Polynomial Equations

A polynomial equation in two variables is an equation of the form

p(x, y) = q(x, y)
where both p(x, y) and q(x, y) are polynomials in two variables.

Examples.

• xy + 2 = y 2 3x 4
(xy + 2 is a quadratic polynomial. So is y 2 3x 4.)

•y x=2
(y x is a linear polynomial. 2 is a constant polynomial.)

• x2 5x + y 2= 7xy y+2

• 3x2 xy + 4y 2 5x + 6 7=0

Domains of polynomial equations

Because every polynomial in two variables has a domain of R2 , the implied
domain of any polynomial equation in two variables is R2 , the entire plane.

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Solutions of equations
If p(x, y) = q(x, y) is a polynomial equation in two variables, then a point
in the plane (↵, ) 2 R2 is a solution of the equation if the number p(↵, )
equals the number q(↵, ). That is, if p(↵, ) = q(↵, ).

Examples.

• The point in the plane (1, 2) is a solution of the equation

x2 + y 2 = x + y + 2 because 12 + 22 = 5 = 1 + 2 + 2.

• The point (0, 1) is a solution of the same equation x2 +y 2 = x+y +2

because 02 + ( 1)2 = 1 = 0 + ( 1) + 2.
119
 • The point (3, 1) is not a solution of the same equation
x•2 + y2 =
The x +(3,
point y +1)2 isbecause 32 + 12 = 10 6= 6 = 3 + 1 + 2.
not a solution of the same equation
+
x
2
The set of y =x+y+2
every solution of anbecause 32+12 = 106=3+i+2.
equation p(x, y) = q(x, y) is the set
The set of (↵, ) 2 Rof2 an
S = {solutions | p(↵, p(x, y)) }=
) = q(↵,
equation q(x, y)
is the set
Thus, if S is the set of solutions ofER
S={() 2 the equation from the previous examples,
p(3)=q(3)}
2 2
x + Thus,
y = xif+Syis+the2, set
thenof (1, 2) 2 S and (0, 1) 2 S, while (3, 1) 2 / S.
solutions of the equation from the previous examples,
= x+y+2, then (1,2) E Sand (0,—i) eS, while (3,1)ØS.
Solutions as geometric objects
The set of solutions
Solutions of a polynomial
as geometric equation in one variable is always finite,
objects
so we can just write out a list of the solutions. In contrast, a polynomial
of solutions of a polynomial eauatirrtiiio variables is a subset of
equation in two variables can have infinitely many solutions. It would be
the plane. :aw the set of solutions of a particular
impossible to write a list of infinitely many points in the plane, but it often
equation. 1is o
is possible to make a drawing of every point in the planea that is a solution of or.
a particular
Examples. equation. s.4 ti
Examples. • Let p(x, y) be the linear polynomial x 3 and let q(x, y)e
—

constant polynomial 0. The solutions of the equation p(r, y) = q(x, y), the+Zc cç
• Let p(x, y) be the linear polynomial x and let q(x, y) be the constant
equation x 3 = 0, are the points (, 3) in the plane with the property thatC
—
4
polynomial 3. The solutions of the equation p(x, y) = q(x, y), the equationv..tiy (Whcq
x = 3, are the points (↵, ) in the plane with the property that Lt
wSS
or more simply, points↵ (a, in the plane with
/) ) = q(↵, ) = 3 o = 3. Thus, (3, 7), and
= p(↵,
(3, —2), and (3, 100) are solutions of the equation x 0. The set of
Thus, (3, 7), and (3, 2), and (3, 100) are solutions of the equation x = 3.
—

all solutions, of all pairs of numbers whose x-coordina’qual 3, forms a

The set of all solutions, of all pairs of numbers whose x-coordinates equal 3,
vertical line in the plane.
forms a vertical line in the plane.

S
SoLA+;or1s
o x-O

120

116
 • Similar
• Similar to the previous example, • Similarto to
the set thethe
of previous
solutions ofexample,
previous the equation
example, thethe
setset
of of
solutio
solut
x = 5 also forms a vertical linexinx the
5= 0 also
5 plane.
= forms
0 also
—
—
It’s a avertical
forms vertiline in in
thethe
line comprised
a vertiline plane.
of It’sIt’s
plane. a verti
a ve
points whose x-coordinates equal points
of of whose
5.points whosex-coordinat’equal
x-coordinat’equal 5. 5.

