Systems theory proposes that each
business is like a single living organism. Distinct elements play different roles but ultimately
work together to support the business’s health. The role of management is to facilitate
cooperation and holistic process flows.
Systems management theory sometimes leans more toward metaphorical description than
prescriptive application. However, you can see evidence of the approach in technological
architectures and tools that standardize services and open access to information. For example,
innovations such as data fabric help break down departmental silos.
Contingency Management Theory
Contingency management theory addresses the complexity and variability of the modern work
environment. Fred Fiedler realized that no one set of characteristics – no single approach –
provided the best leadership in all situations. Success instead depended on the leader’s suitability
to the situation in which they found themselves.
(Villanova university )

Task #6
Difference between management and leadership :

Management Leadership
The role of Leadership is
management is the ability of
to control a an individual
group or group to influence,
of individuals motivate, and
in order to enable others
achieve a to contribute
specified to the
objective. organization’s
success.
Managers focus Leaders are
on achieving more
organizational concerned
goals through with thinking
process of ahead and
implementation seizing
, such as opportunities.
budgeting,
organizational
structure, and
staffing.
In the case of In leadership,
management, principles and
policies and guidelines are
procedures are established.
implemented.
Managers Leaders think
typically think about the
only in the future.
short term.

Task #7
Difference between administration and management:

Administration Management
The administration is Management is an act of
defined as a systematic managing people and
process of administering their work to attain the
the management of a organizational goal.
business organization
(i.e.) non – profit
organization.
It is a broad term and The functions of
involves planning, management are
decision-making, planning, organizing,
organizing and staffing, directing,
forecasting functions of controlling.
the higher level of the
enterprise.
Administrator is the key Manager is the key
person in the case of person in the case of
administration. management.
It is more dynamic, It is more concerned with
action-oriented, and establishing a stable
focused on achieving framework, ensuring
objectives through adherence to rules, and
efficient resource maintaining order within
utilization. the organization.

Task #8
Difference between equity and equality :

Equity Equality
Equity refers to fairness and Equality is the effect of
equality in outcomes, not just treating each as without
in supports and opportunity. difference; each individual is
considered without the
counting of their measurable
attributes; treated as the same
of those with differing
attributes.
People have what they need. Providing everyone the same
things.
Task #9
Standard number of students in all levels of classes:
Researchers generally agree a class size of no larger than 18 students is required to produce the
desired benefit. The ideal class size is 18 kids at low level e.g. kindergarten.
The recommended size of the elementary school classroom in the United States is Approximately
900 Square feet. If state policy allows 20 students per teacher, then with social distance as a
guide, We expect to find a 1029 square feet per classroom (a deficit of 129 square feet by current
standards). Unfortunately These findings regarding social distance (from the field of psychology)
come in conflict with educational policy of 20 Plus students per classroom in most schools (The
classrooms are too small and the result is high density). Elementary schools. This straightforward
research-based calculation is also supported by the well publicized work of Achilles, Finn, and
Bain (1998). The average class size for secondary schools is 1024 square feet and should house
Approximately 14 – 15 students.
The Ontario government has said that the provincial average high school class size for 2019-
2020 will be 22.5 students. Based on the current attrition rate at the TDSB, the average class size
for 2019-2020 will be 23.6 students, an increase from an average of 21.9 students last school
year.
In Pakistan from 1971 to 2018. The average value for Pakistan during that period was 39.67
students per teacher with a minimum of 33 students per teacher in 2000 and a maximum of 47.63
students per teacher in 2016. The latest value from 2018 is 44.08 students per teacher.
The national average class size in the US is 24 students as of 2022. 68.1% of teachers agree that
the subject they teach is negatively affected by the number of students.

Task #10
Negative Impacts of artificial lightening:
“Many species (including humans) need darkness to survive and thrive.”
-American Medical Association Council on Science and Public Health (2012)
The proliferation of artificial light at night means most of us no longer experience truly dark
nights.
Many studies have shown that exposure to artificial light at night negatively affects human
health, including increased risk for:
Sleep disorders
Depression
Obesity
Diabetes
Heart disease
Cancer
According to the American Medical Association, “It is estimated that white LED lamps have five
times greater impact on circadian sleep rhythms than conventional street lamps. Recent large
surveys found that brighter residential nighttime lighting is associated with reduced sleep times,
dissatisfaction with sleep quality, excessive sleepiness, impaired daytime functioning and
obesity.”

