Zagazig University Zoology Department Faculty of Sciences

Course Specification
Programs on which the course is given: All biology students
Major or Minor Element of program: Major
Department offering the program: Zoology Department
Department offering the course: Zoology Department
Academic year / Level: First Year / 1st Semester
Date of specification approval: 22/9/2021
A: Basic Information
Title: Introduction in Cytology, Embryology and Systematic Zoology Code:
Z.101
Credit Hours: 3 Lectures: 2 Practical: 1 h. Total: 3 h.
B: Professional Information
1. Overall Aims of Course:
 Study the cell theory, the protoplasm, cell structure and cell division.
 .Recognize the general idea about gametogenesis, fertilization and early
development of animals.
 Describe the nomenclature and recent classification of animal kingdom.
morphology, biologyi, l fe cycles and importance of selective examples of
Protozoa, Parazoa, Diploblastica in addition to Platyhelminthes and
Aschelminthes.
 Differentiate the anatomy of the different organ, system of the Egyptian
Toad, Protozoa, Porifera, Coelentrata, Platyhelminthes and Aschelminthes.
Weighing of Assessments
Mid-Term Examination: -------------------------10%
Final-Term Examination: ------------------------60%
Oral Examination: ------------------------------- -10%
Practical Examination: ---------------------------20%
Semester Work: -------------------------------------%
Other types of assessment: ------------------------%
Total 100%
Course Coordinators
PROF.DR. MAHMOUD DESUKY
PROF.DR. KAMEL ZAKI
ASS.PROF.DR. SHEREIN ALZAHABY
DR. WAFAA GALAL
 CYTOLOGY
ZOO 101

Prof.Dr. Kamel Zaki Hemmaid

 Chapter 1
Definition of Cytology & Cell Biology
Cytology and cell biology are two study areas of biology that mainly
deal with the structure and the function of cells. Cytology is literally ‘the
study of cells’. Cytology is the study of the structure and constituents of
plant and animal cells. Whereas, cell biology aims in studying the structure,
constituents, physiological features, function, interactions, life cycle,
division, and death of cells. Also, it includes the study of simple organisms
(prokaryotes) and more complex organisms (eukaryotes). Furthermore, it
also includes both unicellular organisms such as protozoa and bacteria
and multicellular organisms such as plants and animals including humans.

The main difference between cytology and cell biology is that the cytology
is the formal term for cell biology, which is the study of the structure,
function, and life history of cells and their constituents. Furthermore,
cytology mainly deals with animal and plant cells while cell biology deals
with all eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Thus, cell biology is a wider area
than cytology since it studies the structure and the function of all types of
cells including eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
Thus, cytology is a branch of biology dealing with the structure, function,
multiplication, pathology, and life history of cells : CELL BIOLOGY.
Cytology generally involves looking at a single cell type. Cytology is the
study of cells as fundamental units of living things. The cell (Latin cella,
means "small room" from the Greek kytos, "container") is the basic
structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms.

Historical perspective of cytology:

The history of cell biology has been closely related to the

development of the microscopy. Light microscopy is especially well suited
for imaging cells because the size of the subcellular structures matches the
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resolution limit of the conventional microscopes and also using light for
imaging is largely harmless for biological samples. Though scientists had
been using microscopes for centuries, they were not always sure what they
were looking at. Cytology began with the English scientist Robert
Hooke's (1635–1703) initial observation in 1665 of plant-cell walls in
slices of cork by microscopic investigation. Hooke described the cella
(open or hollow spaces) of plant tissues. Cella is a Latin word
meaning ‘a small room’ and Latin-speaking people applied the word

Cellulae to the six-sided cells of the honey-comb.

Robert Hooke introduced the term “cell” to describe the dead cork
cells. This was followed shortly by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's first
descriptions of live cells with visibly moving parts. Leeuwenhoek (1632–
1723) explored the use of light to discover the microscopic world (studied
cells of algae).

Later, in the 19th century the studies by three scientists, Matthias

Schleiden, Theodor Schwan, and Rudolf Virchow described the cell as a
physiological unit of life that lead to cell theory, a fundamental unifying
theory in biology.

As microscopes and staining techniques improved over the

nineteenth and twentieth centuries, scientists were able to see more and
more internal detail within cells. In the 1830s two scientists who were
colleagues — The botanist Matthias Schleiden ( in1838), looking at plant
cells, and the zoologist Theodor Schwann ( in1839), looking first at animal
cells — provided the first clearly stated definition of the cell. Their definition
stated that that all living creatures, both simple and complex, are made out
of one or more cells, and the cell is the structural and functional unit of life

2
— a concept that became known as cell theory. After viewing live cells in
plant and animal tissue, those scientists proposed the "Cell Theory" that all
living organisms are composed of cells. The conclusions of Schleiden
and Schwann are considered to represent the official formulation of ‘cell

theory’ and their names are almost as closely linked to cell theory .
In 1892 Oscar Hertwig (German embryologist and anatomist)
established cytology as a separate branch of biology. He suggested
that organismic processes are reflections of cellular processes. In
1855, Rudolf Virchow contributed to the cell theory and stated that all
cells come from the division of pre-existing cells. Virchow put forward
the theory of cell lineage or development of cells from
preexisting cells (“Omnis cellulae cellula”). Thus, the cell theory was
established and stated that:" all living things are made up of cells and
that the cell is the functional and structural unit of organisms".
A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks
of life". The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology.

After Schleiden and Swann’s formulation of cell theory, the basic

constituents of the cell were considered to be a wall or a simple membrane
, a viscous substance called ‘‘protoplasm’’ (a name now replaced by Köl-
liker’s term ‘‘cytoplasm’’), and the nucleus.

It soon became evident that the protoplasm was not a homogeneous

fluid. Some biologists regarded its fine structure as fibrillary, whereas others
described a reticular, alveolar or granular protoplasmic architecture.
This discrepancy resulted partly from artefactual and illusory images
attributable to fixation and staining procedures that caused a non-
homogeneous precipitation of colloidal complexes.

3
 However, some staining of real cellular components led to the
description of differentiated elements, which were subsequently identified.
The introduction of the oil-immersion lens in 1870, the development of the
microtome technique and the use of new fixing methods and dyes greatly
improved microscopy. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the
principal organelles that are now considered to be parts of the cell were
identified. The term ‘‘ergastoplasm’’ (endoplasmic reticulum) was
introduced in 1897; mitochondria were observed by several authors and
named by Carl Benda (1857–1933) in 1898, the same year in which
Camillo Golgi (1843–1926) discovered the intracellular apparatus that
bears his name (Golgi apparatus).
.
The protoplasm was not the only structure to have a heterogeneous
appearance. Within the nucleus, the nucleolus and a stainable substance
could be seen. Moreover, a number of structures (ribbons, bands and
threads) appeared during cell division. As these structures could be
heavily stained, they were called ‘‘chromatin’’ by Walther Flemming
(1843–1905), who also introduced the term ‘‘mitosis’’ in 1882 and gave
a superb description of its various processes . Flemming observed the
longitudinal splitting of salamander chromosomes (a term introduced only
in 1888 by Wilhelm Waldeyer, 1836–1921) during metaphase and
established that each half-chromosome moves to the opposite pole of
the mitotic nucleus. This process was also observed in plants, providing
further evidence of the deep unity of the living world.

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Table 1: Summary of Early Scientist contributions in Cytology

Year Scientist Contribution

1590 Z. Janssen F. Janssen Compound Microscope

1665 Robert Hooke Coined the term ‘Cell’

1674 Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek Studied Sperms, Blood Corpuscles

& Protozoans

1833 Schleiden, Formulated Cell Theory

1838 Robert Brown
1839 & Schwann
1839 Altmann Presence of mitochondria in the
cytoplasm

1840 Purkinje Named cell contents as

"Protoplasm"

1890 Waldeyer Discovered chromosomes in the

nucleus

1890 Oscar Hertwig Organismic processes are

reflections of cellular processes

1892 Camillo Golgi Described Golgi Apparatus in

the cytoplasm

1898 Karl Benda Described and named

mitochondria in the cytoplasm

1898 Walter Sutton & Theodor Showed the connection

Boveri between cell
division and heredity
1902-1904 Z. Janssen F. Janssen Compound Microscope

5
 Cell Principle or Modern Cell Theory:
 As a result of these additions and modifications the cell theory has been
termed as “cell principle or cell doctrine”. The cell principle is better
than cell theory as it applies almost to all the living things, plants, animals
and microbes and it also incorporates nearly all the modern findings
about a cell. Modern cell theory or cell principle states that :

1) The body of all living beings is made up of cells and their products.
2) Cell is the unit of structure of body of all organisms.
3) A cell is made up of a small mass of protoplasm having a nucleus, many
organelles and a covering cell membrane (plasmalemma).
4) Each cell is capable of independent existence but a cell organelle can't
survive independently.
5) All cells have fundamental similarity in structure, chemical composition
and basic metabolic reactions.
6) Life exists only in cells because all activities of life are performed by cells.
7) New cells arise from pre-existing cells through division.
8) All present cells of organisms have evolved from primitive cells of the
remote past. They have a common ancestry.
9) Life transferred from one generation to the next only in the form of cells.
10) Genetic information are stored and expressed within the cells.
11) Each cell contains the whole complement of genetic information not for
itself but for the whole organism (Totipotency)
12) All cells have a full genetic information coded in their DNA, but each cell
type uses only a part of information, require for its special function or
structure.
13) A cell has definite life span.

Living cells are of two types prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic

cells are the smallest form of life and much smaller than eukaryotic cells.
6
 Prokaryotic cells include Bacteria and Archaea, and lack an
enclosed cell nucleus. Prokaryotic cells are distinguished from eukaryotic
cells by the absence of a cell nucleus or other membrane bound organelle.

Eukaryotic cells are either unicellular or multicellular and include

animal, plant, and protozoa cells which all contain organelles with various
shapes and sizes.

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

A prokaryotic cell has a size of only 1–10 µm and contains a nucleus
equivalent (nucleoid) instead of a nucleus. This ‘nucleus-like’ densely
packed molecule is located in the cytoplasm and comprises the DNA,
which includes only one chromosome. In addition, a plasmid may be
present (circular, extrachromosomal DNA), which plays a special role in the
development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Eukaryotic cells, however, are 10–100 µm in size and possess a nucleus

that contains the DNA of several chromosomes.