55

• x = y is an equation in two variables.

• x• =x =y isy The
anan
is equation
solutions
equation inofin
two
this
two equation
variables.
variables.The The solution
solut
are all of the points (↵, ) suchareare allallof
that the
↵ of
= thepoints
. points
In other /3)words,
(ce,(ce, /3)such thethat
suchthat solutions
o o= =/3. /3.In Inother
otherwo
of this equation are all of the of ofthis
points thisequation
of equation
the form areare
allall
(↵, ↵)of ofthethe
— all of the
points
points of points
thetheform
of form(ce,(ce,
c) c)
whose x-coordinates equal their whose
y-coordinates.
whose x-coordinates There
x-coordinates equal aretheir
equal infinitely
their many of There
y-coordinates.
y-coordinates. Therearear
• Similar to the previous example, the set of solutions of the equation
these
these solutions, including (4, 4), these solutions,
(7, 7) and ( 10,
solutions, including
10). (4,4),
including If (4,4),
we placed a and
7) 7)and
(7,(7, tiny
(—10,
(—10, —10).
—10).If
x 5 = 0 also forms a vertiline in the plane. It’s a vertical line comprised
dot in the plane for each of these
—

dotdot in in
thethe
solutions, plane
they’d
plane collectively
forfor
eacheach of of these form
these a line,they’d
solutions,
solutions, a they’d collecti
collec
of points whose x-coordinat’equal 5.
line that’s often called the “x = yline
line line”.
that’s
that’soften
often called
called thethe“x “x = = y line”.
y line”.

x = y is an equation in two2 variables.2 The solutions of this equation

• The set of •solutions of the equation
• The 4x
set
• The set 2xy
of of + y of
solutions
solutions+ of
3x
thethe 7yequation
equation5 =4x
20 4x
2 2xy ++
2xy 2
y
are all of the points (ce, /3) such that o = /3. In other words, the solutions
—
—

form a geometric object called isa angeometric

isa ellipse.
geometricWe’ll
object have
objectcalledmore
called to sayWe’ll
ananellipse.
ellipse. abouthave
We’ll more
have moreto
of this equation are all of the points of the form (ce, c) all of the points
ellipses later. They’re exampleslater.
of conics.
They’re
later. examples
They’re examples of of
conics.
conics.
whose x-coordinates equal their y-coordinates. There are infinitely many of
these solutions, including (4,4), (7, 7) and (—10, —10). If we placed a tiny
dot in the plane for each of these solutions, they’d collectively form a line, a
line that’s often called the “x = y line”.
qx
2
2
2
2
qx÷+3x-75o
÷+3x-75

121 117 117

 4
i. • •The
Theset
setofofsolutions
solutionsofofthe
the equation
equation yy
4 y2 =
=
x4 —
2x2 isis callee
2x2 called the
4“devil’s
—

devil’s curve”.
curve’

N
‘I
• •The
Thethree
threeprevious
previousexamples
exampleswere wereofofequations
equationsthatthathad hadinfinitely
infinitely
many
manysolutions.
solutions.Sometimes
Sometimesa apolynomial
polynomialequationequationwill
willhave
haveno nosolutions.
solutions. IfIf
you
yousquare
squarea anumber,
number,thetheresult
resultcannot
cannotbebenegative.
negative.IfIfyou
youadd
addtwo twononneg-
nonneg
ative
ativenumbers
numberstogether,
together,the
theresult
resultisisstill
stillnonnegative.
nonnegative.This Thisisistotosay
saythat
thatthe
the
2 2
equation
equationx x 2++y y
2= —1 1 has
hasnonosolution.
solution.There Therearearenonopairs
pairsofofnumbers
numbersthat
that
you can square and then add together to get the negative
you can square and then add together to get the negative number —1. number 1.

