PHYSICS

FORMULA HAND BOOK

 PHYSICS
1. Unit and Measurement ............................................................................................................................. 2
2. Motion in a Straight line ........................................................................................................................... 3
3. Motion in a Plane ...................................................................................................................................... 3
4. Laws of Motion ......................................................................................................................................... 4
5. Work Energy and Power ........................................................................................................................... 4
6. System of Particles and Rotational Motion .............................................................................................. 6
7. Gravitation .............................................................................................................................................. 11
8. Mechanical Properties of Solids .............................................................................................................. 12
9. Mechanical Properties of Fluids .............................................................................................................. 13
10. Thermal properties of Matter ............................................................................................................... 14
11. Thermodynamics................................................................................................................................... 15
12. Kinetic Theory of gases ......................................................................................................................... 16
13. Oscillations ............................................................................................................................................ 18
14. Waves .................................................................................................................................................... 20
15. Electric Charges and Fields.................................................................................................................... 22
16. Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance ............................................................................................... 24
17. Current Electricity ................................................................................................................................. 27
18. Moving Charges and Magnetic Field ..................................................................................................... 28
19. Magnetism and Matter ......................................................................................................................... 30
20. Electromagnetic Induction .................................................................................................................... 32
21. Electromagnetic Waves ........................................................................................................................ 33
22. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments...................................................................................................... 34
23. Wave Optics .......................................................................................................................................... 36
24. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter ................................................................................................... 37
25. Atoms .................................................................................................................................................... 38
26. Nuclei .................................................................................................................................................... 38
27. Semiconductor Electronics ................................................................................................................... 39
28. Communication System ........................................................................................................................ 39

1
 1. UNIT AND MEASUREMENT
 Fundamental Units :

Sr. No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

1 Length Metre m
2 Mass Kilogram Kg
3 Time Second S
4 Electric Current Ampere A
5 Temperature Kelvin K
6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
7 Amount of Substance Mole mol

 Supplementary Units :

Sr. No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

1. Plane Angle Radian r
2 Solid Angle Steradian Sr

Basis
(1). Distance of an object by parallax method, D 
Parallax angle

(2). Absolute error = True value – Measured value  [ an ]

(3). True value = Arithmetic mean of the measured values

a1  a2  ....  an
amean 
n
amean
(4). Relative error in the measurement of a quantity 
amean

amean
(5). Percentage error   100
amean

(6). Maximum permissible error in addition or subtraction of two quantities (A  A) and (B  B) :
 A  B

ap  bq z a b C
(7). When z  , then maximum relative in z is p q r
r z a b C
c

2
 2. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

(1). For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement x, time
taken t, initial velocity v 0 , final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set of kinematic equations
of motions. These are

v  v 0  at

1
x  v 0t  at2
2

v 2  v 02  2ax

The above equations are the equations of motion for particle. If the position of the particle at t = 0 is 0.
If the particle starts at x  x0 i.e. if it is at x 0 at t = 0, then in the above equation x is replaced by
(x  x0 ) .

(2). The relative velocity of an object moving with velocity v A w.r.t. an object B moving with velocity vB
is given by

v AB  v A  vB

3. MOTION IN A PLANE

(1). Law of cosines, if R  P  Q then R  P2  Q2  2PQ cos 

Here,   angle between P and Q

Q cos 
(2). Direction of R  tan   :   angle between R and P
P  Q sin 

(3). Position of an object at time t, if it is initially at r0 , having initial velocity v0 and moving with constant
acceleration a , is

3
 1
r  r0  v 0t  a2
2

4. LAWS OF MOTION

dp dv dm dv
(1). Force: F  m v , when m is constant F  m  ma
dt dt dt dt
(2). Conservation of linear momentum:  pi   p j

(3). For motion of a car on level road maximum safest velocity is v max  sRg

 (s  tan ) 
(4). For motion of a car on banked road maximum safest velocity is v max  Rg 
 1  s tan  

1 v2
Angle of banking:   tan
rg

5. WORK ENERGY AND POWER

(1). The work-energy theorem states that for conservative forces acting on the body, the change in
kinetic energy of a body equal to the net work done by the net force on the body.

K f  Ki  Wnet

Where Ki and Kf are initial and final kinetic energies and Wnet is the net work done.

4
(2). For a conservative force in one dimension, Potential energy function V(x) is defined such that
dV(x)
F(x)  
dx
(3). Average power of a force is defined as the ratio of the work, W, to the total time t taken.

W
 Pav 
t
(4). The instantaneous power is defined as the limiting value of the average power as time interval
dW
approaches zero. P 
dt
Power can also be expressed as

dr
P  F  Fv here, dr is displacement vector.
dt
(5). Work done by Constant Force :

W  FS

(6). Work done by multiple forces

 F  F1  F2  F3  .....

W  [F]  S …i

W  F1  S  F2  S  F3  S  ........

Or W  W1  W2  W3  .....

(7). Work done by A variable force

dW  F  ds

(8). Relation between momentum and kinetic energy

P2
K and P  2 m K ; P  Linear momentum
2m

(9). Potential energy

U2 r2 r2

 dU    F  dr i.e., U2  U1   F  dr  W
U1 r1 r1

r
U    F  dr  W


5
(10). Conservative Forces

U
F
r

(11). Work-Energy theorem

WC  WNC  WPS  K

(12). Modified Form of work-Energy Theorem

WC  U

WNC  WPS  K  U

WNC  WPS  E

(12). Power

W
The average power (P or Pav ) delivered by an agent is given by P or pav 
t

F  dS dS
P F  Fv
dt dt

6. SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

(1). According to the theorem of perpendicular axes moment of inertia of a body about perpendicular
axis is Iz  Ix  I y'

Where Ix ,I y ,Iz , are the moment of inertia of the rigid body about x, y and z axes respectively x and y
axes lie in the plane of the body and z-axis lies perpendicular to the plane of the body and passes
through the point of intersection of x and y.

(2). According to the theorem of parallel axes I  IC  Mdc

Where IC is the moment of inertia of the body about an axis passing through its centre of mass and d is
the perpendicular distance between the two axes.

Table 1: Moment of inertia of some symmetrical bodies

6
 Body Axis Figure M.I.

(1) Rod (Length L) Perpendicular to rod, at the ML2

midpoint centre of mass
12

(2) Circular ring (radius R) Passing through centre and MR2

perpendicular the plane

(3) Circular ring (Radius Diameter MR 2

R)
2

(4) Circular Disc (radius R) Perpendicular to the disc at MR 2

centre
2

(5) Circular Disc (radius R) Diameter MR 2

4

(6) Hollow cylinder Axis of cylinder MR2

(radius R)

(7) Solid cylinder (radius Axis of cylinder MR 2

R)
2

(8) Solid sphere (radius R) Diameter 2

MR 2
5

7
(9) Hollow sphere (radius Diameter 2
R) MR 2
3

(3). Relation between moment of inertia (I) and angular momentum L is given by L  l 

(4). Relation between moment of inertia (I) and kinetic energy of rotation is given by

1
K.E.rotation  l2
2
(5). Relation between of inertia (l) and torque ( )    l

(6). If no external torque acts on the system, the total angular momentum of the system remains
unchanged l11  l22

(7). Position vector of centre of mass of a discrete particle system

n

m1 r1  m2 r2  ......  mn rn  mi ri
i1
rCM  
m1  m2  ......  mn n
 mi
i1

Where mi is the mass of the ith particle and r1 is the position of the ith particle corresponding
xCM  y CM and z CM co-ordinates are

n n n
 mn
i i  mi y i  mizi
l1 i1 i1
xCM  n
, y CM  n
, z CM  n
 mi  mi  mi
i1 i1 i1

n
 miv i
(8). Velocity of centre of mass, v CM  i1
 mi

n
 miai
(9). Acceleration of CM, aCM  i1
n
 mi
i1

8
 n 
(10). Momentum of system, P  P1  P2  .....  Pn    mi  v CM
 i1 
 
(11). Centre of mass of continuous mass distribution

rCM 
 dmre , xCM 
 x dm , y CM 
 y dm , z CM 
 zdm
dm  dm  dm  dm

(12). Given below are the positions of centre of mass of some commonly used objects.

S.No. Object Location of centre of mass

i. L
x CM  , y  0 , zCM  0
2 CM

ii. 2R
xCM  0 , y CM  , zCM  0


iii. 4R
xCM  0 , y CM  ,z 0
3 CM

iv. 2R 2R
xCM  , y CM  , zCM  0
 

9
v. 4R 4R
xCM  , y CM  ,z 0
3 3 CM

vi. R
xCM  0 , y CM  ,z 0
2 CM

vii. 3R
xCM  0 , y CM  , zCM  0
8

(13). Head-on collision

Velocity of bodies m1 ,m2 after collision are

 m  em2  m2 (1  e)  m  em1  m1 (1  e)
v1   1  u1  u2 ; v 2   2  u2  u
 m1  m2  m1  m2  m1  m2  m1  m2 1

Here e is coefficient of restitution.

1 m1m2
Loss in kinetic energy, KE  (u  u2 )2 (1  e2 )
2 m1  m2 1

(14). For elastic collision KE  0 and e = 1, then velocities after collision are

 m  m2   2m2   m  m1  2m1
v1   1  u1    u2 ; v 2   2  u2  u
 m1  m2   m1  m2   m1  m2  m1  m2 1

(15). For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0, then velocities after collision are

10
 m1u1  m2u2 1 m1m2
v1  v 2  and loss in kinetic energy is KE  (u1  u2 )2
m1  m2 2 m1  m2

7. GRAVITATION

Gm1m2
(1). Ne to s u i e sal la of g a itatio F 
r2

Gm1m2
In vector form, F   (r )
r2

dA L
(2). According to Keple s IInd law 
dt 2m

4 2 3
(3). A o di g to Keple s IIIrd law T 
2
R  T2  R 3
GM
Where, T = Time period of revolution, and R = Semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.

Gm1m2
Ne to s u i e sal la of gravitation F 
r2
GMe
. A ele atio due to g a it g is g 
R 2e

2
 R 
(5). Variation of g at altitude h is gh  g  e 
Re  h 

 2h 
If h < < R then, gh  g 1  
 Re 

 d
(6). Variation of g at depth d is gd  g 1  
 Re 

11
 1 1
(7). Gravitational potential energy U  WAB  GMm   
 r2 r1 

GMm
If, r1  , r2  r  U  
r

8. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

gL2 MgL
(1). Elongation produced in rod of length ‘L’ due to its own weight is L  
2Y 2AY
(2). Thermal Stress Y  

1
(3). Elastic potential energy density U  (stress)  (strain)
2

P 1
(4). Bulk modulus, B  V (5). Compressibility 
V B

r 4 r / r
(6). Restoring couple per unit twist  (7).   
2 L / L

9BS
(8). Relation between Y,B,S  Y  (9). Relation between Y,B,  , Y  3B(1  2)
3B  S

3B  2S
(10). Relation between Y,S Y  2S(1  ) (11). Poisso s ‘atio  
6B  2S

Wt3
(12). Depression at the middle of a beam y 
4Ybd3

Fh 2S(1  )
(13) Sheer Modulus S  (14) Relation between B,S, , B 
Ax 3(1  2)

12
 9. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

substance
(1). Relative density of a substance rel 
water at 4o C

(2). Gauge pressure Pg  gh

(3). Apparent weight of a body of density  in a fluid of density 

 
W '  W  1   , W = weight of the body in air
 

(4). Equation of continuity Av = constant

Here, A = cross-sectional area of pipe and v = fluid velocity

. Be oulli s e uatio : At any point in a streamline flow

1
P  gh  v 2  constant
2
Here, P= pressure, v = fluid velocity and  is density.

F
(6). Coefficient Of viscosity  
vA
Here, F = Viscous force, = Separation between two lamina, A = Area of each lamina and v = Relative
velocity of two lamina

(7). According to Stokes la F  6av

Here, a = radius a ball or drop and v = velocity of ball or drop

2a2
(8). Formula for Terminal velocity is v T  (  )g
9

Where,  = density of falling body,  = density of fluid and  = coefficient of viscosity

vd
(9). Reynolds number. R e  where, d = diameter of the pipe


2S
(10). Excess pressure inside a liquid drop or a cavity of radius R is  Pi  P0  where S is surface
R
tension

13
 4S
(11). Excess pressure inside an air bubble is Pi  P0 
R

2S cos 
(12). Height of a liquid in a capillary tube is h 
rg

Where,  = angle of contact,  = density of the liquid and g = acceleration due to gravity

10. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

(1). Conversion of temperature from one scale to other.