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 Table 2: Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Size Usually 1–2 μm Usually 5–100 μm
Nucleus Absent Present, bounded by nuclear envelope
DNA Usually a single circular Multiple linear molecules (=chromosomes),
molecule (=chromosome) but those of mitochondria and chloroplasts
are circular
Internal Rare Complex (nuclear envelope, Golgi
Membranes apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum,
etc.
Cell Division Simple fission Mitosis or Meiosis
Cytoskeleton Absent Microtubules, microfilaments,
intermediate filaments
First 3.5 × 109 years ago 1.5 × 109 years ago
appearance

8
 Chapter 2
CELL STRUCTURE

The Cell

Cell is the smallest unit of a living organism which is responsible for all
structural, biochemical and physiological functions of the organism.

 Animals are a large group of diverse living organisms that make up to

three-quarters of all species on earth. With their ability to move, to
respond to stimuli, respond to environmental changes and adapt to
different modes of feeding defense mechanisms and reproduction, all
these mechanisms are enhanced by their constituent elements in the
body. However, animals cannot manufacture their own food like plants
and hence they depend on plants in one way or another.
 All living things are made up of cells that make up their body structure.
Some of these living things are single-celled (unicellular) and other
organisms are made up of more than one cell (Multicellular).
 A cell is the smallest (microscopic) structural-functional unit of life of
an organism. The cells that constitute an animal are called Animal cells
and those that constitute plants are known as plant cells.
 Most cells are covered by a protective membrane known as the cell
wall which gives the cells their shape and rigidity.

Thus, Cell is the basic membrane-bound unit that contains the

fundamental molecules of life and of which all living things are composed.
A single cell is often a complete organism in itself, such as
a bacterium or yeast. Other cells acquire specialized functions as they
mature. These cells cooperate with other specialized cells and become the

9
building blocks of large multicellular organisms, such as humans and
other animals. Although cells are much larger than atoms, they are still very
small. The smallest known cells are a group of tiny bacteria
called mycoplasmas; some of these single-celled organisms are spheres
as small as 0.2 μm in diameter (1μm = about 0.000039 inch), with a total
mass of 10−14 gram—equal to that of 8,000,000,000 hydrogen atoms. Cells
of humans typically have a mass 400,000 times larger than the mass of a
single mycoplasma bacterium, but even human cells are only about 20 μm
across. It would require a sheet of about 10,000 human cells to cover the
head of a pin, and each human organism is composed of more than
30,000,000,000,000 cells.

As an individual unit, the cell is capable of metabolizing its

own nutrients, synthesizing many types of molecules, providing its own
energy, and replicating itself in order to produce succeeding generations. It
can be viewed as an enclosed vessel, within which innumerable chemical
reactions take place simultaneously. These reactions are under very
precise control so that they contribute to the life and procreation of the cell.
In a multicellular organism, cells become specialized to perform different
functions through the process of differentiation. In order to do this, each cell
keeps in constant communication with its neighbours. As it receives
nutrients from and expels wastes into its surroundings, it adheres to and
cooperates with other cells. Cooperative assemblies of similar cells form
tissues, and a cooperation between tissues in turn forms organs, which
carry out the functions necessary to sustain the life of an organism.

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 Atoms Simple Macro-
molecules
Molecules

Organelles Membranes

CELLS Tissues

System Organs

Organism

Figure 1:
Diagram showing organization from atoms to a full organism

11
 Animal Cell
Principal structures of an animal cell

Cytoplasm surrounds the cell's specialized structures, or organelles.

Ribosomes, the sites of protein synthesis, are found free in the cytoplasm
or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, through which materials are
transported throughout the cell. Energy needed by the cell is released by
the mitochondria. The Golgi complex, stacks of flattened sacs, processes
and packages materials to be released from the cell in secretory vesicles.
Digestive enzymes are contained in lysosomes. Peroxisomes contain
enzymes that detoxify dangerous substances. The centrosome contains
the centrioles, which play a role in cell division. The microvilli are fingerlike
extensions found on certain cells. Cilia, hairlike structures that extend from
the surface of many cells, can create movement of surrounding fluid. The
nuclear envelope, a double membrane surrounding the nucleus, contains
pores that control the movement of substances into and out of the
nucleoplasm. Chromatin, a combination of DNA and proteins that coil into
chromosomes, makes up much of the nucleoplasm. The dense nucleolus is
the site of ribosome production.

Definition of animal cell

 An animal cell is a eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall, and it is

enclosed by the plasma membrane. The cell organelles are enclosed
by the plasma membrane including the cell nucleus. Unlike the animal
cell lacking the cell wall, plant cells have a cell wall.
 Since animal cells lack a rigid cell wall it allows them to develop a great
diversity of cell types, tissues, and organs. The nerves and muscles are
made up of specialized cells that plant cells cannot evolve to form,
hence giving these nerve and muscle cells have the ability to move.
12
Animal cell size and shape

The lack of a rigid cell wall allowed animals to develop a greater

diversity of cell types, tissues, and organs. Specialized cells that formed
nerves and muscles—tissues impossible for plants to evolve—gave
these organisms mobility.
 Animal cells come in all kinds of shapes and sizes, with their size
ranging from a few millimeters to micrometers. The largest animal cell is
the ostrich egg which has a 5-inch diameter, weighing about 1.2-1.4 kg
and the smallest animal cells are the neurons of about 100 microns in
diameter.
 Animal cells are smaller than the plant cells and they are generally
irregular in shape taking various forms of shapes, due to lack of the cell
wall. Some cells are round, oval, flattened or rod-shaped, spherical,
concave, rectangular. This is due to the lack of a cell wall. Note: most of
the cells are microscopic hence they can only be seen under a
microscope in order to study their anatomy.
 Animal cells are eukaryotic cells with a membrane-bound nucleus.
Therefore, they have their genetic material in the form of DNA enclosed
in the nucleus. They also have several structural organelles within the
plasma membrane which perform various specific functions for proper
cell function and generally to maintain the body normal mechanisms.

13
 Figure 2: Diagram of Animal Cell, created with biorender.com

Figure 3: Three- dimensional (3-D) Diagram of Animal Cell

14
 Chapter 3
COMPONENTS of the CELL

Cytoplasm Definition

 The cytoplasm is the semi-viscous ground substance of the cell.

 All the volume of such substance outside the nucleus and inside
the plasma membrane is cytoplasm.
 It is sometimes described as the non-nuclear content of the protoplasm.
 All the cellular contents in prokaryotes are contained within the cell’s
cytoplasm.
 In eukaryote organisms, the nucleus of the cell is separated from the
cytoplasm.
 The cytoplasm is the substance of life, it serves as a molecular soup
and it is in the cytoplasm where all the cellular organelles are
suspended and are bound together by a lipid bilayer membrane.
 The cytoplasm was discovered in the year 1835 by Robert Brown and
other scientists.

Ever Components of the Cytoplasm

The main components of the cytoplasm are:

1. Cytosol– a gel-like substance
2. Organelles – the cell’s internal sub-structures, and
3. Various cytoplasmic inclusions.

The Cytosol
The cytosol is the part of the cytoplasm that is not occupied by any
organelle. It is a gelatinous fluid, where other components of the cytoplasm

15
remain suspended. It mainly consists of cytoskeleton filaments, organic
molecules, salt, and water.

Organelles
Organelles mean “little organs”, that are membrane-bound. They are
present inside the cell and perform specific functions that are necessary for
the survival of the cell. Some of the constituents of the cell that are
suspended in the cytosol are cellular organelles like mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and
chloroplasts in plant cells.

Cytoplasmic Inclusions
The cytoplasmic inclusions consist of different types of insoluble particles
or molecules that remain suspended in the cytosol. Cytoplasmic inclusions
are not surrounded by any membrane. They are basically granules of
starch and glycogen, and they can store energy. A vast range of inclusions
are present in different cell types. The inclusions range from calcium
oxalate crystals or silicon dioxide crystals in plants to storage granules
of materials like starch, glycogen, etc. Lipid droplets are a widespread
example of inclusions, these are spherical droplets, they are made of lipids
and proteins and are present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a
medium to store lipids like fatty acids and sterols.

Properties of Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is made of 70% – 80% water and is usually colorless.
 It contains proteins, carbohydrates, salts, sugars, amino acids, and
nucleotides.
 The cytoplasm constitutes of dissolved nutrients and also dissolved
waste products.

16
 The outer clear and glassy layer of the cytoplasm is called the
ectoplasm or the cell cortex and the inner granular mass is called the
endoplasm.
 The peripheral zone of cytoplasm is a thick and jelly-like substance,
known as the plasmogel. The surrounding area of the nuclear zone is
thin and liquefied in nature and is known as the plasmosol.
 The physical nature of the cytoplasm is variable. Sometimes, there is
quick diffusion across the cell, making the cytoplasm resemble a
colloidal solution. At other times, it appears to take on the properties of
a gel-like or glass-like substance.
 It is said to have the properties of viscous as well as elastic materials –
capable of deforming slowly under external force in addition to regaining
its original shape with minimal loss of energy.
 The cytoskeleton present in the cytoplasm gives the cell its shape.
 Cytoplasm helps the movement of the cellular materials around the cell
through a process called cytoplasmic streaming.
 Since the cytoplasm constitutes numerous salts, it is a very good
conductor of electricity.
 It shows differential staining properties, the areas stained with the basic
dyes are the basophilic areas of the cytoplasm and is termed as
ergatoplasm for this material.

Functions of Cytoplasm
1. The cytoplasm is the site for most of the enzymatic reactions and
metabolic activity of the cell.
2. The cytoplasm is the place where the cell expands and the growth of
the cell takes place.
3. The cytoplasm provides a medium for the organelles to remain
suspended.

17
4. The cytoplasm acts as a buffer and protects the genetic material of the
cell and also the cellular organelles from damage caused due to
movement and collision with other cells.
5. Cellular respiration begins in the cytoplasm with glycolysis. This
reaction provides the intermediates that are used by the mitochondria to
generate ATP.
6. The translation of mRNA into proteins on ribosomes also occurs mostly
in the cytoplasm.
7. The cytoplasm also contains the monomers that go on to generate the
cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton, in addition to being important for the
normal activities of the cell, is crucial for cells that have a specialized
shape.
8. The cytoplasm also plays a role in creating order within the cell with
specific locations for different organelles. For instance, the nucleus is
usually seen towards the center of the cell, with a centrosome nearby.
9. Cytoplasmic Inheritance: The cytoplasm plays hosts to two organelles
that contain their own genomes – the chloroplast and mitochondria.
These organelles are inherited directly from the mother through the
oocyte and therefore constitute genes that are inherited outside the
nucleus. These organelles replicate independently of the nucleus and
respond to the needs of the cell.

Thus, the cytoplasm is a gel-like material that contains all the cell
organelles, enclosed within the cell membrane. These organelles include;
Mitochondria, ribosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes intermediate filaments, microfilaments microtubules, vesicles.