• •Some
Someequations
equationsinintwo
twovariables
variableshave
havea afinite
finitenumber
numberofofsolutions.
solutions.
The claim below displays one such equation.
The claim below displays one such equation.

Claim:
Claim:The
Theonly
onlysolution
solutionofofthe equationx2x
theequation 2++y 2y
2==0 0isisthe
thepoint
point(0, 0).
(0,0).

—.

‘(0,0)

2
Proof:
Proof:Suppose
Supposethat that(↵,(a’, )
,B)isisa asolution
solutionofofthe
theequation
equationxx 2 ++y 2y
2==0.0. We’ll
We’ll
show
showthat
that(↵, (a’, )
3)==(0,(0,0).
0). That
Thatmeans meansthat
that(0, 0) isisthe
(0,0) theonly
onlysolution.
solution.
Ifi(↵, 22 2 2
then↵ ++ 2 ==0.0. The
2
ta’, )i’isisa asolution
solutionofofthetheequation
equationx ++y y 2==0,0,then The
2 2
square
squareofofa anumber
numbercan’t can’tbehenegative.
negative.ThusThus↵a’2 0 0and and /32 0.0.Since
Sinceneither
neither
2 2,2
↵ a’
2nor
nor are
are negative, the only way they could sum to 0 is if they bothequal
negative, the only way they could sum to 0 is if they both equal
2 2/32 2 2
zero.
zero.That
Thatis,is,↵a’ 2 ++ ==0 0impliesimpliesthat that↵a’
2==0 0and and ==0.0.The
32
Theonly
onlynumber
number
122
118
that you can square to get 0, is 0 itself. In other words, since ↵2 = 0, we
must have that ↵ = 0. Since 2 = 0, we must have that = 0.
We’ve now shown what we wanted to. If (↵, ) is a solution of the equation
x + y 2 = 0, then ↵2 + 2 = 0, which implies that (↵, ) = (0, 0). Thus, (0, 0)
2

is the only solution of the equation x2 + y 2 = 0. ⌅

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Equivalent equations
Similar to equations in one variable, there are rules for when equations in
two variables are equivalent, and equivalent equations have the same solu-
tions. When it comes to polynomial equations in two variables, there are
only two rules for equivalent equations that we’ll need.

Equivalent by addition:

The equation p(x, y) + h(x, y) = q(x, y)

is equivalent to p(x, y) = q(x, y) h(x, y).

Equivalent by multiplication:

If c 6= 0 is a number, then the equation cp(x, y) = q(x, y)

is equivalent to p(x, y) = q(x,y)
c .

Consequence of equivalent equations:

Equivalent equations have the same set of solutions.

Example.

• The equation
8x2 + 2y 2 + 6x = 4xy + 14y + 10
123
 Similar to the previous example, the set of solutions of the equation
5 = 0 also forms a verticQine in the 5plane. It’s a vertical line comprised
points whose x-coordiuaiequal 5. x5O
is equivalent by addition to the equation
. x =2 y is an equation in two variables. The solutions of this equa
8x2 + 2y + 6x (4xy + 14y + 10) = 0
are all of the points (ce, ,8) such that c = /3. In other words, the solut
We
5 can rearrangeofthe thisterms aboveare
equation to all
write this points
of the equation as form (cu, c)
of the — all of the po
whose2 x—coordinates 2 equal their y-coordinates. T•here are infinitely man
x5O these 8x solutions,
4xy + 2y + 6x (4,4),
including 14y 10 (7, =
7) 0and (—10, —10). If we placed a
We can factor outdot the plane2 for
theinconstant andeach of these
rewrite solutions, as
this equation they’d collectively form a li
line that’s often called the “ = y line”.
. x = y is an equation in two2 variables.2 The solutions
2(4x 2xy + y + 3x 7y 5) =of0 this equation
all of the points (ce, ,8) such that c = /3. In other words, the solutions
his equationThisare
is equivalent
all of theby multiplication
points of the form to the(cu,
equation
c) — all of the points
ose x—coordinates equal their y-coordinates. T•here are infinitely 0 many of
2 2
4x 2xy + y + 3x 7y 5
se solutions, including (4,4), (7, 7) and (—10, —10). If we placed a tiny = = 0
2
in the plane for each of these solutions, they’d collectively form a line, a
We called
that’s often saw thethesolutions of this equation earlier in the chapter. The solutions
“ = y line”.

form an ellipse. Because equivalent equations have the same set of solutions,
the ellipse is also the set of solutions of our original equation from this example
8x. 2The
+ 2yset
2 of solutions of the equation 4x
+ 6x = 4xy + 14y + 10 2 2xy + y 2 + 3x
— 5—
—

geometric object called an ellipse. We’ll have more to say about ell
later. They’re examples of conics.