Task #11
What Makes a Good Teacher?
Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU) education faculty and university students shared
their thoughts on the qualities that make effective teachers stand out.
1. Good Teachers Are Strong Communicators.
2. Good Teachers Listen Well.
3. Good Teachers Focus on Collaboration.
4. Good Teachers Are Adaptable.
5. Good Teachers Are Engaging.
6. Good Teachers Show Empathy.
7. Good Teachers Have Patience.
8. Good Teachers Value Real-World Learning.
9. Good Teachers Share Best Practices.
10. Good Teachers Are Lifelong Learners.

Task #12
Introduction of B.F. Skinner:
The American psychologist and social scientist B.F. Skinner was one the most influential
psychologists of the 20th century. Skinner pioneered the science of behaviorism, discovered the
power of positive reinforcement in education, invented the Skinner Box, as well as designed the
foremost psychological experiments that gave predictable and quantitatively repeatable
outcomes.
During the 1930s, B. F. Skinner proposed the theory of operant conditioning, which states that
behavior change and learning occur as the outcomes or effects of punishment and reinforcement.
A response is strengthened by reinforcement, as it increases the likelihood that a desired
behaviour will be repeated again in the future.

What Are Schedules of Reinforcement?

Schedules of reinforcement are rules stating which instances of behavior will be reinforced. In
some cases, a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs. Sometimes, a behavior might
not be reinforced at all.
Reinforcement schedules take place in both naturally occurring learning situations as well as
more structured training situations. In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not going to be
reinforced every time they occur. In situations where you are intentionally trying to reinforce a
specific action (such as in school, sports, or in animal training), you would follow a specific
reinforcement schedule.
Some schedules are better suited to certain types of training situations. In some cases, training
might call for one schedule and then switch to another once the desired behavior has been taught.
The two foundational forms of reinforcement schedules are referred to as continuous
reinforcement and partial reinforcement.

1)Continuous Schedules of Reinforcement:

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs.1 This
schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning to create a strong association between
the behavior and response.
Imagine, for example, that you are trying to teach a dog to shake your hand. During the initial
stages of learning, you would stick to a continuous reinforcement schedule to teach and establish
the behavior. This might involve grabbing the dog’s paw, shaking it, saying “shake,” and then
offering a reward each and every time you perform these steps. Eventually, the dog will start to
perform the action on its own.

2)Partial Schedules of Reinforcement:

Once the response is firmly established, a continuous reinforcement schedule is usually switched
to a partial reinforcement schedule.1 In partial (or intermittent) reinforcement, the response is
reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial
reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction.
Think of the earlier example in which you were training a dog to shake. While you initially used
continuous reinforcement, reinforcing the behavior every time, long after the dog has learned the
trick, is simply unrealistic. In time, you would switch to a partial schedule to provide additional
reinforcement once the behavior has been established or after considerable time has passed.
There are four schedules of partial reinforcement. Two are ratio schedules, which are
schedules based on how many responses have occurred. The other two are interval schedules or
schedules based on how much time has elapsed.

Fixed-Ratio Schedules:
Fixed-ratio schedules are those in which a response is reinforced only after a specified number of
responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after
the delivery of the reinforcer. An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be delivering a food
pellet to a rat after it presses a bar five times.

Variable-Ratio Schedules:
Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of
responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games
are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. In a lab setting, this might
involve delivering food pellets to a rat after one bar press, again after four bar presses, and then
again after two bar presses.

Fixed-Interval Schedules:
Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified
amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the
interval but slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. An example of
this in a lab setting would be reinforcing a rat with a lab pellet for the first bar press after a 30-
second interval has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedules:
Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of
time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.
An example of this would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after the first bar press following a
one-minute interval; a second pellet for the first response following a five-minute interval; and a
third pellet for the first response following a three-minute interval.
(By Kendra Cherry, MSEd
Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author
of the “Everything Psychology Book. Reviewed by David Susman, PhD)