18
 Chapter 4
PLASMA MEMBRANE
(Cell Membrane or Plasmalemma)
Definition of Plasma membrane (Cell membrane)
The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is a thin semi-permeable
membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. It serves as the
delimitation between the intra- and extracellular spaces. It is composed of
a phospholipid bilayer, with the hydrophilic parts of the phospholipids being
directed towards the intra- and extra-cellular space.
Structure of Plasma membrane (Cell membrane)
 Thin semi-permeable membrane
 It contains a percentage of lipids making a semi-permeable barrier
between the cell and its physical environment.
 It has some protein components a
 It is very consistent around the cell
 All living cells have a plasma membrane.

Functions of Plasma membrane (Cell membrane)

1) The cell membrane is a multifaceted membrane that envelopes a cell's

cytoplasm protecting its contents.

2) It protects the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the
cell while keeping other substances out.

3) It protects the integrity of the cell along with supporting the cell and
helping to maintain the cell's shape.

19
4) It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some
organisms.
5) It also regulates the molecules that pass into and out of the cell, through
the plasma membrane. Therefore it controls homeostasis.
6) Its proteins are actively involved in transporting materials across the
membrane
7) Proteins and lipids are the major components of the cell membrane. The
proteins and lipids allow cell communication, and carbohydrates (sugars
and sugar chains), which decorate both the proteins and lipids and help
cells recognize each other.

8) Phospholipids are important components of cell membranes. They

spontaneously arrange to form a lipid bilayer that is semi-permeable such
that only certain substances can diffuse through the membrane to the cell's
interior.

9) It regulates cell growth through the balance of endocytosis and

exocytosis. In endocytosis, lipids and proteins are removed from the cell
membrane as substances are internalized. In exocytosis, vesicles
containing lipids and proteins fuse with the cell membrane increasing cell
size.

10) The cell membrane’s functionality is determined by its membrane

proteins, which include: ion channels, cell adhesion molecules, aquaporins,
membrane pumps, carrier proteins, and receptor proteins.

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Figure 4: Diagram of the lipid bilayer of cell membrane.

Image: Phospolipid Bilayer. By philschatz, License: CC BY 4.0

Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membrane

The currently accepted model for the structure of the plasma
membrane, called the fluid mosaic model, was first proposed in 1972.
This model has evolved over time, but it still provides a good basic
description of the structure and behavior of membranes in many cells.

According to the fluid mosaic model, the plasma membrane is a mosaic of

components—primarily, phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins—that
move freely and fluidly in the plane of the membrane. In other words, a
diagram of the membrane (like the one below) is just a snapshot of a
dynamic process in which phospholipids and proteins are continually
sliding past one another.

21
Figure 5: Diagram of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane

The peripheral glycocalyx consists of sugar chains (polysaccharides) that are

covalently bonded to membrane proteins (glycoproteins) and membrane lipids
(glycolipids). The glycocalyx is individual and cell type-specific, this means for
example, that it determines the blood group characteristics of the
erythrocytes.

Facilitated by its fluidity, the cell membrane is stable and flexible at the same
time. Its fluidity can change depending on temperature and lipid composition.
The membrane is semi-permeable (also referred to as selective
permeability), which means it is permeable to small-molecular substances like
water, which are able to diffuse osmotically. Higher-molecular substances
such as proteins require specific transport systems in order to pass through
the cell membrane.

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Microvilli
These are surface protrusions from the free face of the cell membrane. It is
found in the intestinal lining, on egg cell surfaces, and on white blood cells.
Structure of Microvilli
 These are surface protrusions formed from accessory proteins of the
actin filaments. The accessory proteins bundle together to form
microvilli on the surface of the cell membrane
Functions of Microvilli
 In the small intestines, they increase the surface area for the absorption
of digested food and water. Some microvilli may be found in the ear for
detection of sound and they transmit the sound waves to the brain
through an electric signal.
 They also help to anchor the sperm to the egg for easy fertilization.
 In white blood cells, they also act as anchors allowing the white blood
cells freely moving in the circulatory system to attach to possible
pathogens.

Figure 6: Microvilli (MV) at the apical surface of two neighboring epithelial cells
joined by a junctional complex (JC)

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 Chapter 5
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES (ORGANOIDS)
Some cell organelles are also surrounded by protective membranes.
The nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, lysosomes, and Golgi
apparatus are examples of membrane-bound organelles. The
membranes of the different organelles vary in molecular composition
and are well suited for the functions they perform. Organelle
membranes are important to several vital cell functions including protein
synthesis, lipid production, and cellular respiration.

1- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 This is a continuous folded membranous organelle found in the
cytoplasm made up of a thin network of flattened interconnected
compartments (sacs) that connects from the cytoplasm to the cell
nucleus.
 Within its membranes, there are membranous spaces called
the cisternal spaces and the membrane folding are called cisternae
or lamellae.
 There are two types of ER based on their structure and the function
they perform including Rough Endoplasmic reticulum and
the Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 Manufacturing, processing and transporting proteins for cell utilization
both in and out of the cell. This is because it is directly connected to the
nuclear membrane providing a passage between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.

24
 The ER has more than half the membranous cell content, hence it has a
large surface area where chemical reactions take place. They also
contain the enzymes for almost all the cell lipid synthesis hence they
are the site for lipid synthesis.
The variation in physical and functional characteristics differentiates the ER
into two types i.e., Rough endoplasmic reticulum and Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER) –
Rough ER is called “rough” because there surface is covered with
ribosomes, giving it a rough appearance. The function of the ribosomes
on rough ER is to synthesis proteins and they have a signaling
sequence, directing them to the endoplasmic reticulum for processing.
Rough ER transports the proteins and lipids through the cell into the
cristae. They are then sent into the Golgi bodies or inserted into the cell
membrane.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER)
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is primarily composed of three-
dimensional polygonal networks of tubules called cisternae. They are
about 50 nm in diameter in mammals. The smooth ER is also a
dynamic structure, with new tubules budding off from the sides of
existing structures.
Smooth ER is not associated with ribosomes and their function is different
from that of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, despite lying adjacent to the
rough endoplasmic reticulum. Its function is to synthesis lipids (cholesterol
and phospholipids) that are utilized for producing new cellular membranes.
They are also involved in the synthesis of steroid hormones from
cholesterol for certain cell types (ovaries, testes, and the adrenal gland). It
also contributes to the detoxification of the liver after the intake of drugs

25
and toxic chemicals. In liver cells the smooth ER produces enzymes that
help to detoxify certain compounds.
There is also a specialized type of smooth ER known as the sarcoplasmic
reticulum. Its function is to regulate the concentration of Calcium ions in
the muscle cell cytoplasm. In muscles the smooth ER assists in the
contraction of muscle cells. Probably the most universal
role of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the storage and sudden
release of calcium ions. Calcium ions are pumped from the cytosol into the
lumen of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum to more than 100 times the
concentration found in the cytosol.

 Smooth ER also serves as a transitional area for vesicles that

transport ER products to various destinations.
 In brain cells it synthesizes male and female hormones.

Figure 7: Rough endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes on

the outer lamellar surface

26
Figure 8: Cisternae of smooth endoplasmic reticulum
showing labyrinthine architecture

2- Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies/Golgi complex)

Structure of Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies)
A Golgi body, also known as a Golgi apparatus, is a cell organelle that
helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules, especially
proteins destined to be exported from the cell. It was named after its
discoverer, Camillo Golgi in 1898. It is a membrane-bound cell organelle
found in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, next to the endoplasmic
reticulum and near the nucleus.

 Golgi bodies are supported together by cytoplasmic microtubules and

held by a protein matrix
 It is made up of flattened stacked pouches known as cisternae or
saccules.
 These cisternae formed stacks that may be 4- 10 in number for animal
cell Golgi bodies. In some single-celled organisms they may be 60
cisternae.
 They have three primary compartments known as cis (Cisternae
nearest the Endoplasmic Reticulum), medial (central layers of
27
 cisternae) and the trans (cisternae farthest from the endoplasmic
reticulum).

Created with BioRender.com

Figure 9: Two- dimension and 3-dimension representation of Golgi

apparatus

Figure 10: Faces of Golgi apparatus

28
Functions of Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies)
 Their primary function is to transport, modify and pack proteins and
lipids into the Golgi vesicles to deliver them to their target sites. Cis and
trans Golgi network make up the outer layer of cisternae at the cis and
trans face and they are responsible for sorting proteins and lipids
received at the cis face and released by the trans face, by the Golgi
bodies.
 The cis face collects the proteins and lipids, of fused vesicles in
clusters. The fused vesicles move along the microtubules through a
specialized compartment known as the vesicular-tubular
cluster. This compartment is found between the endoplasmic reticulum
and the Golgi apparatus.
 The vesicle clusters fuse with the cis Golgi network, delivering the
proteins and lipids into the cis face cisternae and as they move from the
cis face to the trans face, they get modified to functional units. These
functional units get delivered to intracellular and extracellular
components of the cell.
 Modification mechanisms include:
 Cleaving of oligosaccharides chains
 Attachment of sugar moieties of different side chains
 Adding fatty acids and/or phosphate groups by phosphorylation, and/or
removing monosaccharides e.g. the removal of the mannose moieties
takes place in the cis and the medial cisternae while adding of
galactose takes place in the trans cisternae.
 Sorting of the modified proteins and lipids occurs in the trans-Golgi
network and packed into the trans vesicles, which then delivers them to
the lysosomes or sometimes to the cell membrane for exocytosis.
 Thus, Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for
the cell's chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the

29
 endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for export to the outside of
the cell.

3- Ribosomes
Definition of Ribosomes
 They are small organelles majorly made up of 60% RNA cytoplasmic-
granules and 40% proteins.
 All living cells contain ribosomes, which may be freely scattered in the
cytoplasm and some are connected to the outer faces of the
endoplasmic reticulum lamellae.
 Free and the bound ribosomes are very much alike in structure
and are associated with protein synthesis.

 Ribosomes are a part of the protein-generating factory in the cell. It

comprises of two sections, known as subunits. The tinier subunit
is the place the mRNA binds, whereas the bigger subunit is the
place the amino acids are included. This structure acts as a docking
station for the transfer RNA that contains the amino acid that will then
become part of the growing polypeptide chain.
 Around 37 to 62% of RNA is comprised of RNA and the rest is
proteins.

Ribosomes are made of proteins and ribonucleic acid (abbreviated as

RNA), in almost equal amounts. Both subunits comprise of both ribonucleic
acid and protein components and are linked to each other by interactions
between the proteins in one subunit and the rRNAs in the other subunit.
The ribonucleic acid is obtained from the nucleolus.