Zi
z
. The set of solutions of the equation 4x
2 2xy + y
2 + 3x — 5 = 0 —
—

geometric object called an ellipse. We’ll have more to say about ellipses
+1L+1O
er. They’re examples of conics.

117
Zi
z
* * * * * * * * * * * * *
+1L+1O

Planar transformations
117
of solutions
Solutions of polynomial equations are geometric objects, and at times, we’ll
be interested in how planar transformations a↵ect these geometric objects.
The general principal is described in the following claim.
124
 Claim: Suppose T : R2 ! R2 is a planar transformation — either an
addition function or an invertible matrix — and that S ✓ R2 is the set of
solutions of the polynomial equation p(x, y) = q(x, y). Then T (S) is the set
of solutions of the equation p T 1 (x, y) = q T 1 (x, y).
Proof: Let’s take a point in the set T (S). That is, a point of the form
T (↵, ) where (↵, ) 2 S, which means that (↵, ) is a solution of the equation
p(x, y) = q(x, y), or in other words, that
p(↵, ) = q(↵, )
We want to show that this point, T (↵, ), in the set T (S) is a solution of the
equation
p T 1 (x, y) = q T 1 (x, y)
To see this, we need to check that p T 1 (T (↵, )) equals q T 1 (T (↵, )).
We’ll do this in a moment, but before we do, remember two things: that
the definition of inverse functions is that T 1 (T (x, y)) = (x, y), and that
p(↵, ) = q(↵, ). Now we check that p T 1 (T (↵, )) equals q T 1 (T (↵, )):
1 1
p T (T (↵, )) = p(T
S (T (↵, )))
oç
cuo
1
= p(↵, )
= q(↵, )
1
= q(T (T (↵, )))
1
=q T (T (↵, ))
Thus, points in the set T (S), such as T (↵, ), are solutions of the equation
p T 1 (x, y) = q T 1 (x, y). ⌅

The previous claim is important to stress. We’ll call it the Principle of

Transforming Solutions (POTS). If S is the set of solutions of p(x, y) =
q(x, y), then T (S) is the set of solutions of p T 1 (x, y) = q T 1 (x, y).

:S’AOQS
S

cLo(R’Loa
125
 Example.

• Let p(x, y) = x and q(x, y) = 3. If S is the set of solutions of the

equation p(x, y) = q(x, y), which is the equation x = 3, then we’ve seen that
S is a vertical line.
The addition function A( ,o) : R
2 2 —+ R moves ponts in the plane right by
The addition function A(2,0) : R2 ! R2 moves points in the plane right by
2 units, so the set A(
.o)(S) is the line of so1utions — 3 = 0 shifted right by
2
2 units, so the set A(2,0) (S) is the line of solutions of x = 3 shifted right by 2
2 units. It’s the vertical line of points whose x-coordinatqua1.’5.
units. It’s the vertical line of points whose x-coordinates equal 5.

3 S

POTS tells us that the line A(2,0) (S) is the set of solutions of the equation
1 1
p A(2,0) (x, y) = q A(2,0) (x, y) Namely,
,o) (S), is the set of solutions
2
A( 1 of the equation
Because A(2,0) (x, y) = (x 2, y), you can check that the equation
poA’O)(x,y) 1
=0 1
p A(2,0) (x, y) = q A(2,0) (x, y)
In order to progress further, we’d need to know what the inverse of the
is the same asA(
planar transformation the equation
,o)
2 is, and we do: A’ ) = A_(
0 ,o). Thus, our new
2
x 2
,o) (8), is the set of solutions of the equation
line, A(
2 = 3
In summary, POTS tells us that the line A(2,0) (S) is the set of solutions of
p o A_(
x 2 = 3, or equivalently,
,o)(x, y) = 0
2
of x = 5.
We want to write the above equation more simply. To this end, notice that
p o ,o)(x, y)
2
A(_ p(x 2, y) (x 2) 3 x 5
r
= — = — — = —