Task #13
Introduction of Imam Ghazali:
Abu Hāmed Mohammad ibn Mohammad al-Ghazzālī (1058–1111) (Persian: ‫ابو حامد محمد ابن‬
‫)محمد الغزالی‬, known as Imam Ghazali or Algazel to the western medieval world, born and died
in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia (modern day Iran) was a Persian Muslim theologian,
jurist, philosopher, and mystic.
Imam Ghazali was born in at Ghazala near Tus in 1058 A. D. He is called Ghazali because he
was born at Ghazala and also his father was known as Ghazali by his profession. His early
education took place in Tus and he moved to Jarjan and finally migrated to Nishapur to acquire
learning from the most learned man of the time Abul-Maalai. He possessed the great ability of
clear expression and of addressing the people. He used to lecture before audiences of three
hundred and even more great learned man in his time to their satisfaction. He used to live in
Syria Egypt, Mecca and Madina. He used to wandering here and there while contemplating and
thinking of the sufferings of mankind at the same time.
Imam Ghazali wrote several books nearly 78 on many subjects like tafsir, jurisprudence, hadith,
politics and education. Some of his famous writings are Cheemai-i-Saadat, Mairajus-Salikeen
and Aqeedat-i-Misbah and Ihya-ul-Ulummidin. He is regarded as a reviver and Imam or leader
by a millions of Muslims today.
He focuses spiritual and also emphasis materialistic development of man. According to Ghazali
worldly business is important for the peace of mind and for a pleasant life. He advises the people
to get the basic necessities of life and forbid them to indulge in luxurious life. He believes that
man should work and labor because God has made this world for that purpose.

Imam Al-Ghazali’s Concept of Education:

Imam al-Ghazali is one of the greatest reformers Islam has produced. His multifaceted service
for Din has been acclaimed by the academia through centuries. One of his masterpieces is the
Ihya Ulum al-Din (the regeneration of sciences). ‘Ulama say that, should all the books on
different disciplines be burnt out, this book is sufficient to recreate them. One of the most
appealing topics of this book is the chapter on Knowledge, where the great Imam shed light as to
what is knowledge. He has divided knowledge into two parts:
Religious knowledge (Ilm al-Áliyah )
Secular (or instrumental) knowledge (Ilm al-Áliyah).
The former is acquired from the Qur’an and Sunnah. It is the most dignified knowledge and it is
without doubt. The second type of knowledge is needed to enhance the understanding of the
former since it was a revelation.
Imam al-Ghazali subdivided the secular subjects into three subcategories:

1)Beneficial Knowledge:
This encapsulates those sciences that will benefit society and helps it to progress, e.g. medical
knowledge and mathematics. Accordingly, the acquisition of these sciences and disciplines is
Fard al-Kifayyah, i.e. if nobody acquires it, then the entire Muslim community of a particular
locality will be sinful.
2)Neutral Knowledge:
This category encapsulates those disciplines that will not really enhance one’s beneficial
knowledge but there is nothing wrong if they are studied, e.g. the history of England.
3)Harmful Knowledge:
This category comprises of those disciplines which are harmful, such as black magic and
gambling. It is therefore, haram to acquire such knowledge.

Curriculum and Ghazali’s Philosophy:

Ghazalis’s philosophy came more time was devoted to religious education and he opined that
equal attention needed to pay both to religious and secular education and suggested to
incorporate useful subjects in the curriculum. He considered logic essential for intellectual
development and thinking. He also emphasized religious and moral education of learners. He
regarded religious instructions important for the goodness of character. He emphasized to include
religion in the curriculum. Imam Ghazali first time identified compulsory and optional subjects
for the curriculum and insited the learners to learn the compulsory subjects.

Aim of Education and Imam Ghazali:

Character and personality development of the learner is the main purpose of education in the
point of view of Imam Ghazali. Education should promote desirable traits and behavior of
individuals. Individual is good by nature but people lead him towards the good or bad in the
society. Education should enable the learners to distinguish between true and false, good and
bad, right and wrong doings. He advocated that controversial issues should be taken out from the
curriculum and Quran and Sunna are made part of it. Imam Ghazali advocated the need of moral
education both in theory and practice. Imam Ghazali held parents responsible for their children
education at earlier education. He made education compulsory for both man and woman.

Imam Ghazali and Methods of Teaching:

Ghazali’s method of education appears modern than the educationists’ of contemporary society.
He is in favor of conducting lessons in an interesting way. He made teaching aids part of a
routine lesson so that the students will be able to participate in the lesson. The teacher should
develop the lesson according to the learning level of the students. The teacher should proceed
from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. He favored lecture, participation of
students in the teaching and learning process, discussion and tutorials.