Structure of Ribosomes

The structures of ribosomes include:

30
  Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes respectively subunits
comprising the little subunit of 30S and the bigger subunit of
50S. Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes respectively comprising
of little (40S) and substantial (60S) subunits.

Ribosomes are usually made up of three or four rRNA molecules and

anywhere from about 40 to 80 different ribosomal proteins. Each ribosome
is composed of two subunits, a larger one and a smaller one, each of which
has a characteristic shape.

 Ribosomes are made up of ribosomal proteins and ribosomal RNA

(rRNA). In a eukaryotic cell, ribosomes constitute half ribosomal RNA
and half ribosomal proteins.
 Each ribosome is made up of two subunits i. e large subunit and small
subunit with their own distinct shapes. These subunits are designated
as the 40s and 60s in the animal cell.
Functions of Ribosomes
 Ribosomes that occur as free particles are attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum membrane occurring in large numbers accounting for about a
quarter of the cell organelles. A single replicated cell has about 10
million ribosomes.
 The ribosomal subunits are the site for genetic coding into proteins. On
the ribosomes, the mRNA helps determine the coding for Transfer RNA
(tRNA) which also determines the protein amino acid sequences.

The other functions include:

1. Procedure of creation of proteins, the deoxyribonucleic acid makes

mRNA by the step of DNA transcription.
2. Hereditary information from the mRNA is converted into proteins
amid DNA translation.

31
 3. The arrangements of protein assembly amid protein synthesis are
indicated in the mRNA.
4. The mRNA is arranged in the nucleus and is moved to the cytoplasm
for an additional operation of protein synthesis.
5. Proteins which are arranged by the ribosomes currently in the
cytoplasm are utilized inside the cytoplasm by itself. The proteins
created by the bound ribosomes are moved outside the cell.

Figure 11: Ribosomes are scattered free in the cytoplasm or attached to

the surface of RER

4- Mitochondria
Definition of Mitochondria
 These are membrane-bound organelles located in the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells
 The number of mitochondria found in each cell varies widely depending
on the function of the cell it performs.
 For example, erythrocytes do not have mitochondria while the liver and
muscle cells have thousands of mitochondria.

32
Structure of Mitochondria
 They are rod-shaped or oval or spherically shaped, with a size of 0.5 to
10 μm.
 Mitochondria have two special membranes – outer smooth one and
inner convoluted or folded membrane. Due to the presence of the two
membranes two chambers are produced outer and inner chambers.
 They have a mitochondrial gel-matrix (ground substance) inside the
central mass. The matrix has mitochondrial DNA rods and ribosome-like
(in size) granules.
 The membranes bend into folds known as cristae.
Functions of Mitochondria
 In the animal cell, they are the main power generators, converting
oxygen and nutrients into energy.
 Their primary function is to generate energy for the cell i.e., they are the
power generators, producing energy in form of Adenosine Tri-
phosphate (ATP), by converting nutrients and oxygen into energy
enabling the cell to perform its function and to also release excess
energy from the cell.
 Mitochondria also store calcium which assists in cell signaling activity,
generating cellular and mechanical heat and mediating cellular growth
and death.
 The outer membrane is permeable, allowing the transport of small
molecules and a special channel to transport large molecules.
 The inner mitochondrial membrane is less permeable thus allowing very
small molecules into the mitochondrial gel-matrix in the central
mass. The gel matrix is composed of the mitochondria DNA and
enzymes for the Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle or the Kreb’s Cycle.
 The TCA cycle uses up the nutrients, converting them into by-products
that the mitochondria use for producing energy. These processes take
place in the inner membrane.
33
 Some if not all proteins and molecules that make up the mitochondria
come from the cell nucleus. The mitochondrial nucleus genome has 37
genes of which 13 of these genes produce most of the components of
the Electron Transport Chain (ETC). ETC is the main source of ATP
production in the body ETC. However, the mitochondrial DNA is very
vulnerable to mutations because they don’t possess a large DNA repair
mechanism, a common element found in other nuclear DNAs.

Figure 12: Ultrastructure of mitochondrion surrounded with lamellae of RER

5- Centrioles
This is distinctly found in the animal cell, which has the ability to
replicate or division. It is made up of 9 triplet microtubule bundles (9x3 =27
microtubules) held together by proteins forming a cylinder.
. As triplets, they remain very strong together hence they have been
observed to be in structures like cilia and flagella.
 They are found in the centrosome, creating and holding microtubules
within the cell.
 The triplet microtubules are surrounded by a pericentriolar matrix
containing molecules that build up the microtubules.
34
 Each microtubule within the triplet microtubule complex is made up of
tubulin subunits that join together forming long hollow tubes that look
like straw (microtubules).
Functions of Centrioles
The primary function of centrioles is to assist in organizing the cell division
process.
 The centriole microtubules allow the transportation of substances that
are linked together with a glycoprotein to any cell location. The
glycoprotein linkage acts as a signaling unit to move specific proteins.
 The centrioles anchor the microtubules that extend from it and contain
the factors needed to create more tubules.
 Mitosis is achieved by replication of each centriole which makes
duplicates of each centriole (4 centrioles). The newly formed centrioles
divide into two centrosomes, each centriole at an angle to the second
centriole. The microtubules between the centrosomes, push the pairs of
centrioles apart, to the opposite ends of the cell. When the centrioles
are in place, the microtubules extend to the cell cytoplasm, to seek for
the chromosome. The microtubules then bind to the chromosome at the
centromere. The microtubules are then unassembled moving the
chromosomes apart.

Figure 13: Ultrastructure of centrioles L.S. and T.S.

35
6- Lysosomes
Lysosomes were discovered by Christian Rene de Duve, a Belgian
cytologist in the 1950s. It was known as cell vesicles or microbodies.
Lysosomes break down cellular waste products and debris from outside the
cell into simple compounds, which are transferred to the cytoplasm as new
cell-building materials. Lysosomes are sometimes called “cell stomachs”
because they contain enzymes that digest cellular components. They are
particularly plentiful in cells that digest and destroy other cells, such as
macrophages.
Structure of Lysosomes
Lysosomes are roughly spherical and usually 250–500 nm in diameter.
 They are round subcellular organelle found in almost all eukaryotic cells
 Lysosomes are very acidic organelles containing the digestive enzymes
and therefore each of the lysosomes is surrounded by a membrane to
protect it from the outer environment.
Functions of Lysosomes
 This is the site for digestion of cell nutrients, excretion, and cell renewal.
 Lysosomes break down macromolecules components from the outside
of the cell into simpler elements that are transported into the cytoplasm
via a proton pump to build new cell materials.
 These macromolecule components include old cells and parts, cell
waste products, microorganisms, and cell debris.
 The digestive enzymes found in the lysosomes are called hydrolytic
enzymes or acid hydrolases, breaking down large molecules into
smaller molecules that can be utilized by the cell.
 These enzymes also break down large molecules e. g proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, into small molecules e.g. amino acids and simple
sugars, fatty acids, respectively.

36
 Note: The enzymes are active only on the inside of the acidic lysosome
and their acidity protects the cell from degrading itself when there is
lysosomal leakage because the cell pH is neutral to slightly alkaline.

Figure 14: Ultrastructure of a primary lysosome

7- Peroxisomes
Structure of Peroxisomes
They are tiny spherical bodies, bound by a single membrane and they are
the most common micro-bodies in the cell cytoplasm. Peroxisomes are so
named because they are frequently responsible for the conversion of
the highly reactive molecule hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which is formed as
a by-product of the reactions in the mitochondrion, into water:
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2

Functions of Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes functions include:
 Lipid metabolism

37
 Chemical detoxification by moving hydrogen atoms from various
oxygen molecules to produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hence
neutralizing body poison such as alcohol.
 Its mechanism in Reactive Oxygen species is highly essential.

Figure 15: Ultrastructure of a primary lysosome

8- Cytoskeleton
Structure of Cytoskeleton
 This is a fibrous network that’s formed from and by different proteins of
long chains of amino acids.
 These proteins are found in the cell cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cells.
 They are also made up of 3 types of tiny filaments: Actin filaments
(Microfilaments), Microtubules, Intermediate filaments.

38
Functions of Cytoskeleton
 The cytoskeleton functions to create a network organizing the cell
components and to also maintain the cell shape.
 It also provided a uniform movement of the cell and its organelles, by
the filament system network found in the cell’s cytoplasm.
 It also organizes some of the cell components maintaining the cell
shape
 It plays a major role in the movement of the cell and some cell
organelles in the cytoplasm.
 The tiny filaments include:
 Microfilaments (Actin filaments): These are solid rods made of
globular proteins called actin. These filaments are primarily structural in
function and are an important component of the cytoskeleton. They
form a meshwork of fibers running parallel to each other and they play
a primary role in giving the cell its shape; they change consistently,
helping the cell to move and to also mediate certain cell activities such
as adherence ability to substrates and cleavage mechanisms during
mitotic cell division
 Microtubules- these are long filaments that assist in mitosis moving
daughter chromosomes to new forming daughter cells.
 Intermediate filaments– they are more stable filaments in comparison
to the actin and microtubules. They form the true skeleton of the cell,
and the hold the nucleus in its rightful position within the cell.
 It also allows the cell’s elasticity factor enabling it to endure physical
tension.
 Other proteins that may be added as part of the cytoskeleton of the cell
include septin ((assembles the filaments) and spectrin (help maintain
the structure of the cell by pulling together the cell membrane with the
intracellular surface of the cell).

39
 Figure 16: Cytoskeleton of the cell

9- Microtubules
Structure of Microtubules

 These are long straight, hollow cylinders found throughout the

cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and
carry out a variety of functions, ranging from transport to structural
support.

 They are constructed from 13-15 sub-filaments (protofilament) of a

special globular protein called tubulin, found only in eukaryotic cells.
Functions of Microtubules
 Transportation of some organelles like the mitochondria and the
vesicles i.e. transporting vesicles from the neuron cell body to the axon
tips, and back to the cell body
 Structural support, they give characteristic support to the Golgi bodies,
holding them within the gel-matrix of the cytoplasm.

40
 They provide the rigid and organized component of the cytoskeleton of
the cell, enabling a cell to take up a particular shape.
 They are the main elements that make up the locomotive projections of
a cell (cilia and flagella)
 They also play a role in forming the spindle fibers of the chromosome of
the cell during mitotic cell division.

Figure 17: Ultrastructure of microtubules (MT) and actin filaments (AF)

10- Vacuoles
These are fluid-filled cell organelles enclosed by a membrane.