Thus, theVA(
,o)(S)is the set of solutions of the equation x — 5 = 0. We
2
had seen lier in this chapter that this is indeed the case. The solutions of
x — 5 = 0 are a vertical line of points whose x-coordinate equals 5.
I

The statement of the previous claim is important -po4ii- to stress. We’ll

J%J
U

use it to help us determine what sorts of solutions there are to equations

In-i

p(x, y) = 0 when p(x, y) is a quadratic polynomial.

126

If S is the set of solutions of p(x, y) = 0,

then T(S) is the set of solutions of p o T(x, y)
1 = 0.

122
:S’AOQS
S

POTS
This is very important. It’s worth repeating.
cLo(R’Loa

If S is the set of solutions of p(x, y) = q(x, y),

then T (S) is the set of solutions of p T 1 (x, y) = q T 1
(x, y).

S (5)1

ç
(R’
0

127
 Exercises
Let’s look at the equation 5x + y 2 = 3x2 xy. Determine whether the
points given in #1-4 are solutions of this equation.

1.) (2, 3) 2.) (1, 0) 3.) ( 1, 2) 4.) (3, 4)

5.) Are the equations x2 + 2 = x and x2 x + 2 = 0 equivalent by addition?

6.) Are the equations xy = y 2 and xy x = y2 y equivalent by addition?

7.) Are xy + 3 = y 2 x2 and 3 = y 2 x2 xy equivalent by addition?

8.) Are the equations 2x 3 = x2 and 2x = x2 equivalent by addition?

9.) Are the equations 2xy 3x2 = y 2 x y and xy 3x2 = y 2 x y

equivalent by multiplication?

10.) Are 5x2 5x + 10 = 20y 2 and x2 x + 2 = 4y 2 equivalent by multi-

plication?

We saw in this chapter that x2 +y 2 = 0 has a single solution, the point (0, 0).
In #11-14, let p(x, y) = x2 + y 2 and q(x, y) = 0, so that p(x, y) = q(x, y) is
an equation whose only solution is (0, 0).

11.) What is A(2,3) (0, 0)?

1 1
12.) What are p A(2,3) (x, y) and q A(2,3) (x, y)?

13.) What’s the only solution of the polynomial equation

1 1
p A(2,3) (x, y) = q A(2,3) (x, y)? (You can use POTS and #11 to answer this.)

14.) Use POTS and the polynomials p(x, y) = x2 + y 2 and q(x, y) = 0 (as
in #13) to write a polynomial equation in two variables that has only one
solution: the point (a, b) in the plane.

128
 loge (x) is the most common logarithm used in math. There are lots of
benefits to using logarithms base e, and these benefits will be explained in
calculus. Because of these benefits, some call logarithm base e the “natural
logarithm”, and they write it as ln(x). (Scientists often prefer to write ln(x).
Mathematicians often write loge (x) as log(x). To make matters more con-
fusing, if a calculator has a button for log(x), it probably means log10 (x).)
Because plenty of people write loge (x) as ln(x), we should practice seeing and
writing the logarithm base e in this way. Find the values asked for in #15-30.

15.) ln 1 (2) 16.) ln(e) 17.) ln(e2 ) 18.) ln(e3 )

19.) ln(e4 ) 20.) ln( 1e ) 21.) ln( e12 ) 22.) ln( e13 )
p p p
23.) ln( e) 24.) ln( 3 e) 25.) ln( 4 e) 26.) ln( p1e )

27.) ln( p31e ) 28.) ln( p41e ) 29.) ln(1) 30.) ln 1 (e)

Find the solutions of the following equations in one variable.

31.) ln(2x 3) = 0 32.) ln(3x 5) = 2 33.) 3 ln(7 x) 4= 5

129