5 9
(a) From C  F tC  (tF  32), & tF  tC  32
9 5

(b) From C  K T  tC  273.15, & tC  T  273.15

9 5
(c) ) From F  K tF  T  459.67, & T  tF  255.37
5 9

Where T, tC , tF , stand for temperature reading on Kelvin scale, Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale
respectively.

(2).   2,   3 (Relation between  , ,  )

kA(T1  T2 )t
(3). (a) Q 
x
Where Q is the amount of heat that flows in time t across the opposite faces of a rod of length x and
cross-section A. T1 and T2 are the temperatures of the faces in the steady state and k is the coefficient of
thermal conductivity of the material of the rod.

 dT  dT
(b) Q  kA  t Where represents the temperature gradient.
 dx  dx

14
 dQ  dT 
(c) H   kA   H is called the heat current.
dt  dx 

Q1
(4). (a) Coefficient of reflectivity is r 
Q

Q2
(b) Coefficient of absorptivity a 
Q

Q3
(c)Coefficient of transitivity t 
Q
Where Q1 is the radiant energy reflected, Q2 is the radiant energy absorbed and Q3 is the radiant energy
transmitted through a surface on which Q is the incident radiant energy

(T1  T0 )
(5). (a) ln  Kt
(T2  T0 )

(T1  T2 ) T T 
(b)  K  1 2  T0 
t  2 
The a o e t o e uatio s ep ese ts Ne to s la of ooli g. He e, t is the ti e take a ody to cool
from T1 to T2 in a surrounding at temperature T0.

11. THERMODYNAMICS

(1). First law of thermodynamics Q  U  W

(2). Work done, W  PV

 Q  U  PV

(3). Relation between specific heats for a gas Cp  Cr  R

. Fo isothe al p o ess, i a o di g to Bo le s la PV = constant

According to Charles law (For volume) V  T constant and Charles law (for pressure) P  T

15
 V2 V
And (ii) Work done is W  RT ln  2.303 RT log 2
V1 V1

Cp
. Fo adia ati p o ess, i A o di g to Bo le s la PV  = constant Where,  
Cv

P1V1  P2V2 R  T1  T2 
And (ii) Work done is W  
 1  1
(6). Slope of adiabatic =  (slope of isotherm)

(7). For Carnot engine,

Q2 T  Q1 T1 
(i) Efficiency of engine is   1  1 2   
Q1 T  Q2 T2 

W
(ii) And work done is W  Q1  Q2  
Q1

(8). For Refrigerator

Q2 Q 1
(i) Coefficient of performance is    2  
Q1  Q2 W 

Q1 Q1 1
(9). For Heat pump r  
W Q1  Q2 

12. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

(1). Ideal gas equation is PV  RT where  is number of moles and R is gas constant

1 mM 2
Pressure exerted by ideal gas on container is P  v
3 V

16
 3kBT 8KBT
(2) R.M.S. velocity vrms  (3). Average velocity v av 
m m

2KBT
(4). Most probable velocity vmp 
m

1
(5). Mean free path ( ) 
2nd2
Where n = number density and d = diameter of molecule

Table 2: Some important points about molecules of gas

S.No. Atomicity No. of Cp Cv CP

degree of 
Cv
freedom
1. Monoatomic 3 5 3 5
R R
2 2 3
2 Diatomic 5 7 5 7
R R
2 2 5
3. Linear molecule (Triatomic) 7 7 5 7
R R
2 2 5
4. Non-linear molecule (Triatomic) 6 4R 3R 4
3

n1Cv  n2Cv
(6). For mixture of gas, molar specific heat at constant volume is given by Cv(mix)  1 2
n1  n2

Where n1 and n2 are number of moles of two gases mixed together C v and C v are molar specific
1 2
heat at constant volume of 2 gas.

(7) For mixture of gases with n1 ,& n2 moles the following relation holds true.

n1  n2 n n
 1  2
 1 1  1  2  1

17
 13. OSCILLATIONS

(1) Displacement equation for SHM x  A sin (t  ) Or

x  A cos[t  ] 
where A is amplitude and t    is phase of the wave

(2). Velocity in SHM v  A cos t and v   A  x

2 2

(3). Acceleration in SHM is a   A sin t and a   x

2 2

(4). Energy in SHM is

1 1
(i) Potential energy U  m2x2 (ii) Kinetic energy K  m2 (A2  x2 )
2 2

1
(iii) Total energy E  m2A2
2
(5). For Simple pendulum

L 1
(i) Time period of pendulum is T  2 (ii) If L is large T  2
g 1 1 
g  
L R 

T 1 L L
(iii)  (iv) Accelerated pendulum T  2
T 2 L ga

l
(6). For torsional pendulum, time period of oscillation is T  2 ; where I is moment of inertia
k

l
(7). For physical pendulum, time period of oscillation is T  2 ; where l is moment of inertia of
mgd
body about axis passing through hinge and, d : Distance of centre of mass from hinge

(8). Damped simple harmonic motion

18
 d2x dx
(i) Force action on oscillation body is m   kx  b
2 dt
dt

u/2m k b2
(ii) Equation of motion is x  Ae cos('t  ) Where  '  
m 4m2

(9). Forced oscillator

md2x
(i) Force acting on body is  kx  bv  F0 sin t
dt2

F
(ii) Equation of motion is x  A sin [wt  ] Where A 
2
 b 
m (
2
 20 )2  
m

. Supe positio of T o SHM s

(i) In same direction

x1  A1 sin t and x2  A2 sin (t  )

Resultant amplitude is Ar  A12  A22  2A1A2 cos 

(ii) In perpendicular direction

x1  A1 sin t and y1  A2 sin(t  )

(a) Resultant motion is SHM along straight line, if   0 or   


(b) Resultant motion is circular, if   and A1  A2
2


(c) Resultant motion is an (light) elliptical path, if   and A1  A2
2

19
 14. WAVES

(1). Equation of a plane progressive harmonic wave travelling along positive direction of X-axis is

y(x, t)  a sin (kx  t  )

And along negative direction of X-axis is y(x, t)  a sin(kx  t  )

Where, y(x,t)  Displacement as a function of position x and time t,

a  Amplitude of the wave,   Angular frequency of the wave,

k  Angular wave number, (kx  t  )  Phase,

And   Phase constant or initial phase angle

2
(2). Angular wave number or propagation constant (k) k


 
(3). Speed of a progressive wave v   f
k T

(4) Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string

T
v where, T  Tension in the string, and   Mass per unit length


(5). Speed of sound wave in a fluid

B
v where, B  Bulk modulus, and   density of medium


(6). Speed of sound wave in metallic bar

Y
v he e, Y = ou g s odulus of elasti it of etalli a


. Speed of sou d i ai o gases Ne to s fo mula (connected)]

v
v where, P  Pressure,   Density of air (or gas) and   Atomicity of air (or gas)


20
 v2 1
(8). The effect of density on velocity of sound 
v1 2

v1 T 273  t
(9). The effect of temperature on velocity of sound  
v0 T0 273

(10). If two waves having the same amplitude and frequency, but differing by a constant phase  , travel
in the same direction, the wave resulting from their superposition is given by

   
y(x,t)  2a cos  sin  kx  t  
 2  2

(11). If we have a wave

y1 (x,t)  a sin(kx  t) then,

(i) Equation of wave reflected at a rigid boundary

yr (x,t)  a sin(kx  t  ) Or yr (x, t)  a sin (kx  t)

i.e. the reflected wave is 180o out of phase.

(ii) Equation of wave reflected at an open boundary yr (x, t)  a sin(kx  t)

i.e. the reflected wave is a phase with the incident wave.

(12). Equation of a standing wave on a string with fixed ends y(x,t)  [2a sin kx]cos t

nv
Frequency of normal modes of oscillation f n  1,2,3.....
2L

(13). Standing waves in a closed organ pipe (closed at one end) of length L.

 1 v
Frequency of normal modes of oscillation. f  n   n  1,2....
 2  2L

 fn  (2n  1)f1

Where fn is the frequency of nth normal mode of oscillation. Only odd harmonics are present in a closed
pipe.

(14). Standing waves in an open organ pipe (open at both ends)

nv
Frequency of normal modes of oscillation f n  1,2,3....
2L

 fn  nf1

21
Where fn is frequency of nth normal mode of oscillation.

(15). Beat frequency (m)

m  Difference in frequencies of two sources

m  (v1  v2 ) or (v2  v1 )

 v  v0 
. Dopple s effe t f  f0  
 v  v s 

Where, f  Observed frequency, f0  Source frequency,

v  Speed of sound through the medium, v 0  Velocity of observer relative to the medium

and vs  Source velocity relative to the medium

 In using this formula, velocities in the directions (i.e. from observer to the source) should be treated
as positive and those opposite to it should be taken as negative.

15. ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

q1q2
(1). Electric force between two charges is given by F 
40R2

q2
And F  q1E where E  is the electric field due to charge q2
4 0R 2

q1 q2  1 1 
(2) Electric potential energy for system of two charges is U  W    
4 0  r1 r2 

q1 q2
For r2   , U
4 0r1

22
 U
(3) Electrostatic potential is V 
q

(4). Electric field on the axis of a dipole of moment p  2aQ at a distance R from the centre is
2Rp 2p
E . If R > > a then E 
4 0 (R 2  a2 )2 4 0R 3

(5). Electric field on the equatorial line of the dipole at a distance R from the centre is

p p
E . If R > > a then E 
3
4 0R 2
4 0 (R  a )
2 2 2

(6). Torque  experienced by a short dipole kept in uniform external electric field E is
  p  E  pE sin 0 nˆ

(7). Perpendicular deflection of a charge q in a uniform electric field E after travelling a straight distance
qEx 2
x is y , where m is mass of the charge and v0 is initial speed of perpendicular entry in the electric
2mv 20
field.

(8). Electric flux E  E  S  ES cos  . Area vector S is perpendicular to the surface area.

Q
(9). Gauss law :  E  dS   . Here E is the electric field due to all the charges inside as well as outside
0
the Gaussian surface, while Q is the net charge enclosed inside Gaussian surface.

(10). Electric field due to infinitely long charged wire of linear charge density  at a perpendicular

distance R is E 
20R


(11). Electric field due to singal layer of surface charge density  is . Field due to oppositely
20

charged conducting plates is in between the gap but zero outside.
0

Q
(12). Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell of radius R is E  for outside points
4 0r 2
and zero inside (r is distance from the centre of shell)

23
 d Q  r
(13). Field due to a charge uniformly distributed in a spherical volume is E   r2  
dr  4  R 3  30
 0 
Q
for inside points and E  for outside point.
4 0r 2

3Q
Here   is volume charge density and Q is total charge inside the sphere.
4 R3

16. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

(1). Electric potential :

(a) Potential due to a conducting sphere of radius r with charge q (solid or hollow) at a distance r from
the centre

 1 q  1 q
V  if (r > R) or V  if (r = R)
 4   4 
 0 r  0 R

1 q
or V if (r < R)
4 0 R

v | v |
(b) Relation between electric field potential | E |  
 

(2). Electric dipole potential:

1  p cos  
(a) V   
4 0  r 2 

(b) Potential energy of a dipole in an external electric field

U()  P  E

24
(3). Capacitors :

A
Capacitance of a potential plate capacitor C  0
d

1 Q2 1 2
(4). Electric field energy : (a) U  QV   CV
2 2C 2

1
(b) Energy density of energy stored in electric field u  0E2
2
(5) Combination of capacitors :

1 1 1 1
(a) When capacitors are combined in series,     .....
Ceq C1 C2 C3

(b) When capacitors are connected in parallel. Ceq  C1  C2  C3  ......