Structure of Vacuoles
 They are membrane-bound sacs found within the cell cytoplasm.
 The vacuole sac has a single membrane surrounding it known as a
tonoplast and this membrane resembles the plasma membrane.
Functions of Vacuoles
 The primary function of vacuoles is to store food, water, carbohydrates
in the form of sugars and waste materials.
 Tonoplast is a regulator controlling the inflow and outflow of small
across a protein pump
41
 acts as the guard for what kinds of matter are allowed passage to and
from vacuoles
 They also remove toxic substances and waste materials from the cell as
a protection strategy.
 They also remove poorly folded proteins from the cell.
 Vacuoles also can be able to change their functionality to provide
necessary roles that suit the cell, by being able to change shape and
size.

Figure 18: Ultrastructure of cytoplasmic vacuoles

42
 Chapter 6
The Nucleus
The nucleus is the most prominent cell organelle. It contains the
genome, the cell’s database, which is encoded in molecules of the nucleic
acid, DNA. The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope composed of
two membranes separated by an intermembrane space. The inner
membrane of the nuclear envelope is lined by a meshwork of proteins
called the nuclear lamina which provides rigidity to the nucleus. A two-way
traffic of proteins and nucleic acids between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
passes through holes in the nuclear envelope called nuclear pores.

Definition of Nucleus
 This is a spherical structured organelle found majorly at the center of a
cell surrounded by a double-layered nuclear membrane separating it
from the cytoplasm.
 It is held together to the cytoplasm with the help of the filaments and
microtubules.
 It holds other cells organelles including the nucleolus, nucleosomes,
and chromatins.
 A cell has one nucleus which divides producing multinucleated cells e.g.
the skeletal muscle cell fibers.
 Some cells lose their nuclei after maturations e.g. the red blood cells.

Structure of Nucleus
 The double-layered membrane is a continuous channel of membranous
from the endoplasmic reticulum network.
 The membrane has pores which allow entry of large molecule
 Nucleoli (Singular; nucleolus) are tiny/small bodies found in the nucleus

43
 The nucleus and its component organelles are suspended in
the nucleoplasm (House of the chromosomal DNA and genetic
materials)
Functions of Nucleus
 The primary role of the nucleus is to control and regulate cell activities
of growth and maintain cell metabolisms.
 It also carries the genes that have hereditary information of the cell.
 The chromosomal DNA and genetic materials, which are made up of
genetic coded ultimately make up their proteins’ amino acid sequences
for use by the cell.
 Therefore, the nucleus is the information center.
 It is the site for Transcription (formation of mRNA from DNA) and the
mRNA is transported to the nuclear envelope.

Figure 19: Ultrastructure of the nucleus

44
 References
- Bolsover, S.R.; Hyams, J.S.; Shephard, E. A.; White, H.A. and

Wiedemann, C.G. (2004): Cell Biology: a short course.2nd ed., John Wiley

& Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Pp:535.

- Raven, P.H.; Johanson, G. B.; Mason, K.A.; Loses, J.B. and Singer, S.R.

(2011) : "Biology", 9th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. Pp: 1406.

- Robinson, R. (2002): Biology. Macmillan Reference USA. Pp: 1175.

45
 CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page

1 Definition of Cytology & Cell Biology 1
2 Cell Structure 9
3 Components of the Cell 15
4 Plasma membrane (Plasmalemma) 19
5 Cytoplasmic Organelles (Organoids) 24
6 The Nucleus 43

46
 EMBRYOLOGY
It is the study of the early developmental stages of
living organisms.
Before we study developmental
stages, we have to know the origin
of living organisms, thus we have to
study types of reproduction first.

types of reproduction

A sexual sexual
reproduction reproduction

A sexual reproduction
It needs one parent, i.e. a single organism which splits, buds
or fragments to give rise to two or more individuals.
Types

1- SPLITTING: 2- BUDDING: 3- FRAGMENTATION:

the organism splits the organism produces a the organism
to two individuals small bud which grows on fragments to more
e.g. Paramecium the mothers body then than two organisms
breaks down to a new forming a colony
organism e.g. Hydra e.g. yeast
 sexual reproduction
• It involves the fusion of two gametes, a male gamete
(sperm) fuses with a female gamete (ovum) to form a
ZYGOTE or fertilized egg.
• In this case the chromosomes (n) of sperm join with the
chromosomes (n) of ovum forming the chromosomes
(2n) of the zygote.
• Zygote undergoes embryonic developmental stages
which involve the division of zygote cell to a large
number of somatic cells containing diploid number of
chromosomes (2n) that form the body of an embryo.
• Before we study these developmental stages we have to
study the formation of gametes containing haploid
number of chromosomes (n) by a process called
GAMETOGENESIS .

GAMETOGENESIS
• It is the production of gametes by parents which
involves the reduction of number of chromosomes to
haploid sets of chromosomes in the resulting gametes.
• The body of an organism contains many organs which
all are formed of somatic cells (2n) even the gonads
(testis) in male and (ovary) in female, the cells lining
these organs are diploid in chromosomes.
• The origin of the haploid germ cells is those diploid
cells lining the testis and the ovary (the primordial
germ cells) which undergo a number of changes in two
processes called spermatogenesis (production of
sperm) and oogenesis (production of ovum) through
three phases in each process.
• Testis are formed of a large number of seminiferous
tubules in which countless number of sperms is formed.
• Walls of seminiferous tubules are lined with the germinal
epithelium 2n formed of cubical primordial germ cells
from which sperms 1n are produced.

The ovary of female is lined with the germinal

epithelium consisting of primordial germ cells 2n
which undergo oogenesis to produce mature ovum 1n
finally
 SPERMATOGENESIS
• The formation of male gametes or sperms in the
testis
• Involves three phases:-
a) Multiplication phases:
Repeated mitotic divisions in the primordial germ
cells lining the testis to produce large number of
spermatogonia (2n)
b) Growth phase:
Spermatogonia grow and become larger in size it
becomes primary spermatocyte and still 2n.

c) Maturation phase:
Each spermatocyte undergoes meiosis in two
successive nuclear divisions, the first produces two
equal secondary spermatocytes each is haploid in
chromosomes (n), the second immediately follows
and each spermatocyte divides into two equal and
identical spermatids also haploid, thus each primary
spermatocyte produces four spermatids.

• The spermatid undergoes certain morphological

changes called metamorphosis to form the active
motile spermatozoa.
 primordial germ cells
1-
Multiplication mitotic

mitotic
phase
spermatogonia

2- Growth phase primary spermatocyte

1st meiosis secondary

3- spermatocyte
2ed meiosis
Maturation spermatids
phase

Spermatozoa by metamorphosis

Types of sperms:
 OOGENESIS
• The formation of female gametes or ova in the
ovaries.
• Involves three phases:-
a) Multiplication phases:
Repeated mitotic divisions in the primordial germ
cells lining the ovary to produce large number of
oogonia (2n), they accumulate in nets of cells lining
the periphery of ovary.
b) Growth phase:
oogonia grow and become larger in size as it collects
all the organic matter from surrounding medium, it
becomes primary oocyte and still 2n.
c) Maturation phase:
Each primary oocyte undergoes meiosis in two
successive nuclear divisions, the first produces two
unequal cells; a large secondary oocyte containing all
the organic matter and a small first polocyte with a
very thin layer of cytoplasm but each is haploid in
chromosomes (n), the second meiosis splits the
secondary oocyte into two unequal cells; the mature
ovum and the second polocyte, also polocyte splits
into two secondary polar bodies. each of the products
are haploid, polocyte and polar bodies all disintegrate.
 1- primordial germ cells

Multiplication mitotic

phase mitotic
oogonia

2- Growth phase primary oocyte

3- 1st meiosis
1st polocyte
Maturation secondary 2nd meiosis
phase oocyte

2nd Two polar bodies

polocyte

large Mature
ovum

Types of ova:
1- isolecithal: 2- mesolecithal: 3- centrolecithal: 4- telolecithal:
• Small amount of • Moderate • Moderate • Very large amount of
amount of yolk yolk
yolk amount of yolk
• Occupies the whole
• Homogeneously • Concentrated • distributed free space of the cell
distributed in in the lower around the so that it pushes the
the cell part of the cell nucleus in nucleus and
• In Amphioxus (animal pole) center of the cytoplasm upwards
• In Toad cell in so called germinal
• Inn insects disk.
• In birds
 FERTILIZATION
• The process in which two gametes egg and sperm
unite to form the zygote.
• Types of fertilization:-
A) External fertilization:
-Both kinds of gametes are shed into the surrounding
medium, sperms swim or are carried with water current
to eggs, sperms and eggs are released with vast numbers
to overcome the losses expected in water.
-Animals that perform external fertilization are:
most fishes, the bony fishes but not the cartilagenous
fishes and many amphibians.

B) internal fertilization:
-the eggs remain in the females body until they are fertilized
by sperms introduced into the females genital system by the
male during copulation.
-Animals that perform internal fertilization are classified into
three types:
1- OVIPAROUS :
These are egg laying animals which incubate the fertilized
egg in the females body to complete development in a
calcified shell in which the nourishment of embryo takes
place through the yolk then it lays the egg from which the
young eventually hatch.
Like all birds most insects and many aquatic invertebrates.
2- VIVIPAROUS:
Eggs are retained in females uterus and nourished by the
blood stream of mother through placenta i.e. there is an
organic connection between the embryo and mother.
Like mammals

3- OVIVIVIPAROUS:
Eggs are incubated and hatched in the mothers body ,
nourishment comes from the organic material stored in
the eggs and there is no organic connection with mother
and finally the youngs are released by female.
Like shark and lizard.

parthenogenesys
• A special type of reproduction in some animals which
reproduce sexually and perform internal fertilization in
which eggs are stimulated to develop without fertilization.
• Honey bee for example:
• The queen is fertilized once during lifetime , sperms are
kept in germinal pouch, eggs are laid and sperms are
released for fertilization, this will produce workers and
queens.
• Males come from the growth of unfertilized eggs by the
action of hormones and enzymes, eggs are haploid (16)
chromosomes so males are haploid while females are
diploid (32).
 EMBRTONIC DEVELOPMENT
• Three main stages:
• A) cleavage: repeated mitotic divisions in the original
zygote resulting in the formation of a large number
of small cells known as
blastomers…………….(BLASTULA).
• B) gastrulation: subsequent stages in which the
blastomers are arranged to form the ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm……………..(GASTRULA)
• C) organogenesis: the differentiation of different
tissues and organs from the three main germ
layers……………(EMBRYO)

The early development of amphioxus

The development of amphioxus represents the simplest
type of chordate development.
Cleavage:
It is described as holoblastic cleavage or complete:
1- The first cleavage , appears as a superficial groove at the
animal pole and gradually extends towards the vegetal pole. The
nucleus is divided mitotically into two nuclei and then the
cytoplasm divides into two halves, each half has one of the two
nuclei, each half is called blastomere.
2- The second cleavage, is also vertical but it is at the right angles
to the first division, resulting in 4 blastomeres which are all equal
in size.
3- The third cleavage is horizontal the plane of division near to the
animal pole and producing eight unequal blastomers, 4
micromeres towards the animal pole and 4 macromeres towards
the vegetal pole.
4- The fourth cleavage, is vertical and consists mainly of two
planes, divide the 8- blasotmeres into 16- blastomeres (8-
micromeres 8-macromeres).
5- The fifth cleavage, is horizontal takes place by 2- plans to form
32 blastomeres : these blastomeres are arranged in eight vertical
rows, each row is formed of 4 cells. The smallest of which lies
near the animal pole. Then the size of the cells gradually
increases towards the vegetative pole. This stage is called the
morula stage.