Discipline and Imam Ghazali’s philosophy:

Imam Ghazali forwarded very important views about discipline. He is not in favour of
maintaining discipline on the basis of fear and intimidation. Discipline should be maintained on
the basis of love and understanding. He is in favour of developing a good relationship between
the students and the teachers. The teacher should not scold the students and treat them with
kindness and sympathy. The teacher should act as a role model for the students. He is deadly
against of using punishment in educational institutions, because it did not bring any positive
result in the learners. It does not encourage students to be creative and flourish their minds.

Conclusion:
Imam Ghazali was a great Muslim educationist and presented many fruitful theories, aims,
methods and curriculum of education. He suggested a utilitarian type of education to enable the
learner to carry a successful vocation and profession. He emphasized personal experiences and
teacher- pupils’ relationship. The same views have been presented by the modern educationist
even after lapsing of one thousand years. Whatever he had presented many years before is
implemented today. He was a great educator.

Task #14
Definition of Scaffolding :
Scaffolding is a particular strategy for gradually building knowledge. It is designed to give
students the support they need initially so they can complete tasks independently. Teachers often
use this concept because it is an effective way of explaining new information to students and it
provides the opportunity for students to be active in their own learning. Scaffolding is composed
of techniques in which teachers will create a bridge between what students already know and
what they don’t know.

Example of Scaffolding:
Sentence Fragments:
 A teacher is working with elementary school students to explain what sentence fragments
are. The lesson begins with the teacher asking students if they can remember what a
sentence is. Students brainstorm some examples and discuss vocabulary related to
sentences.
 The teacher then writes a sentence fragment on the board: After you get home from
school. Students discuss whether this is a sentence or not.
 The teacher walks students through the process of identifying a sentence fragment that is
made up of a dependent clause and changes the fragment to a complete sentence: After
you get home from school, you can play outside.
 This process is repeated two more times with students offering their thoughts on how to
fix the fragments.
 The teacher may include images or a drawing to indicate the meaning of a sentence or
fragment, or have students act the sentences out.
 The teacher provides several more fragments and asks students to write complete
sentences for each one. The teacher will also walk around the class and monitor students’
work. If students are struggling, the teacher can explain the concept again in a different
way or otherwise modify the lesson based on students’ needs.

Task #15
What is conflict management?
Conflict management refers to the way that you handle disagreements. On any given day, you
may have to deal with a dispute between you and another individual, your family members, or
fellow employees.
Although there are many reasons people disagree, many conflicts revolve around:
 Personal values (real or perceived)
 Perceptions
 Conflicting goals
 Power dynamics
 Communication style
5 conflict management styles:
It’s human to deal with conflict by defaulting to what’s comfortable. According to University of
Pittsburgh professors of management Ken Thomas and Ralph Kilmann, most people take one
of two approaches to conflict management, assertiveness or cooperativeness. From these
approaches come five modes or styles of conflict management:
 Accommodating
 Avoiding
 Collaborating
 Competing
 Compromising

Task #16

Interpersonal Skills Intrapersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills are a set of abilities Intrapersonal skills are related to your self-
that enable you to communicate awareness and understanding of yourself.
effectively, interact, and work with other This includes having a clear sense of
people. They include active listening, identity, purpose, values, beliefs, and
problem-solving, and collaboration. To motivations. Intrapersonal communication
ensure successful interactions with others, is the process of understanding your own
you need to be able to read the situation feelings, thoughts, and ideas. By
and respond in an appropriate manner. understanding and managing your
emotions, you can make better decisions
and take meaningful action.

Example: Example:
A leader is managing a team at work. She A manager is working on a project and
needs to communicate effectively with her needs to make an important decision about
team members, so she takes the time to how to proceed. She takes the time to
listen, empathize, and provide clear reflect on her values, goals, and objectives
guidance. As a result, her team is more in order to make the best decision for her
productive and successful. As part of her team. This requires her to be self-aware
job role, she also needs to manage and understand how her choices will affect
relationships with stakeholders, so she uses her work and her team.
her interpersonal skills to build trust and
foster collaboration.

Task #17
The humanistic theory in education:
In history humanistic psychology is an outlook or system of thought that focuses on human
beings rather than supernatural or divine insight. This system stresses that human beings are
inherently good, and that basic needs are vital to human behaviors. Humanistic psychology also
focuses on finding rational ways to solve these human problems. At its root, the psychology of
humanism focuses on human virtue. It has been an important movement throughout history, from
Greek and Latin roots to Renaissance and now modern revivals.