(c) Capacitance of spherical capacitor,

ab
C  4 0 . (When outer shell is earthed). or
ba

b2
C  40 . (When inner shell is earthed) or
ba

C  40R (For a sphere of radius R)

20
(d) Cylindrical capacitor, C 
b
ln  
a
(6). Dielectrics :

 1 Dipole moment
(a) Induced charge, q'  q  1   (b) Polarization p 
 k Volume

Electric dipole moment is p  eE

e
 K 1 where e is electrical susceptibility, and K is dielectric constant.
0

25
26
 17. CURRENT ELECTRICITY

(1). Resistance of a uniform conductor of length L, area of cross-section A and resistivity  along its

length, R  
A

di 1
(2). Current density j  (3). Conductance G  .
ds R

eE i
i4) Drift velocity v d  t.  (5). Current i  neAv d
m neA

m 1
(6) Resistivity is    where  is resistivity.
ne2 t 

vd
(7) A o di g to Oh s la j  E and V  iR (8) Mobility of free electrons  
E

(9)   ne (10). Thermal resistivity of material is T  0 [1  (T  T0 )]

R
(11). Potential difference across a cell during discharging V    ir 
R r
(12). Potential difference across a cell during charging V    ir

n
(13) For n cells in series across load R, current through load i
R  nt

n
(14). For n identical cells in parallel across load R, current through load i 
nR  r
(15). Wheatstone bridge network

R1 R3
For balanced Wheatstone bridge 
R2 R4

(16). If unknown resistance X is in the left gap, known resistance R is in the right gap of meter bridge and
R
balancing length from left end is l then X 
100 
(17) Potentiometer

27
 1  
(i) Comparison of emf  1
(ii) Internal resistance of cell r   1
 1  R
2 
2  2 

18. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETIC FIELD

S.No. Situation Formula

1.
Lorentz force q[E  v  B]
2.
Condition for a charged particle to go undeflected in a cross E
electric and magnetic field 
B
3.
A charge particle thrown perpendicular to uniform magnetic (i) Circular
field
mv
(i) Path (ii) r 
qB
(ii) Radius
2m
(iii) Time period (iii) t 
qB
4.
A charge particle thrown at some angle to a uniform magnetic (i) Helix
field
mv sin 
(i) Path (ii) r 
qB
(ii) Radius
2m
(iii) Time period (iii) t 
qB
(iv) Pitch
(iv) T  v cos 

5.
Cyclotron frequency qB
f
2m
6.
Maximum kinetic energy of a charged particle in a cyclotron q2B2R 2
(With R as radius of dee) K
2m

28
7.
Force on a straight current carrying conductor in a uniform F  i( l  B)
magnetic field

8.
Force on a arbitrary shaped current carrying conductor in a F  i d  B  i  B
uniform magnetic field
9.
Magnetic moment of a current carrying loop Mi A
10.
Torque on a current carrying loop placed in a uniform magnetic   M B
field
11.
Biot-Savart Law 0i d  r
dB 
4 r3
12.
Magnetic field at a point distance x from the centre of a current 0iR 2
carrying circular loop
2(R 2  x 2 )3/2
13.
Magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying circular loop  0i
2R
14.
Magnetic field on the axis of a current carrying circular loop far 0 2M
away from the centre of the loop
4  x3
(Moment behaves as magnetic dipole)

15.
Magnetic field on the centre of current carrying circular arc 0 i

4 t
16.
A pe e s i ula la
 Bd  0i

17.
Magnetic field due to a long thin current carrying wire 0i
B
2r
18.
Magnetic field inside a long straight current carrying cylindrical 0 i
conductor at a distance r from the axis. B  r
2 R 2
19.
Magnetic field outside a long straight current carrying conductor 0 2i
at a distance r from the axis B 
4 r
20.
Magnetic field inside a long solenoid B  0ni

29
 21.
Magnetic field inside a toroid 0Ni
B
2r
22.
Force per unit length between two current carrying wire 0i1i2
F
2r
23.
Current sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer  NBA

i k
24.
Voltage sensitivity of moving galvanometer  NBA

V kR
25.
Shunt resistance required to convert galvanometer into G
ammeter of range i ( ig is the full scale deflected current of rg 
 i 
galvanometer)   1
 ig 
 
26.
Resistance required to convert galvanometer into voltmeter of V
range V R G
ig

19. MAGNETISM AND MATTER

(1). Bar magnet : The electrostatic Analog

Electrostatics Magnetism

1 Permittivity = 0
Permittivity =
0

Charge q Magnetic pole strength (qn)

Dipole Moment Magnetic Dipole Moment

p  ql M  qml

30
 q1q2 0 qm(1)qm(2)
F F
4 0r 2
4 t2

F  qE F  qmB

2p 0 2M
Axial Field E  B
4 0r 2 4  r3

p 0 M
Equatorial Field E  B
4 0r 2 4 r2

Torque   p  E   M B

Potential Energy U  p  E U  M  B

Work W  pE(cos 1  cos 2 ) W  MB(cos 1  cos 2 )

0 qm
(2). Field due to a magnetic monopole B   rˆ
4 r2
(3). B on the axial line or end on position of a bar magnet

0 2Mr  0 2M 
B  for r  l, B   
4  (r 2  l2 )2  4 r2 

(4). B on the equatorial line or broad side on position of a bar magnet

0 M  0 M 
B  for r  l, B   
4  (r  l2 )3/2
2
 4 r3 


(5). Time period angular SHM T  2 here  is moment of inertia.
MB

. Gauss s la i ag etis  B  ds  0
Bv
(7). Fo ho izo tal a d e ti al o po e t of ea th s ag eti field,  tan 
BH

31
 tan 
(8). tan 1 
'
(9). cot2   cot2 1  cot2 2
cos 

B B 
(10). Magnetic intensity is H   (11). Relative magnetic permittivity is r 
0  0

M 1
(12). Magnetic Susceptibility m  (13). r  1  m (14).  
H (T  Tc )

20. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

    
(1). Average induced emf e    2 1 
t  t2  t1 

d(t)
(2). Instantaneous induced emf e(t)  
dt

(3). Motional emf  B v   

(4). Motional emf e  de  (v  B)dl  (v  B) j

d

(5). E  dl  
dt B
[ E  electric (induced) field, B  Magnetic flux]

(6). B  Li  L  self inductance of the coil

di
(7). Induced emf e  L (8). L  0rn2  A  i Where L coefficient of self-inductance
dt

di1
(9). 2  Mi1 and 2  M Where M is co efficient of mutual inductance
dt

(10). The emf induced (in dynamo) e(t)  BA sin t  

(11). Mutual inductance M  01n1n2Ai

32
 21. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

dE d  E  ds CdV
(1). Displacement current lD  0  0 
dt dt dt
. Ma ell s E uatio :

q
(a)  E  ds   (b)  B  ds  0
0

d d  dE 
(c)  E  dl   dt B  dt  B  ds (d)  B  dl  0  lc  0 dt 


(3). Ey  E0 sin(t  kx) and B2  B0 sin (t  kx)

1 1
c vacuum  ; cmedium 
0 0 r0r 0

E ERMS E
(4).   c
B0 BRMS B

(5). Average of wave lav = Average energy density  (speed of light)

E0B0 E2 cB2
Of lav  Uav    0  0
20 2c0 20

1  2 B2  B2
(6). Instantaneous energy density uav   0E    0E 
2
2 0  0

1 B20 0E02 B02

Average energy density uav  0E0 
2
 
4 40 2 20

(7). Energy = (momentum), c or U  Pc

I0
(8). Radiation pressure R.P.  where I0 is intensity of source (when the wave is totally absorbed)
c

2I0
And R.P.  (when the wave is totally reflected)
c
33
 1 1
(9). I  (for a point source) and I (for a line source)
t2 r
For a plane source intensity is independent of r.

22. RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

(1). The distance between the pole and centre of curvature of the mirror called radius of curvature
R
f
2

1 1 1
(2). Mirror equation   (u is Object distance, v is Image distance and f Focal length)
v u f

size of image image distance v

(3). Linear magnification m   
size of object Object distance u

2 1 2  1
(4). In case of lens  
v u R

(R= Radius of curvature , 1 and 2 are refractive indices of medium)

1 1 1
(5). Relationship between u, v and focal length f is   in case lens.
v u f
(6). Longitudinal magnification = (Lateral magnification)2

(7) Equivalent lens

1 1 1 1 1 1 d
(i) Lens in contact   (ii) Lens at a distance d,   
F f1 f2 F f1 f2 f1f2

(8). Reciprocal of focal length is called as power of lens.

1 100
P 
f(in metres) f(in cm)

34
 1 2
(9). For achromatic combination of two lens  0
f1 f2

 A  m 
sin  
(10). Refractive index of material of prism    2  (m ) Minimum deviation angle
A
sin  
2
(11). For small-angled prism d  (  1)A

(where A= Angle of prism and B= Deviation angle)

(12). Dispersive power of prism for two colors (blue and red)

   R    v  R 
 v  
 d    1 
(13). For simple microscope,

D
(a) Magnification m  1  (Where D= Least distance of distinct vision. and f= Focal length)
f

D
(b) M  for image to form at infinity
f
(14). For compound microscope.

vO  ve 
Magnification of objective MO  and Magnification of eye piece Me   1  
uO  fe 


vo  D 
(a) m  mome  1   for least distance of distinct vision.
ue  fe 

L D
(b) m   for image to form at infinite.
fo fe

fo
(15). Magnifying power of telescope m  and length of telescope  L  fe  fo
fe

35
 23. WAVE OPTICS

sin i 2 v1 1
(1).    S ell s la
sin t 1 v 2 2

max ( 1   2 )2
(2). Ratio of maximum to minimum intensity 
min ( 1  2 )2

D
(3). (a) Fringe width   (b) Condition of maxima   2n where n  0, 1, 2..
d
(c) Condition of minima   (2n  1) where n  0, 1, 2..


(d) Intensity of any point of screen I  40 cos
2
2

2
Where   x is phase difference and x is path difference


v v 
. Dopple s effe t fo light   radial  
v c 

2 sin 
(5). Resolving power of microscope 
1.22 

1.22 f
(6). Radius of central bright spot in diffraction pattern r0 
2a

a2
(7). Fresnel distance Z f  (8) Malus law   0 cos2 


9 B e ste s la tan iB  

36
 24. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

1
. Ei stei s photoele t i ell e uatio , mv 2  hf  hf0
2 max

Where f,f0 are frequencies of incident radiation.

hc
(2). Work function and threshold frequency or threshold wavelength, 0  hf0 
0

hc E h
(3). Energy of photon, E  hf  (4). Momentum of photon, P  
 c 

h
(5). De Broglie wavelength of a material particle,  
mv
(6). De Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through a potential V volt,
o
12.27 1.227
 A nm
V V

h
(7). de Broglie wavelength of a particle in terms of temperature (T),  
3mkT

h
(8). de Broglie wavelength in terms of energy of a particle (E),  
2mE

37
 25. ATOMS
Rutherford’s Model

e2
Distance of closest approach r0  where E is the energy of  -particle at a large distance.
4 0E

Bohr’s Model of hydroge ato

0h2n2
Postulates: (i) Radius of nth orbit, rn 
me2

nh  me 4  1 13.6
(ii) Orbital speed, Vn  (iii) Energy of nth orbit, En      2 eV
2mrn  82h2  n2 n
 0 

(iv) TE   KE (v) PE  2TE

1 1 1 me 4
‘ d e g s o sta t R 2  2 and R
  n1 n2  820h3c

26. NUCLEI

(1). Nuclear radius (R) is given by R  R0A1/3 Here R0  1.2  1015m .

(2). Density of all nuclei is constant.

(3). Total binding energy  [Z mp  (A  Z)mn  M]c J

2

(4). Av. BE/nucleon = Total B.E/A

dN
(5). Radioactivity decay law  N  N  N0et
dt

0.6931 1
(6). Half life T1/2  (7). Average or mean life is Tav   1.44 T1/2 .
 