Blastula:
A cavity is also appearing at the inside of the dividing mass.
This is the beginning the blastocoel, it makes it first
appearance at the 4-blastomeres stage- During the following
divisions, this space increases in size as the resulting cells
push themselves from the center of the mass towards
outside.
After the sixth division, cleavage becomes irregular. The
cells divide rapidly and arrange themselves in single
epithelial layer which is composed of one cell thickness, this
stage is spherical in shape and designated as the blastula
stage. It is composed of single layered blastoderm and the
cavity inside it ,is the blastocoel. The blastoderm is
composed of micromeres near of animal pole and
macromeres near the vegetative pole.
Gastrulation:
The formation of gastrula takes place as the following steps:
1- flattining of the macromeres.
2- small depression appears at the out flattened area.
3- increasing of the depression resulting in the approach of the cells of the
vegetal pole (macromeres) to the cells of animal pole (micromeres).
4- macromeres come in contact with the macromeres.
5- blastocoel disappears and a new cavity appears which is known as
primitive gut or archenteron. This stage is known as gastrula which as a
hemispherical structure with 2 layers, outer layer known as ectoderm
(micromeres) and inner layer known as endoderm or mesoderm
(macromeres).
It is composed of an upper lip and lower lip which enclose a blastopore
between the two lips.
The cleavage continues in all parts of the gastrula but it is very rapid at the
area of dorsal lip and decrease gradually as we go towards to the ventral lip.
This leads to that gastrula becomes elongated in the anterior and posterior
direction.
 The early development of the frog
The egg of the frog is mesolecithal. It is covered by pigment
which is either black or brown. Near the vegetative pole there
is a small area which is free from pigment.
Cleavage
it is of holoblastic form.
1. The first cleavage as the same of amphioxus resulting 2 equal
blastomeres.
2. The second cleavage like the first, is vertical and at right angle to
the first, resulting 4 equal blastomeres.
3. The third cleavage is horizontal, parallel to the equator but nearer
to the animal pole than to the vegetal pole, resulting 8 unequal
blastomeres, 4 small micromeres and 4 large macromeres which
near the animal and vegetal poles respectively.
4- The fourth cleavage is vertical in two planes each is oriented from the
animal pole to vegetal pale, the two planes are oriented at right angles to
each other and to the third cleavage plane. Thus producing 16 blastomeres,
8 micromeres and 8 macromeres.

5- The fifth cleavage takes place by two horizontal planes which are
parallel to the third cleavage plane. Thus producing 32 blastomeres. The
regularity of cleavage is lost after the fifth cleavage.

Blastula formation:
1- The beginning of blastocoel appears firstly in 8 blastomeres stage
among the inner margins of the cells.

2- It is nearer to the animal pole and becomes gradually larger in size.

3- The 32 blastomeres stage is considered as an early blastula with large

cavity and a single layer of cells.

4- The early blastula becomes late blastula with a several layered

blastoderm this is achieved by a series of horizontal cleavages which
are parallel to the surface of the cells.

5- The micromeres near to the animal pole are freely from yolk. The
macromeres near to the vegetal pole are with great amount of yolk.

6- The animal pole cells (micromeres) move towards the equator, thus
the roof of blastocoel becomes thin and its side. wall becomes thick

7- This thick layer which lies near the equator is composed of actively
dividing cells and forms the germ ring, which has no sharp limit
between it and the surrounding cells and it extends around the blastula.
Gastrulation:
gastrulation in the frog includes two different processors:
A. over growth (epipoly)
B. invagination

1- It begins with the appearance of a small groove in the posterior

side of the blastula at the lower margin of the germ ring. The
groove represents the beginning of the archenteron.
2- The upper margin is the dorsal lip of the blastopore. This lip
extends right and left from place of its first appearance and
moves as a down growth towards the vegetative pole

3- Finally the two lateral lips right and left meetach other on the
ventral side to form the ventral lip of the blastopore.

4- Thus , the blastopore becomes a closed ring and the small

pigmented cells cover the layer yolked cells of the vegetative
pole, with the exception of small part of large cells which is
known as the yolk plug. This process is known as over growth or
epipoly.

5- The second process invagination, it takes place as an elevation

of the floor of the blostocoel, which becomes reduced into a
narrow slit which separate ectoderm from the endoderm.

6- The beginning of archenteron goes deeper inside the embryo

and gradually becomes larger in size.

7- At later stage of the development, the slit which represents the

reduced blastocoel disappears.
8- The yolk plug disappears, when the diameter of the
blastopore decreases in size gradually.

-Finally, change of the single layered blastula into a double

layered gastrula in which the outer layer is the ectoderm,
and the inner layer is the endoderm. The archenteron is
hemispherical cavity having a comparatively thin roof and a
very thick floor composed of large cells heavily charged of
yolk.
 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF CHICK
Type of fertilization: internal
Type of egg: telolecithal
Type of cleavage: meroblastic …..discoidal

Cleavage:
1-the first: vertical groove at the middle
of germinal desk gives two incomplete
blastomeres.
2-the second: horizontal at right angle
to the first gives four incomplete
blastomeres.
3-the third: two vertical fissures parallel
to the first gives 8 blastomeres.
4- the fourth: each blastomere divides
into a small central and a large
peripheral cell, this cleavage gives 16
blastomeres, then the regularity is lost,
cells divide, increase in number forming
a single-layered blastoderm which
becomes multi-layered as a result of a
series of divisions, yolk is still adhering
to blastoderm.
Blastula formation:
Subgerminal cavity is formed when the central portion of the
blastoderm detaches itself from the underlying yolk, here the
blastula is formed.
• Description of blastula:
Two zones , the first is the peripheral zone (area opaqua) the
outer zone of blastoderm which is still adhering to yolk, the
second is the central (area pellucida) the inner zone which
was detached from yolk.
Gastrulation: includes two phases, Early gastrulation
and gastrulation proper
1) Early gastrulation:
In this stage the blastoderm is differentiated into two
separate layers to form the gastrula.

Blastula

gastrula
formation

gastrula
• Description of gastrula:
An upper epiblast which will give ectoderm and mesoderm
later, a lower hypoblast which will give endoderm later and a
central cavity between the two layers which is the blastocoel,
the old space between the hypoblast and the yolk is
archentron.
• Theories of gastrula formation:
Three theories :
a)involution: the posterior portion of the blastoderm is
involutes downwards and then extends forward forming the
hypoblast.
b)delamination: cellular complex splits forming two separate
layers, the epiblast and hypoblast .
c)infiltration: individual cells separate and migrate down to
the surface of yolk, then they mix together forming
hypoblast.

2) Gastrulation proper:
The cells of the anterior and lateral regions of the embryo
move medially and posteriorly resulting in the formation of
a slightly thickened band of cells in the area pelucida ,
these cells are called PREMITIVE STREEEK that gives rise to
the mesoderm and ectoderm, while the hypoblast forms
the endoderm.
 Contents
Page
1. INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY
1.1. Importance of classification ……………………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.2. What is Systematic? ……………………………………..……………..…………………………………………… 1
1.3. Definition of terms …………………………………..……………..……………………………………………… 2
1.4. How did it start? ……………………………………………….…………………………………………………….. 2
1.5. How many species are there? …………………………..…………………………………………………….. 2
1.6. History and different kinds of Systematics …………..…….…………………………………………… 3
1.6.1. Aristotle (384 – 322 BC.) …………………………….………………………………………………….. 3
1.6.2. Ibn Rushd ……………………………………………………..……………………………………………….. 3
1.6.3. Concepts of species …………………..………………….……………………………………………… 3
1.6.4. Linnaeus (1770 – 1778) ………………………………..……………………………………………….. 4
1.6.5. Kingdom system…………………………………………………..……………………………………….. 6
1.6.6. Cladistic classification ………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
1.6.7. Cytotaxonomy …………………………………..……………..……………………………………….. 8
1.6.8. Molecular taxonomy ……………………………………………………………………………………. 9
I. KINGDOM: PROTISTA
12
2. SUBKINGDOM: PROTOZOA
General characters of Protozoa ……………..………………………………………………………………………… 12
Classification of Protozoa ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13
2.1. PHYLUM: SARCOMASTIGOPHORA ….…………………………………………………………………… 13
General characters …………………………………………….…………………………………………………… 13
2.1.1. Subphylum: Mastigophora (Flagellates) ………………………………………………………… 13
General characters ……………………………………………………..……………………………………… 13
2.1.1.1. Class: Phytomastigophora ………………………………………………………………… 14
e. g. Euglena. ……..……………………………………………..………………………………………… 14
2.1.1.2. Class:- Zoomostigophora …………………..……………………………………………… 17
e.g.1 Trypanosoma …………………………………………….………………………………………… 17
e.g.2 Leishmania donovani …………………………………………………………………………… 19
2.1.2. Subphylum: Sarcodina ………………………………………………………………………………… 21
General characters ……………………………………….……………….…………………………………… 21
e.g.1 Amoeba ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21
e.g.2 Entamoeba histolytica ………………………..………………………………………………… 25
e.g.3 Entamoeba coli …………………………………………..………………………………………… 27
16e.g.4 Elephidium (The Foraminefera) ………………………………………………………… 28
2.2. PHYLUM: CILIOPHRA ……………………………………………..……….…………………………………… 24
General characters ………………………………………………………..…………………………………… 29
e.g. Paramecium …………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
2.3. PHYLUM: EPICOMPLEXA (SPOROZOA) ………………………..…………………….………………… 29
General characters ………………………………………………………..…………………………………… 34
e.g.2 Plasmodium ……………………………………………………..…………………………………… 35
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PROTOZOA ………………………………………………………………………… 38
II. KINGDOM: ANIMALIA
3. Basics of Animals Classifications
3.1. General characters of animals ……………..…………………..……………………………………………………… 41
3.2. Basics of Classification of Animal Kingdom …………………..………………………………………………… 42