This theory and approach in education takes root in humanistic psychology, with the key
concepts focusing on the idea that children are good at the core and that education should focus
on rational ways to teach the “whole” child. This theory states that the student is the authority on
how they learn, and that all of their needs should be met in order for them to learn well. For
example, a student who is hungry won’t have as much attention to give to learning. So schools
offer meals to students so that need is met, and they can focus on education. The humanistic
theory approach engages social skills, feelings, intellect, artistic skills, practical skills, and more
as part of their education. Self-esteem, goals, and full autonomy are key learning elements in the
humanistic learning theory.

The humanistic learning theory was developed by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and James F.
T. Bugental in the early 1900’s. Humanism was a response to the common educational theories at
the time, which were behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Abraham Maslow is considered the father
of the movement, with Carl Rogers and James F.T. Bugental adding to the psychology later down
the line.

Maslow and the humanists believed that behaviorism and other psychology theories had a
negative perception of learners—for example operant conditioning in behaviorism psychology
suggested that students only acted in a good or bad manner because of the reward or punishment
and could be trained based on that desire for a reward. Maslow and humanistic psychology
suggests that students are inherently good and will make good decisions when all their needs are
met. Humanistic psychology focuses on the idea that learners bring out the best in themselves,
and that humans are driven by their feelings more than rewards and punishments. Maslow
believed this and wrote many articles to try and demonstrate it.