38
 27. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
 Intrinsic semiconductors : ne  nh  ni

Extrinsic semiconductors: nenh  ni2

 Transistors : e  b  c  E  b  c
 Common emitter amplifier :
c    c
(i)   ; ac   c  . (ii) Trans-conductance gm 
b    Vi
 b  vdE
Rout
(iii) AC voltage gain  ac  (iv) Power gain = voltage gain  Current gain
Rin
 Logic Gates
For input X and Y , output Z be given by Z XY
OR gate Z  XY AND gate ZX
NOR gate Z  (X  Y) NAND gate Z  (XY)
NOT gate Z  X or Z  Y
when either X or Y is present.

28. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(1). The maximum line of sight distance dM between the two antennas having height hT and hR , above

the earth, is given by dM  2RhT  2RhR

Am
(2). Modulation index   where Am and Ac are the amplitudes of modulating signal and carrier
Ae
wave.

 2 
(3). In amplitude modulation P1  P2 1  
 2 

(4). Maximum frequency can be reflected from ionosphere fmax  9(Nmax )1/2

1
(5). Maximum modulated frequency can be detected by diode detector fm 
2R

39
CHEMISTRY
FORMULA HAND BOOK
 Chemistry
1. Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry ........................................................................................................... 2
2. Structure of Atom ..................................................................................................................................... 3
3. State of Matter.......................................................................................................................................... 5
4. Thermodynamics....................................................................................................................................... 6
5. Equilibrium ................................................................................................................................................ 7
6. Solid State ................................................................................................................................................. 9
7. Solutions.................................................................................................................................................. 10
8. Electrochemistry ..................................................................................................................................... 13
9. Chemical Kinetics and Nuclear Chemistry............................................................................................... 16
10. Surface Chemistry ................................................................................................................................. 19
11. Hydrogen............................................................................................................................................... 20
12. S-Block Elements ................................................................................................................................... 20
13. P-Block Elements................................................................................................................................... 21
14. Coordination Compound....................................................................................................................... 22
15. Organic Chemistry ................................................................................................................................. 22
16. Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers ................................................................................................................ 24
17. Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids............................................................................................. 36
18. Amines .................................................................................................................................................. 47
19. Haloalkanes and Haloarenes ................................................................................................................. 58
20. Hydrocarbons ........................................................................................................................................ 64
21. Polymers ............................................................................................................................................... 74

1
 1. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

W(g)  NA
(1). Number of molecules in W(g) of substance 
GMM

(2). Molality (m) = No. of moles of solute

Mass of solvent in kg

VNA
(3). Number of molecules in V litre of gas at S.T.P. 
22.4

W(g)
(4). Number of gram atoms = (GAM  gram atomic mass)
GAM

W(g)
(5). Number of gram molecules =
Gram molecular mass

(6). Dilution formula : M1 V1  M2 V2

For mixing two solutions of the same substance

M1 V1  M2 V2  M3 (V1  V2 )

Molarity can be directly calculated from % by mass (w/w) if density is known

%  10  d
Molarity 
GMM

(7). Mass of 1 atom of element  GAM

NA

(8). Mass of 1 molecule of substance  MM (MM Molar mass)

NA

(9). T(K)  T(o C)  273.15

Mass of an atom of the element

(10). Relative atomic mass =
1
 Mass of an atom of carbon (C-12)
12

(11). Number of molecules in n moles of substance  n  NA

(12). Mass % of an element in a compound  Mass of that element in 1 mole of the compound  100
Molar mass of the compount

Mass of solute
(13). Mass percent   100
Mass of solution

2
 XB molality  MA
(14).  where MA - mass of solvent
1  XB 1000

No. of moles of solute

(15). Molarity (M)  mole / L
Volume of solution in lit res

(16). A ogad o s No. NA  6.022  10

23

9 o
(17). T(o F)  T( C)  32
5

(18). Molecular mass  2  vapour density

No. of moles of A
(19). Mole fraction of A 
No. of moles of solution

2. STRUCTURE OF ATOM

(1). Wavelength of matter wave

h

mv
h

p
h

2Em

Where, E = Kinetic energy

(2). Total number of nodes = n – 1

Radial nodes = n – l – 1

Angular nodes = l

(3). Number of neutrons = A – Z

(4). Number of subshells in nth shell = n

Number of orbitals in nth shell = n2

3
Number of electrons in nth shell = 2n2

Number of orbitals in subshell = 2l + 1

Number of electrons in subshell = 2 (2l + 1)

(5). Energy of quantum of radiation accordi g to Pla k s ua tu theo

E  hv

(6). 1
hv  hv 0  me v 2
2

Ei stei s photoele t i e uatio .

(7). Line spectrum of hydrogen

 1 1  1
v  109677    cm1 where v is wave number and v  .
n 2
n2  
 1 2 

Where n1  1, 2,.....

n2  n1  1, n1  2, .....

(8). Bohr’s odel of hydroge ato

E
(a) Frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted during transition ; v 
h

E2  E1
v
h

E1 = Energy of lower energy state

E2 = Energy of higher energy state.

h
(b) Orbit angular momentum of an electron, me vr  n 
2
Where, = , , ,…..

(c) Energy of stationary states  Z2 

En  2.18  1018  J
 n2 
 

 n2 
(d) Radii of the stationary states/orbits rn  52.9    pm
 Z 
 

4
  1 1 
(9). Energy gap between the two orbits E  R H   
n 2
n2f 
 i
18
Where RH  2.18  10

Where, ni  initial orbit

nf  final orbit

(10). Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

= Number of electrons in a neutral atom

. Heise e g s u ertainty principle

h h
x   p  ; x  m v 
4 4

(12). Speed of light is equal to the product of frequency and wavelength of light

c  v

(13). Mass Number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

3. STATE OF MATTER

 an2 
(1). Van der Waals Equation :  P   (V  nb)  nRT
 V2 

P1 V1 P2 V2
(2). Combined Gas Equation :  ; (n, R constant)
T1 T2

(3). Dalto ’s La of partial pressures : PTotal  P1  P2  P3  ....

(4) Ideal gas equation : PV = nRT

5
 dRT
M
P

V1 V2
(5) Charles’s La :  (at constant P and n)
T1 T2

(6). A ogadro’s La : V = kn (at constant P and T)

(7). Partial Pressure in Terms of Mole Fraction : Pi  xi Ptotal

(8). Boyle’s La : P1 V1  P2 V2 (at constant T and n)

PV
(9). Compressibility factor Z  (for 1 mole of Gas)
RT

4. THERMODYNAMICS

 First law of thermodynamics

U  q  W

 Enthalpy of reaction
H  iHo (products)  iHo (reactants)
By convention heat of formation of every element in its standard state is arbitrarily assumed to
be zero.
subHo  fusHo   vapHo

q
 Heat Capacity Specific heat capacity cs 
m T
q q
C molar heat capacity cm 
T nT

 Energy changes qv  heat exchange at constant volume

U  qv , H  qp qp  heat exchange at constant pressure

6
  Enthalpy
H  U  pV

 Relation between  H and  U

H  U  pV Or
H  U  ngRT

 Cp  Cv  R
qrev
S 
T
G  H  TS
Go  RT In K
Atomicity  Cp Cv
Monoatomic 5/3 5R/2 3R/2
Diatomic 7/5 7R/2 5R/2
Triatomic non linear 4/3 4R 3R

5. EQUILIBRIUM

(1). K w  Ka  Kb

 
(2). Ki  [A ][B ]
[AB]

(3). Ksp  [A y  ]x [Bx ]y

(4). G  2.303 RT log K

o

[A  ][H3 O ]
(5). K a 
[HA]

[B  ][OH ]
Kb 
[BOH]

7
(6). K w  H  OH   1016 at 25o C
  


(7). pH   log [H ]

(8). pKw  pH  pOH  14 at 25 C

o

(9). Kp  K c (RT)n

(10). Hydrolysis of salts

(i) For a salt of strong acid and weak base

1
pH  [pK w  pK b  log c]
2

(ii) for a salt of weak acid and strong base

1
pH  [pK w  pK a  log c]
2

(iii) For salts of weak acid and weak base

1
pH  [pK w  pK a  pK b ]
2

Ka
(11). Equilibrium constant, K eq 
Kb

(12). K a or K b  c
2

[C]c [D]d
(13). Concentration quotient, Q 
[A]a [B]b

8
 6. SOLID STATE

(1). Density of Cubic Crystal System

Z M
 (or d)  g.cm3
a  NA
3

Where, Z  number of atoms per unit cell

NA  Avogadro's Number

M  Gram atomic weight of element (g. mol-1 )

a  edge  length

(2). Radius-ratio in ionic solids

Voids Triangular Tetrahedral Octahedral Cubical

Radius-ratio r r r r
0.155   0.225 0.255   0.414 0.414   0.732 0.732   0.999
r r r r

(3).

Crystal Radius of atom (r) No. of atoms per unit cell p.f.
Simple cubic a 1 52.4 %
2
F.C.C. a 2 74 %
2 2
B.C.C 3 2 68 %
a
4

(4). Packing Fraction (p.f.) = Volume occupied by particles (per unit cell)
Volume of unit cell

1
Contribution of each atom present on the corner =
8

1
Contribution of each atom present on the centre of face =
2

Contribution of each atom present on the body centre = 1

9
 1
Contribution of each atom present on the edge centre =
4

(5). Seven crystal system with dimensions :

(a) Cubic :       90 , a  b  c
o

(b) Tetragonal :       90 , a  b  c
o

(c) Orthorhombic :       90 ; a  b  c
o

(d) Monoclinic :     90 ;   90 ; a  b  c
o o

(e) Hexagonal :     90 ;   90 ; a  b  c
o o

(f) Rhombohedral or trigonal :       90 ; a  b  c

o

(g) Triclinic :       90 ; a  b  c
o

7. SOLUTIONS

(1). Depression in freezing point

Tf  K f  m

RT02 MART02
Kf  
1000 Ifusion 1000 Hfusion

(2) Dissociation of solute

(A)n  nA

1  (n  1)
i {  = degree of dissociation}
1

10
 PAo X A  PB0 XB 

(3). Psol 
0
Raoult's law
(PB  PA )XB  PA 
0 0


(4). Osmotic pressure

  CRT

For isotonic solution, 1  2

1 Y Y
(5)  A  B
Psol Po Po
A B

(6). Relative lowering of vapour pressure

PAo  P
 B { B = mole fraction of solute}
PAo

PA PB
(7) YA  ; YB 
PT PT

are mole fractions in vapour phase and PA  PA X A : PB  PB XB

o o
Where YA and YB

(8). Elevation of boiling point

Tb  Kb  m

RT02 MA RT02
Kb  
100 I vapour 1000 Hvapour

Where, m = molality

MA = molecular mass of solvent

(9).

Molality (m) = Number of moles of solute mole / kg

Weight of solvent (kg)

Molarity (M) = Number of moles of solute mole / L

Volume of solution (L)

11
 Normality (N) = Number of gram equivalent of solute g equiv / L
Volume of solution (L)

Formality (F) = Number of gram formula mass

Volume of solution (L)

(10). Va ’t Hoff fa tor

Experimental colligative property (observed)

i
Calculated (normal) colligative property

PAB  P (i  nB )

PAB (i  nB )  nA

Tb  i  Kb  m

Tf  i  Kf  m

  iCRT

(11). Association of Solute

nA  (A)n


(1   ) 
i n
{  = degree of association}
1

(12). He ry’s La

p  partial pressure of gas in vapour phase


  KH .X KH  Henry's law constant
 X  Mole fraction of gas


12
 8. ELECTROCHEMISTRY

(1). Oh ’s la  V  RI

R 
a

V = Potential difference

R = Resistance

I = Current
 = Specific resistance (resistivity)

= length of conductor

a = cross-section area of conductor

1
(2). Conductance G 
R

Specific conductance (conductivity)   1



(3). Cell constant  

a

  G.