ii
 A. SUBKINGDOM: PARAZOA
4. Phylum: Porifera (Sponges)
4.1. General characters of Porifera …………………………………………….…………………………………………… 46
4.2. Morphology …………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………… 46
4.3. The complexity of organisation ………………………………………..……………………………………………… 46
4.4. Body wall ………………………….……………………………………………………………..……………………………… 47
4.5. Skeleton …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 49
4.6. Water current ………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………… 49
4.7. Nutrition and respiration ……………………………….………………………………………………………………… 49
4.8. Reproduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 50
4.10. Some economic importance of sponges …………………..…………………………………………………… 51
B. SUBKINGDOM: EUMETAZOA
I. GRADE: RADIATA
5- Phylum : Cnidaria
5.1. General characters of Cnidaria ………………………………………………………………………………………… 53
5.2. Classification of Cnidaria ………………………….…………………………….………………………………………… 54
5.2.1. CLASS: HYDROZOA …………………….……………………………………..……………………………………… 54
General characters …………….…………………………………………………..…………………………………… 54
e.g.1 Hydra. …………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………… 55
e.g.2 Obelia ……………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………… 61
5.3. Economic importance of Cnidaria ……………………………………………………….…………………………… 64
II- GRADE: BILATERIA 66
i. Subgrade: Acoelomata
7. PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES (FLATEWORMS)
GRADE: BILATERIA ………………………….………………………………….…………………………..………………………….. 66
I . Subgrade: Acoelomata ………….……………………………………………………………………..………………………… 67
6.PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES .……………………………………………………………………………..…………….. 67
6.1. General characters ……………………………………………………………………………..………………………….. 67
6.2. Classification of Platyhemlminthes ………………………………….…………………..………………………… 67
6.2.1. CLASS: TURBELLARIA ………………………………………………………….…………………………………… 68
e.g. Planaria ……………………………………………………………….……………………………………………… 68
6.2.2. CLASS: TREMATODA ……………………………………………………….……………………………………… 69
Classification of Trematoda ………………………………………..……………………………………………… 69
Order Digenea …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 70
e.g.1 Faciola (liver fluck) ………………………………..……………………..……………………………… 70
e.g.2 Schistosoma (Blood fluck) …………………………………………………….……………………… 76
6.2.3. CLASS CESTODA (TAPEWORMS) ………………………………………………...…………………………… 82
Characters ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 82
e.g. Taenia ………………………………………………..………………………………………………………….. 82
ii- Subgrade: Pseudocoelomata 90
ii.Subgrade: Pseudocoelomata ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 90
9- PHYLUM : NEMATA (NEMATODA or ROUND WORMS) 90
9.1. General characters ……………………………..…………………………….…………………………………………… 91
9.2. Classification of Nematoda ……………………..……………….…………………………………………………… 91
e.g.1 Ascaris lumbricoides (Intestinal fluck) ……………………….……………………………………… 91
e.g.2 Ancylostoma duodenale (Hookworm) …………………………..………………………………… 97
SELECTED REFERENCES 91
DICTIONARY 101

iii
 Preface
Systematic Zoology nowadays is an exciting field in which rapid advances are being
made both in theory and practice. It employs techniques in chemical, physical and
mathematical sciences and takes regard of theoretical classification studies. It is of an
immense importance to biologists working in other fields, as it is now recognized that
precise identification is a vital aspect of any research work. Thus, it is not surprising that
Systematic Zoology is one of the main core courses of Biology Programs in most
universities.
For a long time in the Arab countries, an urgent need has been keenly felt for
indigenous text books, which cover universities’ syllabi in an adequate fashion. This fact
has urged the author to compile this standard text book of “Principles of Systematic
Zoology”. In the preparation of this book, topics were selected with great care and
summarized to present a clear conception of the subject avoiding unnecessary details. In
addition to the simple English used in this book, each chapter was provided with an endnote
of English-Arabic glossary for some difficult terms and words which would be useful to
strengthen the students’ scientific English vocabulary, particularly those who study in
Arabic. All of these will hopefully met with the requirements of students in Arab countries.
This book is intended to introduce students to the diversity and classification of the
animal kingdom. To fulfill this, the book was designed to focus on three issues: firstly,
obtain knowledge about the history, general principles and objectives of Systematic
Zoology (importance of systematics, definition of terms, theories of biological
classifications and their history – types and concepts of classification ..etc). Secondly,
characteristics (general structural patterns) and brief overview on classification of different
animal phyla. Finally, explain and provide examples of how animals adapt to specific
environmental conditions (connecting structure and function). The book explains the
ecological importance of animals in their environments as well as their importance from an
applied perspective. It also encompasses the study of general characters, classification and
some representatives of both animal-like protists, and lower invertebrate phyla (Porifera,
Cnidaria, Ctenophore, Platyhelminthes, Rotifera and Nematoda). The classification system
adopted in this book is a synthesis from several authorized, recently published systems.
The book also contains a number of descriptive illustrations, photos, comparison tables
for the different classes of each phyla, as well as concise information boxes containing
amazing stories about some amazing animals; such as biochemical memory, hirudotherapy
..etc.
Needless to say that, all suggestions and criticisms for the improvement of this book
will be gratefully accepted from the readers, instructors as well as students.
Prof. Mahmoud Desouky
2013

iv
 1. Introduction to Systematic Zoology
The will of Almighty God was to create the earth and the vast numbers of
creatures on it in a highly diverse1 form. Almighty God said:
}27{ ‫يب ُسود‬ ِ
ُ ‫ال ُجَدد ِبيض َو ُح ْمر ُّم ْخَتلف أَْل َواُن َها َو َغَارِب‬ ِ ‫َخَر ْجَنا ِب ِه َثمَار ٍت ُّم ْخَتِلًفا أَْل َواُن َها َو ِم َن اْل ِجَب‬ َّ ‫َنز َل ِم َن‬
ْ ‫الس َماء َماء َفأ‬ َ ‫َّللا أ‬ َّ ‫" أََل ْم َتَر أ‬
َ َ َّ ‫َن‬
"‫“"سو ة فاطر‬. ” ‫َّللا َع ِزٌز َغ ُفو‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ َّ ‫اب و ْاْلَ ْنعا ِم م ْخَتلِف أَْلواُنه َك َذِلك ِإَّنما ي ْخ َشى‬ ِ َّ ‫اس َو‬ َّ ‫َو ِم َن‬
ِ ‫الن‬
َ َّ ‫َّللا م ْن عَباده اْل ُعَل َماء إ َّن‬ َ َ َ َ ُ َ ُ َ َ ‫الد َو‬
“Seest thou not that Allah sends down rain from the sky? With it We then bring out produce of various colours.
And in the mountains are tracts white and red, of various shades of colour, and black intense in hue. And so
amongst men and crawling creatures and cattle, are they of various colours. Those truly fear Allah, among His
Servants, who have knowledge: for Allah is Exalted in Might, Oft-Forgiving.”
Every organism, whether plant or animal, is unique2 in itself and this
uniqueness is the basis of the vast diversity displayed by the organisms in our
world. There is a wide diversity in the flora (plants) and fauna (animals) in the
world. With such a vast number of organisms, it becomes impossible to study every
one of them at individual level. This task3 of studying the diversity of living
organisms can be made easier and more effective if the various organisms are
arranged4 into groups based on their similarities and differences. The branch of
science that is involved with the purpose of arranging or grouping animals is called
“Systematic Zoology” or “Animal Taxonomy”.
1.1. IMPORTANCE OF CLASSIFICATION
1. It makes the study of such a wide variety of organisms easy.
2. It helps us to understand the interrelationship among different organisms.
3. Various fields of applied5 biology such as agriculture, public health and
environmental biology depend on classification of pests6, disease vectors7,
pathogens8 and components of an ecosystem9.
4. It serves as a base10 for the development11 of other biological sciences such
as biogeography.. etc.
1.2. WHAT IS SYSTEMATIC?
Systematic is “the science of how organisms are related and the evidence12
for those relationships”. Systematics is the most elementary13 and most inclusive14
part of biology, most elementary because organisms cannot be discussed or
treated in a scientific way until some taxonomy has been achieved, and most
inclusive because systematics in its various branches gathers, utilizes, and

1
summarizes everything that is known about organisms, whether morphological15,
physiological, or ecological16.
Systematic is divided primarily into phylogenetics17 and taxonomy18.
Systematics examines the natural variation and relationships of organisms, (the
field of taxonomy). It also deals with the relationships of different groups of
organisms, in order to construct natural classification systems reflecting
evolutionary relationships (the field of Phylogenetics). However, Many biologists
use the terms taxonomy and systematic interchangeably.
1.3. DEFINITION OF TERMS
It is necessary at the outset19 to define basic terms used in taxonomic
studies i.e. systematic, taxonomy and classification.
Systematics: According to Blackwedler and Boyden (1952) and Simpson (1961)
“Systematics is the scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and
any and all relationships among them according to element/system or
part/whole relationships”. The term was used by Linaeaus
Classification “It is the ordering of animals into groups or sets on the basis of
their relationships”
Taxonomy: The term taxonomy was coined by De Candolle (1813). It is derived
from the Greek words (“taxis” = arrangment and “nomous” = law) “It is the
theoretical study of classification including its bases, principles, procedures
and rules”.
1.4. HOW DID SYSTEMATIC START?
Man noticed the diversity of plants and animals, so he wanted to organize
their world, so he began grouping, or classifying everything he saw.
1.5. HOW MANY SPECIES ARE THERE?
This is not an easy question to answer. About 1.8 million animal species have
been given scientific names. Nearly 2/3 of these are insects. Estimates20 of the
total number of living species generally range from 10 to 100 million. It is likely the
actual number is on the order of 13 to 14 million, with most being insects and
microscopic life forms in tropical regions21. However, we may never know how
many species are there because many of them will become extinct22 before being
counted and described.

2
 1.6. History and Different Kinds of Systematics
1.6.1. ARISTOTLE (384 – 322 BC.).
Aristotle was the first to attempt to classify all the kinds of
animals in his book “History of Animals” (Historia Animalium). He
grouped the types of animals according to:
 The presence or absence of red blood: Animals may be
Enaima ( with red blood) or Anaima (without red blood).
 The type of environment: Animals may be: Terrestrial (live Fig. (1-1): Aristotle

on land), Aquatic: (live in water) or Aerial (live in air).