This belief that humans are driven by feelings causes educators who understand humanistic
psychology to focus on the underlying human, emotional issues when they see bad behavior, not
to just punish the bad behavior. The humanistic learning theory developed further and harnesses
the idea that if students are upset, sad, or distressed, they’re less likely to be able to focus on
learning. This encourages teachers to create a classroom environment that helps students feel
comfortable and safe so they can focus on their learning. Emotions are at the center of humanism
psychology.
The principles of humanistic learning theory:
There are several important principles involved in the humanistic learning theory that all lead to
self-actualization. Self-actualization is when all your needs are met, you’ve become the best
you’ve can, and you are fulfilled. While Maslow and the humanists don’t believe that most
people reach self-actualization, their belief is that we are always in search of it, and the closer we
are, the more we can learn.
Student choice. Choice is central to the humanistic learning theory and humanistic psychology.
Humanistic learning is student-centered, so students are encouraged to take control over their
education. They make choices that can range from daily activities to future goals. Students are
encouraged to focus on a specific subject area of interest for a reasonable amount of time that
they choose. Teachers who utilize humanistic learning believe that it’s crucial for students to find
motivation and engagement in their learning, and that is more likely to happen when students are
choosing to learn about something that they really want to know.
Fostering engagement to inspire students to become self-motivated to learn. The
effectiveness of this psychology approach is based on learners feeling engaged and self-
motivated so they want to learn. So humanistic learning relies on educators working to engage
students, encouraging them to find things they are passionate about so they are excited about
learning.
The importance of self-evaluation. For most humanistic teachers, grades don’t really matter.
Self-evaluation is the most meaningful way to evaluate how learning is going. Grading students
encourages students to work for the grade, instead of doing things based on their own satisfaction
and excitement of learning. Routine testing and rote memorization don’t lead to meaningful
learning in this theory, and thus aren’t encouraged by humanistic teachers. Humanistic educators
help students perform self-evaluations so they can see how students feel about their progress.
Feelings and knowledge are both important to the learning process and should not be
separated according to humanistic psychology. Humanistic teachers believe that knowledge
and feelings go hand-in-hand in the learning process. Cognitive and affective learning are both
important to humanistic learning. Lessons and activities should focus on the whole student and
their intellect and feelings, not one or the other.
A safe learning environment. Because humanistic learning focuses on the entire student,
humanistic educators understand that they need to create a safe environment so students can have
as many as their needs met as possible. They need to feel safe physically, mentally, and
emotionally in order to be able to focus on learning. So humanistic educators are passionate
about the idea of helping students meet as many of their needs as possible.
Cognitive theory:
What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development?
The Theory of Cognitive Development by Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist, suggests that
children’s intelligence undergoes changes as they grow. Cognitive development in children is not
only related to acquiring knowledge, children need to build or develop a mental model of their
surrounding world (Miller, 2011). His work is regarded as the cornerstone in the field of
developmental psychology. In this article, we examine the implications his work has for the
intellectual development of children in classrooms.
In the 1920s, Piaget was working at the Binet Institute and his main responsibility was to
translate questions written in English intelligence tests into French. He became interested to find
out why children gave incorrect answers to the questions needing logical thinking (Meadows,
2019).
Piaget believed that these wrong answers revealed significant differences between the thinking of
children and adults.
Piaget proposed a new set of assumptions about the intelligence of children:
Children think differently and see the world differently from adults.
Children are not passive learners, they actively build up their knowledge about the surrounding.
The most effective way to understand children’s reasoning is to think from children’s point of
view.
Piaget did not want to measure how well children can spell, count or solve problems to check
their I.Q. He was more intrigued to find out how the fundamental concepts such as the very idea
of time, number, justice, quantity and so on emerged (Greenfield, 2019).
Piaget used observations and clinical interviews of older children who were able to hold
conversations and understand questions. He also made controlled observation, and used
naturalistic observation of his own three children and developed diary description with charts of
children’s development.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is based on the idea that children go through four
stages of development, each with their own unique characteristics and abilities.
The first stage
the sensorimotor stage, occurs from birth to around two years old and is characterized by the
child’s understanding of the world through sensory experiences and motor actions.
The second stage
 the preoperational stage, occurs from around two to seven years old and is characterized by the
child’s ability to use symbols to represent objects and events.
The third stage
the concrete operational stage, occurs from around seven to twelve years old and is characterized
by the child’s ability to think logically about concrete objects and events. Finally,
The fourth stage the formal operational stage, occurs from around twelve years old and is
characterized by the child’s ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically.
Behaviorist Theories of Learning:
In the early 1900s, the most prevalent way of looking at learning was the view we call
behaviorism. Behaviorists defined learning as an observable change in behavior. At the time, this
was viewed as a scientific approach, in contrast to the introspective or psychoanalytic view of
learning that had been prevalent in the past. Behaviorists believed that we can never know what
is going on “inside people’s heads” and that it is inappropriate to try to guess or speculate at what
cannot be empirically observed. Instead, they believed that we should watch for observable
changes in behavior to find out what people were learning.
Classical Conditioning:
In the early part of the 20th century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was studying
the digestive system of dogs when he noticed an interesting behavioral phenomenon: The dogs
began to salivate when the lab technicians who normally fed them entered the room, even though
the dogs had not yet received any food. Pavlov realized that the dogs were salivating because
they knew they were about to be fed; the dogs had begun to associate the arrival of the
technicians with the food that soon followed their appearance in the room.
With his team of researchers, Pavlov began studying this process in more detail. He conducted a
series of experiments in which, over a number of trials, dogs were exposed to a sound
immediately before receiving food. He systematically controlled the onset of the sound and the
timing of the delivery of the food, and recorded the amount of the dogs’ salivation. Initially the
dogs salivated only when they saw or smelled the food, but after several pairings of the sound
and the food, the dogs began to salivate as soon as they heard the sound. Pavlov concluded that