1000  
(4). Molar conductance M (or C )  {C = concentration of electrolyte in terms of
C (or M)
molarity}

1000  
(5). Equivalent conductance M (or AC )  {C = concentration (normality)}
C (or N)

M  N  (n  factor)

 0  lim  C { 0 = equivalent conductance at infinite dilution (or zero concentration)}

C 0

(6) For weak electrolyte, C  1

C

13
For strong electrolyte, C  0  B(C)
1/2
{B = constant}

(7). At infinite dilution, for an electrolyte A x B y

AxBy xA y   yBx 

{  A , B = equivalent conductance at infinite dilution of cation and anion}

o o
oA  xoA  yBo
xBy

 x o   o

 oC  k co {  = ionic mobility, K = 96500 coulomb}

Ionic velocity

Potential gradient

(8). For a weak electrolyte, (CH3COOH CH3COO  H )

M C( M / 0 )2
Degree of dissociation,   , Keq 
0 1  ( M / 0 )

(9). For solubility of salt (AgCl Ag  Cl )

2
 1000 K 
K sp   
 
 0 

(10). For a cell reaction in an electrochemical cell,

Zn  CuSO4 Cu  ZnSO4

2 2
Cell representation  Zn | Zn (aq.) || Cu (aq.) | Cu
Anode(  ) Cathode(  )

(11). For half cell reaction M  Mn (aq.)  ne ; Eox  E

M/M

Mn (aq)  ne  M ; Ered  E

M /M

emf of cell, Eocell  Eright

o
 Eleft
o

 Eocathode  Eoanode {R.P. = Reduction potential}

(R.P.) (R.P)

14
(12). G  nFEcell

=-W

 Go  2.303 RT log Q

Go  nFEcell
o

2.303 RT
Ecell  Eocell  log Q
nF

 G  Change in free energy 

 
 W  Useful work done 
 n  Number of electrons exchanged 
 
F  Faraday cons tan t (96500 coulomb) 
Q  Re action quotient 
 

At room temperature (25oC)

0.0591
 Nernst ' s equation  Ecell  Ecell
o
 log Q
n

(13). For electrode concentration cell, (Pt, H2 (P1 ) | H | | H2 (P2 ),Pt)

anode cathode

0.0591 P
Ecell  log 1 (P = Pressure)
2 P2

For electrolyte concentration cell (Cu | Cu2 (C1 ) || Cu2 (C2 ) | Cu)
anode(  ) cathode(  )

0.0591 C
Ecell  log 2
2 C1

For concentration cells, Ecell  0

o

(14). At equilibrium, Ecell  0 (as G  0)

(15). Temperature coefficient (T.C.) =   Ecell 

 T P

Change in entropy, S  nF  (T.C.) { H = heat of cell-reaction}

 H 
Ecell     T.(T.C.)
 nF 
15
T.C.  0  Cell-reaction is endothermic and vice-versa.

6 . Fa ada s st
law of electrolysis

m = Zit

m = mass of substance deposited

Z = electrochemical equivalent

i = current

t = time

Atomic mass
Z
nF

Fa ada s nd
law of electrolysis

m1 E1
 (E = equivalent weight)
m2 E2

(17). Oxidation potential for half-cell reaction : M  Mn  ne

2.303
Eox  Eox
o
 log [Mn ]
nF

Reduction potential for half-cell reaction : Mn  ne  M

2.303 RT
Ered  Ered
o
 log[Mn ]
nF

9. CHEMICAL KINETICS AND NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

(1). For a general chemical transformation

nA  mB  pC  qD

1 d[A] 1 d[B] 1 d[C] 1 d[D]

Rate    
n dt m dt p dt q dt

(2). For elementary chemical reaction

16
mA  nB products

dx
Theoretical rate   k[A]rm  [B]n
dt

(3). For a general reaction ; aA  bB Pr oducts

dx
Rate   k[A]m  [B]n
dt

Order of reaction w.r.t. A = m overall order of reaction = (m + n)

Order of reaction w.r.t. B = n

(4). Unit of rate constant = (mole)1-n (litre)n-1 time-1

Where, n = order of reaction

(5) For a zero order reaction ; A B

d[A]
Rate   k[A]B  k (cons tan t)
dt

[A0 ]  [A]
K
K

(6). For a first order reaction ; A B

d[A]
Rate   k[A]
dt

2.303 [A] 2.303  a 

k log10 0  log10  
t [A]1 t a x

[A]0
(7). For a zero order reaction, t1/2 
2k

0.693
For a first order reaction, t1/2 
k

1
For an nth order reaction, t1/2  (for n  2)
[A]n01

(8). For a parallel reaction

17
d[A]
 (k1  k 2 )[A]
dt

(9). For a first order reaction : A B  C , a reagent reacts with all A, B and C

2.303  V  V0 
k log10  
 V  V 
{V = vol. of reagent}
t   t 

k
T 10o C
(10). Temperature coefficient =
kT

Ea /RT
Arrhenius equation, k  Ae

k2 Ea  T2  T1 
log10   
k1 (2.303 R)  T2 T1 

E0
log10 k  log10 A 
2.303RT

A  Arrhenius' s constant


 Ea  Activation energy

E0
log10 k  log10 A 
2.303 RT

(12). Binding energy, B.E.  m  931.5 MeV

m = mass defect = calculated At. Mass – observed At. Mass

B.E. (total)
B.E. per nucleon 
mass number

1 MeV  9.6  1010 Joule mol1

(13). Packing fraction. P.F.  Isotopic atomic mass-mass no.  106

mass numer

t
(14). In a radioactive decay, Nt  N0 e

A ou t of adioa ti e su sta e afte half-life periods

18
 n
1
N    N0
2

t
(15). Activity, A t  A0 e , A  N

10. SURFACE CHEMISTRY

(1). Freundlich Adsorption isotherm

1
x  
m ; n  1
   Kp
m

(2). Langmuir Adsorption isotherm

K 'PA

1  KPA

x aP m 1 b
Or,  or  
m 1  bP x aP a

1
x  
(3)  KC n  ; C  Concentration of solute in solution.
m

4 
(4). Zeta potential, Z 
D

19
 11. HYDROGEN

% 11H  1  % 12H  2  % 13H  3

(1) At. Wt. of H 
100

(2) Vapour density of a gas = molar mass of gas

molar mass of H2

LHS and RHS both are unitless

(3). Molecular wt. = 2  (V.D.)

(4). Vol. Strength of H2O2 = Molarity  11.2

= Normality  5.6

12. S-BLOCK ELEMENTS

(1) General Electronic Configuration ns1-2.

(2) Atomic Radii increases down the group.

(3) Hydration enthalpy decreases down the group.

(4). Ionization enthalpy decreases down the group.

(5). On reaction with oxygen give oxide, peroxide and superoxides.

(6) On reaction with water produces hydroxide and hydrogen.

(7). Some important compounds and their general names.

Name Chemical Formula Prepared by

Caustic Soda NaOH Electrolysis in costner kellner cell
Washing Soda Na2CO3, 10H2O Sol a s p o ess
Baking Soda NaHCO3 Sol a s p o ess
Glau e s Salt Na2SO4, 10H2O NaCl + H2SO4
Microcosmic salt Na(NH4)HPO4 NH4Cl + Na2HPO4
20
 Potash or Pearl Ash K2CO3 Leblanc Process
Caustic potash KOH Electrolysis of KCl
Quick lime CaO Decomposition of CaCO3
Slaked lime Ca(OH)2 Hydrolysis of CaO
Gypsum CaSO4, 2H2O CaCl2 + H2SO4
Plaster of Paris CaSO4, ½ H2O By heating gypsum

13. P-BLOCK ELEMENTS

(1). In general metallic character, electropositive character, atomic radii, basic character, reducing
character decreases on moving left to right in a period and increases down the group.

(2). Some important compound of p-block elements

i. Borax (Tincal) Na2B4 O7 ,10H2 O

Ca2B6 O11 ,5H2 O
ii. Colomonite
Na2B4 O7 , 4H2 O
iii. Kemite
iv. Sassolite or boric acid H3BO3
B2H6
v. Diborane
B3N3H6
vi. Borazole
Al2 O3
vii. Alumina
viii. Lithium aluminium hydride LiAlH4
ix. Potash Alum K2SO4 , Al2 (SO4 )3 , 24 H2 O

21
 14. COORDINATION COMPOUND

(1). Magnetic moment,   n(n  2) B.M

   
   
(2) 0 (CFSE)   4  n     6  n    Dq
e e
 (t2g )  
  (eg )  



   
   
(3).  t (CFSE)   4  n     6  n    Dq
e e
 (t2g )  
  (eg )  



4
(4).  t  
9 0

[ML 4 ]
(5). For the reaction : M  4L ML 4 , overall stability constant of complex (ML4) is 4 
[M][L]4

(6). EAN  Z  O.N.  2(C.N.)

(of metal atom/ion)

15. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Relations for the estimation of elements in organic compounds.

12 Mass of CO2 formed

% of C    100
44 Mass of the compound

2 Mass of H2 O formed
% of H    100
18 Mass of the compound

28 Volume of N2 at NTP
% of N    100
(Dumas's method) 22400 Mass of compound

1.4  Normality of acid used  Volume of acid used

% of N 
(kjeldahl's method) Mass of the compound

22
 At. mass of X Mass of AgX formed
% of X (Halogens)    100
(108  At. mass of X) Mass of the compound

32 Mass of BaSO4 formed

% of S    100
233 Mass of the compound

62 Mass of Mg2P2 O2 formed

% of P    100
222 Mass of the compound

(1). Inductive effect


(+I effect) CH3  C2H5  C3H7  R2 CH  R3 C   O R

(-I effect) R 4N  NO2  CN  SO3H  COOH  F  Cl  1   OR  OH  NH2  C6H5

(2). Relative basic strength in aqueous medium.

R  CH3
2o  1o  3o  NH3
R  C2H5
2o  3o  1o  NH3
Me2 CH 1o  NH3  2o  3o
M2 C
NH3  1o  2o  3o

(3). Stability of free radical

   
Me3 C  Me2 CH  MeCH2  Me
3o 2o 1o 1o

(4) Heat of hydrogenation of alkenes

1-butene > cis-2-butene > trans-2-butene

(5). Leaving nature in Nucleophilic substitution reaction

ArSO3  ROSO2  CH3COO  CN  OH  MeO  H  R

(6). Number of product formed during crossed aldol condensation

S. Carbonyl compound Carbonyl compound (II) Self Cross Total

No. (I) Condensation Condensation Product
Product Product
1. One type of similar  One type of similar  H- 2 2 4
H-atom atoms
23
 O CH3  CH2  CHO

||
CH3  C  H
2. Two different types One type of similar  H- 3 3 6
of dissimilar  H- atoms
atoms CH3  CH2  CHO
CH3  COCH2 CH3
3 Two different types Two different types of 4 4 8
of dissimilar  H- dissimilar  H-atoms
atoms PhCH2  CO  CH2  CH3
CH3CO  CH2  CH3

16. ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS

Structure of Alcohols :

Preparation of Alcohols

(i) From alkenes

(a) By acid catalysed hydration in accordance with Ma ko ikoff s ule.

(b) By hydroboration-oxidation

24
 B H ,H O /OH
CH3  CH  CH2  (H  BH2 )2 
2 6 2 2  CH3CH2CH2OH  B(OH)3

(ii) From carbonyl compounds

(a) By reduction of aldehydes and ketones

Pd
R  CHO  H2  RCH2  OH

NaBH
RCOR ' 
4 R  CH R '
|
OH

(b) By reduction of carboxylic acids and ester

(i) LiAlH
RCOOH 
4
 RCH2 OH
(ii) H2O

H
2  RCH OH  R ' OH
RCOOR '  2
Catalyst

Reduction of aldehyde, ketones and esters with No alcohol is called Bouveault-blanc reduction.

Reaction of carbonyl compound with Grignard Reagent.

(iv) Hydrolysis of alkyl halides

R  X  KOH(aq) ROH  KX

Ease of hydrolysis of alkyl halides RI > RBr > RCI > and 3o > 2o > 1o alkyl halides.

(v) Hydrolysis of ethers

H SO
R  O R  H2 O 
2 4  2ROH

(vi) From primary amines by treatment with nitrous acid

(NaNO HCl)
RNH2  HONO 
2  ROH  N2  H2 O

25
Methylamine does not give methyl alcohol when treated with HNO2. It gives CH3OCH3 and CH3ONO.

(vii) By alcoholic fermentation

Invertase
C12H22 O11  H2 O  C6 H12 O6  C6 H12 O6
sucrose glucos e fructose

Zymase
C6H12 O6  2C2H5OH 2CO2(g)
glucose and fructose ethyl alcohol

Preparation of Phenols

(i) From haloarenes

(ii) From benzene sulphonic acid

(iii) From diazonium salts

(iv) From cumene

Chemical properties of alcohols :

1. Reaction involving cleavage of O-H bond :

26
Alcohols react as nucleophiles :

(a) Reaction with metals

2R  O  H  2Na  2R  O  Na  H2
Sodium alkoxide

(b) Esterification reaction

H
RO  H  R ' COOH  ROCOR ' H2 O
Alcohol

H
RO  H (R ' CO2 )O  ROCOR ' R ' COOH
Alcohol

Pyridine
RO  H  R'COCl  R  OCOR ' HCl
Alcohol

(b) Reaction with phosphorus halides

ROH  PCl5  RCl  POCl3  HCl

P/Br
3ROH  PBr3 
2 3RBr  H3PO3

P/I
3ROH  PI3 
2  3RI  H PO
3 3

(c) Reaction with thionyl chloride

ROH  SOCl2 RCl  SO2   HCl 

(c) Dehydration reaction

Protic acids (conc. H2SO 4 or H3PO 4 )
Or
Catalysis (anhyd. ZnCl2 or alumina)
Alcohol 
 C  C  H2O

(d) Oxidation reaction

Acidified potassium permanganate

Alcohol Carboxylic acid

Cu, 573k
Or
CrO3
Or
PCC
(i) Pr imary Alchol  Aldehyde

Cu, 573k
Or
CrO3
(ii) Secondary Alcohol  Ketone
Cu, 573k
Or
KMnO 4
(iii) Tertiary Alcohol  Alkene
27
Phenols

Chemical properties of phenols :

(a) Reaction with metals

(b) Esterification reaction

H
Ar  OH  R' COOH  Ar  OCOR' H2O
Phenol

H
Ar  OH  (R'CO)2 O  Ar  OCOR' R'COOH
Phenol

Pyridine
Ar  OH R ' COCl  ArOCOR ' HCl
Phenol

(a) Halogenation

28
(b) Sulphonation

(c) Nitration

29
(d) Reimer-Tiemann reaction

(ii) Kol e’s rea tio

30
iii) Reaction with zinc dust

(iv) Oxidation

(v) Fries rearrangement

Ethers
Structure of Ethers

31
Preparation of Ethers

(i) By dehydration of alcohols

H SO (conc.)
2CH3 CH2  OH 
2 4  CH3  CH2  O CH2  CH3  H2 O
excess 418K

Willia so ’s Sy thesis Only primary alkyl halides when react with sodium alkoxide give ether while
tertiary alkyl halides give alkene due to steric hindrance.

CH3 CH2Br  CH3 CH2 ONa  CH3 CH2 OCH2 CH3  NaBr

Chemical Reactions of Ether

R  O  R ' HX RX  R ' OR

The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows

HI > HBr > HCl

(ii) Halogenation
Cl
CH3CH2OCH2CH3 
2  CH CHClOCH CH
3 2 3
Dark ( monochloro diethyl ether)

h
C2H5OC2H5  10Cl2  C2Cl5OC2Cl5  10HCl
(excess) (light) (perchlorodiethyl ether)

(iii) Reaction with PCl5


R  O  R  PCl5   2RCl  POCl3

32
(iv) Reaction with CO

BF /150o C
ROR  CO 
3  RCOOR
500 atm

Electrophilic Substitution reactions

33
 Other conversion reactions :
(a) Phenol to salicylaldehyde

34
(b) Phenol to benzene diazonium chloride

Differentiate between organic compounds :

(a) Alcohols and phenols
Phenol on reaction with neutral FeCl3 gives purple colour whereas alcohols do not give
purple colour.
6C6 H5 OH  Fe3  [Fe(OC6H5 )6 ]3  6H
Purple colour

(b) Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols

Lucas reagent test :
conc. HCl ZnCl /lucas reagent
ROH  HCl 
2 RCl  H2O
If it is a primary alcohol, no turbidity appears at room temperature. Turbidity appears
only on heating. If it is a secondary alcohol, turbidity appears in 5 minutes. If it is a
tertiary alcohol, turbidity appears immediately.
(c) Methanol and ethanol
Iodoform test : Ethanol when reacted with (I2 and NaOH) or NaOI gives yellow ppt of
iodoform since it has the presence of CH3-CH (OH)-group.
C2H5 OH  4I2  6NaOH  CHI3  5NaI  5H2 O  HCOONa
Yellow ppt

CH3 OH  I2  NaOH  No yellow ppt

35
 17. ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones

(i) By oxidation of alcohols

Aldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols,
respectively.
CrO
RCH2 OH 
3  RCHO

CrO
R  CH R ' 
3  R  C R '

| ||
OH O

By dehydrogenation of alcohols

Primary and secondary alcohols give aldehydes and ketones, respectively.

Cu
R  CH2  OH   RCHO
573 K

Cu
 
R  CH R ' 573 K R  C R '
| ||
OH O

(iii) By ozonolysis of alkenes

(iv) By hydration of alkynes

HgSO
CH  CH  H2O 
4  CH  CHO
3
acetylene H2SO 4 acetaldehyde

HgSO
R  C  CH  H2O 
4 R  CO  CH
3
H2SO4 ketone

36
Preparation of Aldehydes

(i) Rosenmund reduction

Formaldehyde cannot be prepared by this method as HCOCl is highly unstable.

(ii) From nitriles

H O
RCN  SnCl2  HCl  RCH  NH 
3 RCHO

This reaction is called Stephen reaction.

Alternatively, nitriles are selectively reduced by diisobutylaluminium hydride, [DiBAL-H] to imines which
on hydrolysis give aldehydes.
(i) AlH(iBu)
RCN 
2 RCHO
(ii) H2O

Similarly, esters can also be reduced to aldehydes with DiBAL-H.

(i) DiBAL H
CH3 (CH2 )3  COOC2H5  CH3 (CH2 )3  CHO
(ii) H2O

(iii) Etard reaction

Using chromium oxide (CrO3) : Toluene or substituted toluene is converted to benzaldehyde in presence
of chromic oxide in acetic anhydride.

37
(iv) Side chain halogenation is followed by hydrolysis of toluene

(v) Gattermann-Koch synthesis

Preparation of Ketones

(i) From acyl chlorides

38
(ii) From nitriles

(iii) Friedel-Crafts acylation

(iv) Oppenauer oxidation

[(CH ) CO] Al
R2CHOH (CH3 )2 C  O 
33 3 R C  O (CH ) CHOH
2 3 2
2n alcohol ketone iso propyl
alcohol

Chemical Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones

(i) Addition of hydrogen cyanide

39
(ii) Addition of sodium hydrogen sulphite

(iii) Addition of Grignard reagent (RMgX) to form alcohol

(iv) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives

Z  Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH2 , C6H5NH, NHCONH2 , etc

40
 Z Reagent name Carbonyl derivative Product Name
-R Amine C  NR Substituted imine
| S hiff s ase

-OH Hydroxyl C  N  OH Oxime

amine |

-NH2 Hydrazine C  N  NH2 Hydrazone

|

Phenyl- Phenylhydrazone
hydrazine
2, 4- 2, 4-dinitrophenyl
dinitrophenyl hydrazone
hydrazine

Semi- Semi-carbazone
carbazide

Reduction

(1). Clemmensen reduction

(2). Wolff-Kishner reduction

(3). Oxidation

(i) Aldehydes are oxidized to acids in presence of mild oxidizing agents HNO3 , K2Cr2O7 , KMnO4

[O]
R  CHO  R  COOH

(ii) Ketones are oxidized under drastic conditions i.e. with powerful oxidizing agents like
HNO3 , K2Cr2O7 / H2SO4 , KMnO4 / H2SO4 at higher temperature.

41
 1 2 3
[O]
R  CH2  CO  CH2  R '   R  COOH  R ' CH2COOH  R  CH2COOH  R ' COOH
(By cleavage of C1C2 bond) (By cleavage of C 2 C1 bond)

(iii) Haloform reaction :

(v) Aldol condensation

Cross aldol condensation

Base catalysed crossed aldol condensation between an aromatic aldehyde and an aliphatic aldehyde or
ketone is called Claisen-Schmidt condensation or Claisen reaction.

42
Cannizzaro reaction

Test to distinguish aldehydes and ketones :

Tolle ’s test : Whe a aldeh de is heated ith Tolle s eage t it fo s sil e i o.

Tolle s eage t is a o ia al solutio of AgNO3

RCHO  2[Ag(NH3 )2 ]  3OH RCOO  2Ag  2H2O  4NH3

Ketones do not form silver mirror and hence do not give this test.

Fehli g’s test : When an aldehyde is heated ith Fehli g s reagent it forms reddish brown
precipitates of cuprous oxide.

Fehli g s eage t : Fehli g solutio A a ueous solutio of CuSO4) + Fehling solution B (alkaline solution
of sodium potassium tartarate)

R  CHO  2Cu2  5OH  RCOO  Cu2O  3H2O

Re dBrown ppt

Ketones do not give this test.

Carboxylic Acids
Methods of Preparation of carboxylic Acids

From primary alcohols and aldehydes

alkaline KMnO 4 /H3O 

(a) RCH2OH   RCOOH

CrO H SO
(b) RCH2OH 
3 2 4  RCOOH

43
From aldehydes
  
(a) RCHOH  2[Ag(NH3 )2 ]  3OH  RCOO  2Ag  2H2O  4N

2  
(b) R  CHO  2Cu  5OH  RCOO  Cu2O  3H2O

From alkyl benzenes

From acid derivatives

All acid derivatives like amides (RCONH2 , a id halides ‘COCl , este s ‘COO‘ , a id a h d ides ‘CO-O-
COR) on hydrolysis give carboxylic acids. All acid derivatives break from RCO+.
Dil. HCl
RCOZ 
RCOOH
or dil. NaOH

Z  NH2 ,  X(X  Cl, Br,I), OR', RCOO  etc .

Ease of hydrolysis : RCOCl  (RCO)2 O  RCOOR'  RCONH2

From nitriles and amides

From alkenes

Suitably substituted alkenes are oxidized to carboxylic acids on oxidation with acidic potassium
permanganate or acidic potassium dichromate.

KMnO /H
(a) R  CH  CH  R 
4  2R  COOH

KMnO 4 /H 
(b) R  CH  CH  R1   R  COOH  R1  COOH

From Grignard reagents

44
By heating germinal dicarboxylic acids

From alkynes
(i) O (ii), H O or
R  C  C  R 
3 2 2 2RCOOH
KMnO4 /OH , 

Reactions of Carboxylic acids

Formation of anhydride

Esterification

H
RCOOH  R'OH RCOOR' H2O

Reactions with PCl5 , PCl3 and SOCl2

RCOOH  PCl5 RCOCl  POCl3  HCl

3RCOOH  PCl3  3RCOCl  H3PO3

RCOOH  SOCl2 RCOCl  SO2  HCl

Reaction with ammonia (NH3)

Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which on further heating at high
temperature gives amides.