the animals had learned to associate the sound with the food that followed.
Pavlov had identified a fundamental associative learning process called classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone)
becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behavior (e.g.,
salivation). After the association is learned, the previously neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) is by
itself sufficient to produce the behavior (e.g., salivation).
Psychologists use specific terms to identify the stimuli and the responses in classical
conditioning. The unconditioned stimulus (US) is something (such as food) that triggers a natural
occurring response, and the unconditioned response (UR) is the naturally occurring response
(such as salivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a
neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus,
evokes a similar response as the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of
the tone served as the conditioned stimulus that, after learning, produced the conditioned
response (CR), which is the acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus. Note that the UR
and the CR are the same behavior—in this case salivation—but they are given different names
because they are produced by different stimuli (the US and the CS, respectively).
Conditioning is evolutionarily beneficial because it allows organisms to develop expectations
that help them prepare for both good and bad events. Imagine, for instance, that an animal first
smells a new food, eats it, and then gets sick. If the animal can learn to associate the smell (CS)
with the food (US), then it will quickly learn that the food creates the negative outcome, and not
eat it the next time.
Operant Conditioning:
In contrast to classical conditioning, which involves involuntary responses (e.g., salivating), B.F.
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning posited that learning occurs through the process of reinforcing
an appropriate voluntary response to a stimulus in the environment.
Operant Conditioning has some very specific terminology. This terminology is often misused
because the terms have a different meaning from their common colloquial use. Skinner claimed
that the consequences that follow any given behavior could either increase or decrease that
behavior. He used the term reinforcement to describe consequences that increases a behavior and
punishment to describe those that decrease the behavior. He further claimed that a reinforcement
or punishment could be either a stimulus added, which he defined as positive, or or a stimulus
removed, which he called negative. It is important to set aside the common meanings and
connotations of the words positive and negative and focus on how they are defined in Operant
Conditioning. In this context the terms are more like “adding and subtracting” rather than “good
and bad.”
A reinforcement, then, can be either positive or negative. For example, If you give a child praise
for completing her homework (because you want her to continue this desirable behavior), you
would be giving her positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, removes
a consequence or stimulus that the person doesn’t like, in the hope of increasing the desirable
behavior. If you tell the child that because she completed her homework immediately after
school today she is excused from helping with the dinner dishes, you are giving her negative
reinforcement. In both cases, you are hoping the reinforcement you provide will increase the
desirable behavior of completing her homework.
The goal of punishment Is to decrease a behavior. Positive punishment is an added stimulus
designed to decrease a behavior. If a child is acting out in class and you scold him, you are
delivering a positive punishment. The scolding is an added stimulus. A negative punishment
would be taking something away that the child wants. For example, if you tell him he has to stay
in from recess after acting out in class, you are using negative punishment.
The important thing to remember about reinforcement and punishment is that the result
determines whether a stimulus serves as a reinforcement or a punishment, regardless of the
intentions of the person delivering the stimulus. A teacher can take a certain action with the
intention of punishing a child, but end up inadvertently providing reinforcement. If the child who
is acting out in class craves any kind of attention she can get from an adult, both the praise and
the scolding can be equally reinforcing for her.
While the examples above involve humans, it is important to note that Skinner’s research was
primarily done with animals trained in special cages called “Skinner Boxes” designed to deliver
reinforcements and punishments. For example, he would train a rat to push a lever when a green
light came on by first watching the rat move around and explore the cage until it eventually
pushed the lever. When the rat pushed the lever a food pellet would be released, which caused
the rat to push the lever frequently. Once this behavior was established, he would start turning on
a light, and only release a food pellet if the rat pushed the lever when the light was on.
Eventually, the rat would be trained to push the lever every time the light came on.
Skinner believed that human learning occurred by the same mechanism, and that even very
complex behaviors could be learned by reinforcing intermediate behaviors (as in the example of
the rat above) and gradually shaping the complex behavior. In 1957, Skinner published “Verbal
Behavior,” where he applied his theory to language learning. This was controversial. The linguist
Noam Chomsky, for example, argued that Operant Conditioning was inadequate to explain how
humans learn to construct new sentences in response to new experience.
Task #18
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences:
The concept of multiple intelligences is a theory proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard
Gardner. When you hear the word intelligence, the concept of IQ testing may immediately come
to mind. Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are born with,
something that can be measured, and a capacity that is difficult to change.
In recent years, however, other views of intelligence have emerged, including Gardner’s
suggestion that multiple different types of intelligence may exist. The eight intelligences
according to Gardner are:
 Visual-spatial
 Linguistic-verbal
 Logical-mathematical
 Body-kinesthetic
 Musical
 Interpersonal
 Intrapersonal
 Naturalistic
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner
first outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences,
where he suggested that all people have different kinds of “intelligences.”
Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a
ninth known as “existentialist intelligence.”
While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, they
most likely possesses a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong in verbal,
musical, and naturalistic intelligence.
Criticism of Multiple Intelligences
Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These critics
argue that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different
“intelligences” simply represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also
suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research.
Despite this, the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with educators.
Many teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophies and work to integrate
Gardner’s theory into the classroom.
Gardner has cautioned that multiple intelligences should not be conflated with learning styles. (It
is also important to stress that evidence has found that matching instruction to a learner’s
perceived style has no benefits in terms of learning outcomes or educational attainment.)
There is a lack of evidence to demonstrate that learning according to your “intelligence”
produces better educational outcomes. However, you may find that learning more about multiple
intelligences can give you a better understanding of your strengths and preferences.