45
  
 / H O
(a) CH3COOH  NH3  CH3COONH4 
2  CH CONH
3 2
Ammonium acetate Acetamide

(b)

Chemical reactions involving – COOH group

(a) Reduction
(i) LiAlH /ether
RCOOH 
4 R  CH2  OH
or B2H6 (ii) H3O 

(b) Decarboxylation
NaOH, CaO (Ratio 3:1)
RCOONa 
 R  H  Na2CO3


Substitution reactions in the hydrocarbon part

Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction
X /Re d Phosphorus/H O
R  CH2  COOH 
2 2 R  CH  COOH
|
X
X  Cl, Br
Halocarboxylic acid

Arndt-Eistert reaction
PCl CH N
HOH
RCOOH 
5 RCOCl 
2 2  RCOCHN 
2 RCH2COOH
diazo ketone

Reducing property
HCOOH  HgCl2  Hg  2HCl  CO2

Electrophilic substitution reactions of aromatic acids

46
 18. AMINES

Methods of Preparation of Amines

(i) By reduction of nitro compounds :

Nitro compounds can be catalytically reduced by passing hydrogen gas in presence of Raney Ni, finely
divided Pt or Pd as catalyst at room temperature.
Ni, Pt or pd
(a) R  NO2  3H2 R  NH2  2H2O
47
 Ni, Pt or pd
(b) Ar  NO2  3H2  Ar  NH2  2H2O

Nitro compounds can also be reduced with active metals such as Fe, Sn, Zn etc. with conc. HCl.
Sn/HCl or Fe/HCl
(a) R  NO2  3H2 
R  NH2  2H2O

Sn/HCl or Fe/HCl
(b) Ar  NO2  3H2 
 Ar  NH2  2H2O

ii B Hoff a s ethod A o ol sis of alkyl halides):

 
RX RX RX
RNH2   R 2NH   R3N   R 4 NX
(1o ) (2o ) (3o ) Quaternary
ammonium salt

 The free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment with a strong base :
(a) NH3  RX  RNH X  NaOH
 RNH2  H2O  Na X 
3
(1o amine)

(b) RNH2  RX  R2NH2 X  

NaOH
 R 2NH  H2O  Na X 
(2o amine)

(c) R2NH  RX  R3NH X  

NaOH
 R3N  H2O  Na X 
(3o amine)

 Order of reactivity of halides is : RI > RBr > RCl

(iii) By reduction of nitriles :

Nitriles can be reduced to amines using H2/Ni, LiAlH4 or Na(Hg)/C2H5OH

H2 /Ni
Or
Na(Hg)/C2H5OH
Or
LiAlH4
R C  N  R  CH2  NH2

(iv) By reduction of amides :

Amides are reduced to corresponding amines by LiAlH4

(v) Ga iel s phthali ide reaction

48
(vi) Hofmann bromamide degradation reaction

R  CO  NH2  Br2  4NaOH RNH2  Na2CO3  2NaBr  2H2O

Reactions of Amines
(i) Alkylation

(ii) Acylation

49
(iii) Benzoylation
Pyridine
CH3NH2  C6H5COCl  CH3NHCOC6H5  HCl

Benzoylation of aniline is known as Schotten Baumann reaction.

(iv) Carbylamine reaction [only by 1o amines]

Heat
R  NH2  CHCl3  3KOH   R  N C  3KCl  3H2O
isocyanide
(a bad smalling compound)

Methyl isocyanate gas (CH3  N  C  O) was responsible for Bhopal gas tragedy in December 1984.

(v) Reaction with nitrous acid

NaNO HCl
[RN2 Cl] 
H O
RNH2  HNO2 
2 2 ROH  N  HCl
2

Quantitative evolution of nitrogen is used in estimation of amino acids and proteins.

NaNO 2HCl
 C6H5N2 Cl  NaCl  2H2O
C6H6  NH2 
2
273278 K

Reaction with aryl sulphonyl chloride [Hinsberg reagent]

50
Reaction with aldehydes

Schiff base is obtained.

ZnCl
C6H5NH2  OHCC6H5 
2
 C6H5N  CHC6H5
benzaldehyde  benzylidene aniline
H2O (Schiff base)

Electrophilic substitution reactions

Nitration

(a) Under strongly acidic medium aniline gets protonated to form anilinium ion, which is deactivating
group and is meta directing. Hence m-nitroaniline is also formed in 47 % along with ortho and para
products.

51
Aromatic amines cannot be nitrated directly because HNO3 being a strong oxidizing agent oxidizes it
forming black mass.

(b) Nitration by protecting the –NH2 group by acetylation reaction with acetic anhydride :

(c) Sulphonation On sulphonation, aniline gives sulphanilic acid, as the major product.

Oxidation

Oxidising agent Product

Acidified KMnO4 Aniline back (a dye)
(or Na2Cr2O7  CuSO4  dill acid )
Chromic acid (Na2Cr2O7  Conc H2SO4 ) p-benzaquinone
Ca o s a id (H2SO5 ) Nitrobenzene and nitrosobenzene
Conc. Nitric acid decomposes

 
Benzene Diazonium Chloride (C6H5N2 ; Cl )

Preparation (Diazotisation reaction)

273278 K
C6H5NH2  NaNO2  2HCl 
 C6H5N  N  Cl  NaCl  2H2O
52
Chemical reactions

(a) Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen :

53
Azo coupling reactions

Alkyl Cyanides
Methods of Preparation

(i) From alkyl halides

100 C o
RX  KCN(alc)   RCN  RNC
(major)

(ii) From acid amides

PO 
RCONH2 
2 5 RC  N
H2O

Reactions of Alkyl Cyanides

(i) Hydrolysis
H O H O
RCN 
2  RCONH2 
2  RCOOH  NH
3
Alk H2O2 amide H carboxylic acid
(partiial hydrolysis)

(ii) Reduction
Na C H OH
RCN  4[H] 
2 5  RCH2NH2

LiAlH
RCN  4[H] 
4 RCH NH
2 2 (Mendius reduction)

SnCl /HCl H O
2 R CH  NH  HCl 
RCN  2  RCHO  NH Cl
4
imine hydrochloride aldehyde

(iii) Reaction with Grignard reagent

R' R'
| |
Ether
RCN  R 'MgX   R  C  NMgX 
2H2O R C  O

54
Alkyl isocyanides

Methods of Preparation

(a) From alkyl halides

C H OH
R  X  AgCN 
2 5  RNC  RCN
 (major)

(b) Carbylamine reaction


RNH2  CHCl3  3KOH(alc)   RNC  3KCl  3H2O

(c) From N-alkyl formamide

POCl
R  NH  CHO 
3 R  N  C  H O
2
Pyridine

Reactions of Alkyl isocyanides

Hydrolysis

H 
R  N  C  2H2O RNH2  HCOOH

(ii) Reduction
Na/C H OH
RN  C  4[H] 
2 5 RNHCH3
or Ni or Pt
2o amine

(iii) Addition reaction

Due to the presence of unshared pair of electrons on C atom, alkyl isocyanides give addition reaction.

RNC  S RNCS

RNC  HgO RNCO  Hg

RNC  O3 RNCO

(iv) Isomerisation At 250oC, it isomerizes to nitrile.


RNC  RCN

55
Nitro Compounds
Methods of Preparation

(i) From alkyl halides


RX  AgNO2  RNO2  AgX

(ii) Nitration: Nitrating mixture is conc HNO3 + conc H2SO4

Reactions of Nitro Compounds

Reduction

With Sn/HCl or catalytic hydrogenation, nitroalkanes are reduced to amines.

Sn/HCl
RNO2  6[H]  R  NH2  2H2O

If neutral reducing agent like Zn dust + NH4Cl is used, hydroxylamines are obtained as major product.
ZnNH Cl
RNO2  4[H] 
4  R  NHOH  H O
2
N alkylhydroxylamine

In the presence of (NH4)2S or Na2S, selective reduction takes place.

Nitrobenzene gives different products with different reagents and in different mediums.

Medium Reagent Product

Acid Sn/HCl Aniline
Neutral Zn/NH4Cl N-phenyl hydroxylamine
O

Na3AsO3/NaOH
Azoxbenzene (C6H5N  NC6H5 )
56
 Alkaline Zn/NaOH, CH3OH Azobenzene
Zn/NaOH, C2H5OH hydrazobenzene
Metallic hydride LiAlH4 aniline
Electrolytic dil H2SO4 p-aminophenol

Action of HNO2

1o nitroalkane gives nitrolic acid which gives red colour with NaOH.
HNO NaOH
RCH2NH2 
2  RC(NO )  NOH 
2  RC(NO2 )  NONa
H2O nitrolic acid (red)

2o nitrolkanes give pseudonitrol with HNO2

HNO NaOH
R 2CH(NO2 ) 
2  R C  NO 
2 Blue
H2O

|
NO2
Pseudonitrol

Nef carbonyl synthesis

 50% H SO

2 4  R  CH  O
NaOH
R  CH2NO2   R  CH  N O Na aldehyde

|
O

Electrophilic substitution On nitration

Nucleophilic substitution reaction -NO2 group activates the ring towards nucleophilic substitution.

57
 19. HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

General Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes

From Alcohols

58
Free Radical Halogenation of Alkanes
Cl
CH3CH2CH2CH3 
2 CH3CH2CH2CH2Cl  CH3CH2CHCH3
UV light or Heat

|
Cl

Addition of hydrogen Halides on Alkenes

| | | |
 C  C  C  HBr  CCC 
| | | | |
Br
2bromopropane

| | | |
Organic peroxide
 C  C  C  HBr 
  C  C  C  Br
| | | | |

(i) Halogen Exchange method :

R  X  Nal  R  I  NaX (Finkelstein reaction)

R  Br  AgF  R  F  AgBr (Swarts reaction)

Hunsdiecker Reaction

CH3COOAg  Br2 

CCl
 CH3Br  AgBr  CO2
4

 Preparation of haloarenes :
(a) By electrophilic substitution reaction :

(b) Sa d eyer’s rea tio :

59
(c) Gattermann reaction :

(d) From Diazonium Chloride :

(e) Balz-Schiemann reaction :

Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions

60
 2. Elimination Reactions
Dehydrohalogenation is a  -elimination reaction in which halogen is from  -carbon atom
and the hydrogen from the  -carbon according to Saytzeff rule, e.g.

Br
|
Alc. KOH
CH3  CH2  CH  CH3  CH3  CH  CH  CH3  CH3CH2CH  CH2
KBr,  H2O but 2 ene butene 1 (minor)
(major)

Reduction
Ni, 575 K
C2H5  Br  H2  C2H6  HBr

Red P, 420 K
C2H5I  HI 
 C2H6  I2

61
Reaction with Metals

(i) Wurtz reaction

Dry ether
RX  2Na  XR 
R  R(alkane)  2NaX

(ii) Wurtz-Fitting reaction

(iii) Reaction with Mg

Dry ether
C2H5Br  Mg 
 C2H5  Mg  Br
Grignard' s reagent)

Isomerisation

Cl
|
573 K
CH3CH2CH2  Cl  CH3  CH  CH3
or anhy. AlCl5

Chemical properties of haloarenes :

a Do ’s Pro ess

Electrophilic substitution Reactions

(b) With halogens

62
(c) With conc. sulphuric acid and nitric acid

(d) On heating with conc. sulphuric acid

(e) With methyl chloride

(f) With acetyl chloride

63
(i) Other conversions :

R  X  KCN  R  CN  KX
Na, C H OH or LiAH or Ni/H
HONO
R  CN 
2 5 4 2  R  CH NH 
2 2  RCH2OH

H O NH
R  CN 
3 R  COOH 
3  R  CONH
2

LiAlH
R  COOH 
4 RCH OH
2

PCl or PCl or SOCl

R  COOH 
5 3 2 R  COCl

Dry ether
R  X  Mg 
RMgX

RMgX  CO2  RCOOH

RMgX  HCHO  Pr imary alcohol

RMgX  RCHO  Secondary alcohol

RMgx  R  CO  R  Tertiary alcohol

20. HYDROCARBONS

64
Alkanes
Preparation of Alkanes

(1) Wurtz reaction :

Dry
2CH3CH2Br  2Na 
 CH3CH2CH2CH3  2NaBr
ether

Frankland reaction

RX  Zn  Rx R  R  ZnX2

(2) From Grignard reagent (RMgX)

RMgX  HOH  RH  Mg(OH)X

RMgX  R'OH  RH  Mg(OR')X

RMgX  R'NH2  RH  Mg(NHR')X

(3) From unsaturated hydrocarbons :-

Sabatier-Senderens reduction
Ni/ 
R  CH  CH2  H2  R  CH2  CH3

Ni/ 
R  C  CH  H2  R  CH2  CH3

4. From carboxylic acids-

Decarboxylation –

CH3COO Na  NaOH 

CaO
 CH4  Na2CO3
Sodium ethanoate 

Kol e s electrolytic method –

2CH3COO Na  2H2O 

Electrolysis
 CH3  CH3  2CO 2  H2  2NaOH
Sodium acetate

Reactions

Combustion :-
CH4  2O2  CO2  2H2O, H  217.0 K cal / mole

Oxidation :-

65
 Cu
CH4  O2   2CH3OH
573 K

Mo O
CH4  O2 
2 3  HCHO  H O
2
Methanal

Substitution :-

Halogenation :-
UV
CH4  Cl2   CH3Cl  HCl

UV UV UV
CH3Cl   CH2Cl2   CHCl3   CCl4

(i) The reactivity of Halogens : F2  Cl2  Br2  I2

(ii) The rate of replacement of Hydrogens of alkanes is : 3o  2o  1o

Cl
CH3CH2CH2CH3 
2  CH CH CH CH Cl  CH CH ClCHCH
3 2 2 2 3 2 3
nButane hv

Nitration

450 C o
CH3CH2CH3   CH3CH2CH2NO2  CH3CHNO2CH3  CH3CH2NO2  CH3NO2
Conc. HNO3

25 % 40 % 10 % 25 %

Sulphonation : - replacement of hydrogen atom of alkane by – SO3H group.

66
Aromatization :-

(6) Thermal decomposition or Pyrolysis or cracking or Fragmentation : - when higher alkanes are heated
at high temp (about 700 – 800 K) in the presence of alumina or silica catalysts, the alkanes break down
to lower alkenes and alkanes.

CH3  CH2  CH3  CH3  CH  CH2  CH3  CH3  C2H4  CH4

(7) Action of steam : - Catalyst : nickel, alumina Al2O3

1000 C o
CH4  H2O(Steam)   CO  3H2

Isomerization

CH3CH  (CH2 )2  CH3  CH3CH2  CH  CH2  CH3

Anhy. AlCl3 /HCl
CH3 (CH2 )4 CH3   | |
nHexane
CH3 CH3
2 Methylpentane 3 Methylpentane

Alkenes
Preparation :

1. From Alkynes : - Alkynes on partial reduction with partially deactivated palladised charcoal known as
Li dla s atal st gi e alk es.
Pd/C
CH  CH  H2   CH2  CH2
Ethyne Ethene

2. From Haloalkanes :- dehydrohalogenation (E2 or 1, 2-elimination or Beta-elimination)

67
3. From Dihaloalkanes :- Dehalogenation

4. From Alcohols :- Dehydration (E1 – elimination)

Conc. H SO
CH3CH2CH2OH 
2 4  CH CH  CH  H O
3 2 2
160o

Al O
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 
2 3  CH CH CH  CH
3 2 2
300o C

Reactions of Alkenes

(1) Addition Reaction :- Alkene show electrophilic addition reaction.

1. Addition of Hydrogen :-
H /Ni
RCH  CH2 
2 RCH2CH3

2. Addition of Halogens :-
CCl
CH2  CH2  Br2 
4  BrCH  CH Br
2 2
Solvent

H O
CH2  CH2  Br2 
2  Br  CH  CH  OH  HBr
2 2
Solvent (Colourless)
(Brown colour)

3. Addition of hydrogen halides –

Addition reaction of HBr to symmetrical alkenes

CH2  CH2  H  Br  CH3  CH2  Br

Addition reaction of HBr to unsymmetrical alkenes takes place according to Markovnikov Rule

68
Markownikov rule :- negative part of the addendum (adding molecule) gets attached to that carbon
atom which possesses lesser number of hydrogen atoms. E.g.

Pe o ide effe t o Kha as h A ti Ma ko ikoff s additio :- In 1933 Kharasch and Mayo observed that
when HBr is added to an unsymmetrical double bond in the presence of organic peroxide, the reaction
take places opposite to the markovnikov rule.
HBr
CH3  CH  CH2   CH3  CH2  CH2Br
Peroxide Pr opyl bromide

4. Addition of water (Hydration):- Acid catalyzed addition of water

2. Oxidation :-

1. Combustion : CO2 + H2O

2. Hydrocarboration-oxidation:- Alkenes react with diborane to form trialkyl boranes which on oxidation
with alkaline H2O2 give alcohols.

BH H O /OH
3CH2  CH2 
3  CH CH
3 2 B  3CH3CH2OH
2 2
Triethylborane Ethyl alcohol

3. Oxymercuration-demercuration :-
Hg(OAC) NaBH
H2C  CH2 
2  OH  CH  CH  Hg OAc 
2 2
4  CH CH OH  Hg
3 2
THF, H2O OH

4. Oxidation with potassium permanganate :-

69
2KMnO4  H2O  2KOH  2MnO2  3[O]

Bayer’s Test
(i) Alk. KMnO
CH3  CH  CH2 
4  CH COOH  CO  H O
3 2 2
(ii) H 

Oxidation with Ozone :- Ozonolysis-give carbonyls compounds

Alkynes
Preparation :-

From vicinal dihalides :- dehalogenation

2KOH (alc)
CH3  BrCH  CH2  Br 
 CH3  C  CH  2KBr  2H2O


By the action of water on calcium carbide :-

CaC2  H2O  HC  CH  Ca(OH)2

Reactions

(1) Addition Reaction : Alkyne show electrophilic addition reaction.

1. Addition of Hydrogen – Hydrogenation.

Ni
CH3C  CH  2H2  CH3CH2CH3
Pr opyne

70
Birch Reduction

2. Addition of Halogens :-
2Br
HC  CH 
2 Br HC  CHBr
2 2

3. Addition of hydrogen halides :-

HC  CH  2HBr  CH3CH Br2

4. Addition of water (Hydration):- Acid catalyzed addition of water

HgSO
HC  CH  H2O 
4 [CH  CHOH]
2 CH3CHO
H2SO4 Unstable

5. Polymerisation –

(a) Linear polymerization : of ethyne gives polyacetylene or polyethyne which is a high molecular weight
polyene containing repeating units of (CH = CH – CH = CH) and can be represented as – (CH = CH – CH=
CH)n-

(b) Cyclic polymerization-results in the formation of aromatic compound.

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Aromatic Hydrocarbon
Preparation of Benzene

(i) Decarboxylation of aromatic acids.

(ii) Reduction of phenol: Phenol is reduced to benzene by passing its vapours over heated zinc dust

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Benzene on treatment with excess of chlorine in the presence of anhydrous AlCl3 in dark yields
hexachlorobenzene (C6Cl6)

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Directive influence of a functional group in monosubstituted benzene :-

1. Ortho and para directing groups and activating

OH, NH2 , NHR, NHCOCH3 ,  OCH3 , CH3 , C2H5 etc.

2. Meta directing group and deactivating :- NO2 , CN, CHO, COR, COOH, COOR, SO3H ,

3. Ortho and para directing groups and deactivating – Halogens because of their strong – I effect, overall
electron density on benzene ring decreases. However due to resonance the electron density on o- and
p- position is greater than that at the m-position. Hence, they are also o- and p- directing groups.

21. POLYMERS

Important Addition Polymers

Polyolefins
1. Polythene
Polymer of ethylene or ethene.

(a) Low density polythene (LDP)

350  750k /1000 to 2000 atm traces of O
nCH2  CH2 
2 (CH2  CH2 )n
Ethene Polythene

(b) High density polythene (HDP)

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 333343k /6 7 atm zieglar Natta catalyst
nCH2  CH2  (CH2  CH2 )n
Ethene Polythene

(d) Polyacrylonitrile
Polymerisation/Peroxide catalyst
nCH2  CHCN  (CH2  CN  CN)n
Acrylonitrile Polyacrylonitrile

2. Polystyrene (Styrone)

3. Polyvinylchloride (PVC)

4. Polypropylene (PP)

5. Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon)
catalyst/High pressure
nCF2  CF2  (CF2  CF2 )n
Tetrafluorethene Teflon

6. Polyacrylonitrile

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Condensation polymers
Polyamides

(a) Nylon 6, 6 : It is prepared by the condensation polymerization of hexamethylenediamine with adipic

acid under high pressure and at high temperature.

H H O O
| | || ||
[N  (CH2 )6 N  C(CH2 )4 C]n
553 K /High pressure
nHOOC(CH2 )4 COOH  nH2N(CH2 )6 NH2 
Nylon 6,6

(b) Nylon 6 : It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at a high temperature

Polyesters

(a) Terylene or Dacron : It is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene glycol and terephtalic acid
at 420 to 460 K in the presence of zinc acetate-antimony trioxide catalyst.

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 2. Glyptal

Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)

The polymer is known by several commercial names such as lucite, acrylite, plexiglass and perspex.

Resins

1. Phenol-Formaldehyde Polymer

These polymers are obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde in the presence
of either acid or a base catalyst. The reaction involves the formation of methylene bridge at ortho, para
or both ortho and para positions. A linear or cross linked material is obtained depending upon the
condition of reaction.

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(b) Novolac on heating with formaldehyde forms Bakelite

2. Urea-Formaldehyde Resin

4. Melamine – formaldehyde polymer : Melamine formaldehyde polymer is formed by the condensation

polymerization of melamine and formaldehyde

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4. Natural Rubber

Natural rubber is a coiled linear 1, 4-polymer of isoprene.

CH3
|
CH2  C  CH  CH2
isoprene

(a) Natural rubber : Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene) and is also
called as cis-1, 4-polyisoprene.

Vulcanisation of Rubber

The properties of natural rubber can be modified by introducing -S-S- polysulphide crosslinks in its
structure.

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The process of heating a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur and an appropriate addictive in a
temperature range between 373 K to 415 K to improve upon physical properties like elasticity, strength
etc.

Synthetic rubber

(A) Neoprene or polychloroprene

Cl Cl
| |
nCH2  C  CH  CH2  [CH2  C  CH  CH2 ]n
Polymerisation

2 chloro 1,3butadiene Neoprene

(B) Buna – N

CN CN
| |
 [CH2  CH  CH  CH2  CH2  CH]n
Copolymerisation
nCH2  CH  CH  CH2  nCH2  CN 
Acrylanitrile BunaN
1,3butaline

(C) Buna – S

C6H5
|
nCH2  CH  CH  CH2  nC6H5CH  CH2  [CH2  CH  CH  CH2  CH2  CH]n
Styreme Butadine styreme copolymer
1,3butadine (BunaS)

Biopolymers and Biodegradable Polymers

Aliphatic polyesters are the common examples of biodegradable Polymers.

(a) Poly-  -hydroxybutyrate-co-  -hydroxy valerate (PHBV):

It is obtained by the copolymerization of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid

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(b) Nylon 2-nylon 6 : It is an alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine (H2N  CH2  COOH) and amino
caproic acid (H2N(CH2 )5 COOH)

O O
|| ||
nH2N CH2  COOH  nH 2 N  (CH2 )5  COOH  (HN  CH2  C HN  (CH2 )5  C)n
Glycine A mino expronic acid

Some polymers:

S.N Name of Class of polymer Name/s of monomer/s Uses

polymer
1. Dynel Copolymer Vinyl chloride and Human hair wigs
acrylonitrile
2. Glyptal Copolymer Ethylene glycol and In paints
phthalic acid
3. Thiokol Condensation Ethylene chloride and Rubber tetra sulphide
sodium (Polysulphide
rubber)
4. Superglue Homopolymer Methyl  -cyanoacrylate Glue
5. Kevlar Polyamide Terephthalic acid chloride Bullet proof vests and
condensation and p-phenylene diamine helmets
6. Nomex Polyamide m-phthalic acid and m- Protective clothes for
condensation dinitrobenzene race car drives and
fire fighters.
7. Lexan Polycarbonate Diethylcarbonate and Bullet proof windows
bisphenol Ester and helmets
condensation
viii) Polyurethane or Copolymer glycol Toluene diisocyanate and For padding and
Thermocole ethylene building insulation
ix) Saran Copolymer Vinyl chloride and Bumpers
chloride vinylidene

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