 The mode of nutrition23: Animals may be Herbivorous (feed on plants as rabbit),
Carnivorous (feed on animals as lion) or Omnivorous (mixed food as bear24).
Aristotle's assumed25 that creatures could be grouped in order from lowest
to highest, with the human species being the highest.
1.6.2. IBN RUSHD .
In 1172, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) translated and abridged26 Aristotle's book "de
Anima" (Animals). This book was translated into Latin by Mitchell Scot.
1.6.3. CONCEPTS OF SPECIES.
John Ray (1672 – 1705) was the first to define27 the “Species” the basic unit of
classification. According to Ray Species: is a group of living organisms which are:
1. Morphologically similar
2. Interbreed28 with each other to produce fertile29 individual.
3. If they interbreed with other species they produce sterile30 individuals. Example
:Mule31 (produced from interbreeding of horse and donkey, Fig., 1-2).

Fig. (1-2): Mule is the infertile offspring of a horse and a donkey-an example of the gray area
regarding interbreeding in the most common definition of a species.
However, More than twenty species concepts were proposed to explain the
term ‘species’. The most common of them are:

3
 A. Agamospecies or Microspecies
A species of organism in which sexual reproduction does not occur, so that
each generation is genetically identical to the previous 32 generation. Examples
include many bacteria and some plants and fungi. The absence of sexual
reproduction means that the biological species concept cannot be applied, and
instead taxonomists must rely on identifying certain diagnostic traits to distinguish
between closely related asexual lineages. Consequently, the boundaries of
agamospecies are often hard to define.
 Advantages: Clear criteria and useful for microorganisms (hence the name) and
some plants.
 Disadvantages: Some organisms may reproduce asexually, but have high
mutation rates and are thus not identical copies.
B. Biological species concept (BSC) or Gamospecies.
Ernst Mayr invented the biological species concept in 1942. According to
this concept, a species is defined as “a group of populations whose members have
the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable33, fertile offspring but do
not produce viable fertile offspring with members of other groups. However, the
number of species to which this concept can be usefully applied is limited, since
there is no way to evaluate the reproductive isolation of fossils. Furthermore, it
does not apply to organisms that reproduce asexually all or most of the time.
C. Genetic species concept
This concept is based on similarity of DNA of individuals or populations.
Techniques to compare similarity of DNA include DNA-DNA hybridization, and
genetic fingerprinting (or DNA barcoding).
 Advantages: Can provide independent evidence34 for morphological and
biological species. For bacteria and small organisms genetic species concepts
can be very useful and save a lot of time. With automated sequencing and
web databases it is now very quick to analyse DNA.
 Disadvantages: Situations can arise where DNA samples get contaminated35
with the DNA of parasites living on or in an organism. Communicating with
non-specialists about DNA taxonomy can also be very difficult.
1.6.4. LINNAEUS (1770 – 1778)
By the time Carl (Carolus) Linnaeus (1707-1778) was born, there were many
systems of classification in use. This, in fact, was the problem, there were too many

4
inconsistent36 systems, and the same organism might have several different
scientific names, according to different methods of classification. Linnaeus great
work, the “Systema Naturae”, ran through twelve editions during his lifetime (1st
ed., 1735). He is best known for his introduction of the methods of modern
classification; he created systematic zoology and botany in their present form. If
Linnaeus is now considered the father of taxonomy, his success rested on the work
of his predecessors37. However,he was the first, in his System of Nature, to combine
a hierarchical38 system of classification from kingdom to species with the method of
binomial nomenclature, using it consistently to identify every species of both plants
and animals then known to him.
A. Nomenclature of organisms
While classifying any animal, its classification is required first. There are two
types of names for any organisms:
i. Common name: Organisms are known by different names in different
countries and language of the world. This poses a great problem in the
study of such organisms.
ii. Scientific names: The easiest way to solve problems resulting from the
variation of common names of the organisms is to use one scientific
name for each organism. Linnaeus puts “Binomial nomenclature39”
system, which still used until now (the binominal system was actually
first used by Gaspard Bauhin, 1623 but never caught on). According to
this system, each animal has two-word generic name:
 Genus name: beginning with a capital letter.
 Species name: beginning with a small letter.
Both names are always “Latin” and
“underlined” or “italic”. For example, the
scientific name of man is “Homo sapience”.
B- The seven level system (Table ,1-1 and Fig. (1-3): Carl Linaeus

Fig., 1-4):
Each kingdom is classified into ►Kingdom ► Phylum40 ► Class41 ► Order42 ►

Family ► Genus ►Species. This can be remembered from the below statement
”Kings Play Chess On Funny Green Squares”.

5
 Table (1-1): The seven level classification system.
Taxonomic
Character(s)
level
Species  The basic smallest unit of classification
Genus  A group of species that are fairly closely related
 Genera are grouped into families, which are major groups of generally
similar organisms; such as Felidae, which includes all cat-like animals
Family
from domestic cat to tiger to cheetah to jaguar
 Family names always end in the letters "ae",
 Families are grouped into orders, whose individuals may vary in many
ways; such as the order of Carnivora, which includes cats, dogs and
Order
weasels43.
 Orders begin with a capital and usually end in "a" - but not always
 The class is a major division within the animal Kingdom, For example,
Class the phylum Mollusca contains 4 classes: the Gastropoda, Cephalopoda,
Pelecypoda and Scaphopoda,
 Below kingdom is the Phylum level of classification. There are only
Phylum about 30 phyla in the animal kingdom. At this level, animals are grouped
together based on similarities in organization. .

Fig. (1-4): The seven level classification system

1.6.5. KINGDOM SYSTEM (Table, 1-2)

From well before Linnaeus, plants and animals was considered separate
Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as the top rank44, dividing the physical world into

6
 plant, animal and mineral kingdoms. With the discovery of the microscope in the
1600’s many new organisms which have both animals and plant characteristics
were discovered. This was the basis for the change in the classification system. The
number of kingdoms increased, five and six-kingdom systems being the most
common. The living organisms were classified into Kingdoms based on:
1. Presence or absence of a nuclear membrane.
2. Unicellularity or multicellularity.
3. Mode of nutrition.
Two kingdoms system As mentioned before Linnaeus classified living organisms
into two kingdoms ( Plantia and Animalia) according to the mode of nutrition.
Table (1-3): Five and six kingdom system
KINGOM No OF CHARACTERS
SPECIES
45
 Most primitive and often live in extreme
Archaebacte environments.
 Unicellular and no nucleus (PROKARYOTIC).
ria
Monera

100,000
 No organized nucleus or nuclear membrane
(PROKARYOTIC).
Eubacteria  Include bacteria and blue green algae.

 Unicellular organisms (EUOKARYOTIC) with plant or

animal-like characteristics.
Protista 250,000  Include protozoa and all algae except the blue-
green .

 Cells are usually organized into branched,

46
multinucleate filaments which absorb digested
Fungi 100,000 food from the external environment.
 Include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.

 Multicellular - possess chloroplasts and cell walls.

 Make their own food – PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
Plantae 250,000

 Multicellular organisms (Eukaryotes).

 Ingest their food – HETEROTROPHS.
Animalia 1,500,000

Six kingdom system (Table, 1-3) From around the mid-1970s onwards, there was an
increasing emphasis47 on molecular level48 comparisons of genes (initially
7
ribosomal RNA genes) as the primary factor in classification. Based on such rRNA
gene studies, Carl Woese divided the prokaryotes (Kingdom: Monera) into two
groups, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, stressing that there was as much
genetic difference between these two groups as between either of them and all
eukaryotes.
Woese attempted to establish49 a "three primary kingdom" or system. In 1990, the
name "domain" was proposed for the highest rank. The six-kingdom system shown
in table (1-3) represents a blending50 of the classic five-kingdom system and
Woese's three-domain system. Such six-kingdom systems have become standard51
in many works.
1.6.6. CLADISTIC CLASSIFICATION
Cladistic classification system groups all organisms into three apparently
monophyletic kingdoms, the Eukaryota, Eubacteria, and Archaebacteria
(alternatively called Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea). The kingdom Eukaryota
includes eukaryotic organisms, and all organisms in the Plantae, Animalia, Fungi,
and kingdom Protista. The kingdoms Eubacteria and Archaebacteria both consist of
single-celled prokaryotes, all of which Whittaker placed into the Monera kingdom.
The Archaebacteria (ancient bacteria) were originally considered more primitive
than the Eubacteria. The Archaebacteria includes the methanogens (methane-
producing bacteria), halophiles (salt-loving bacteria), and thermophiles (heat-loving
bacteria), all rather unusual prokaryotes which live in very extreme habitats.
Cladistics can be distinguished from other taxonomic systems, such as
phenetics, by its focus on shared derived characters (synapomorphies). Previous
systems usually employed overall morphological similarity to group species into
genera, families and other higher level classification; cladistic classifications (usually
trees called cladograms) are intended to reflect the relative recency of common
ancestry or the sharing of homologous features.
1.6.7. CYTOTAXONOMY
Cytotaxonomy is dealing with the relationships and classification of
organisms using comparative studies of chromosomes. The number, structure, and
behaviour of chromosomes is of great value in taxonomy, with chromosome
number being the most widely used character.
 Chromosome number: Chromosome numbers are usually determined at
mitosis and quoted as the diploid number (2n). Chromosome numbers vary in
animals from a diploid number of two in Parascaris to one of 446 in a North

8
 African butterfly52 (Lysandra atlantica). In the majority of animals however,
the number varies from 12 to 60.
 Chromosome structure: Another useful taxonomic character is the
chromosomal structure especially in genera where species are found to have
the same number of chromosomes. For example, there are four types of
chromosomes according to the position of the centromere (the point of
attachment of the chromosome to the spindle): telocentric, acrocentric,
submetacentric and metacentic (Fig., 1-5).

Fig (1-5): Types of chromosomes according to the position of centromere.

Karyotype: A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the
nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. The term is also used for the complete set of
chromosomes in a species, or an individual organism. Karyotypes describe the
number of chromosomes, and what they look like under a light microscope.
Attention is paid to their length, the position of the centromeres, banding pattern,
any differences between the sex chromosomes, and any other physical
characteristics.

Fig. (1-6): Karyogram of

Human male

1.6.8. MOLECULAR TAXONOMY53

Every living organism contains DNA, RNA, and proteins. In general, closely
related organisms have a high degree of agreement in the molecular structure of

9
these substances, while the molecules of organisms distantly related usually show
a pattern of dissimilarity. Conserved sequences, such as mitochondrial DNA, are
expected to accumulate mutations over time, and assuming a constant rate of
mutation provide a molecular clock for dating divergence. Molecular phylogeny
uses such data to build a "relationship tree" that shows the probable evolution of
various organisms. Not until recent decades, however, has it been possible to
isolate and identify these molecular structures (Fig., 1-14).
The most common approach is the comparison of homologous sequences for
genes using sequence alignment techniques to identify similarity.

Fig. (1-14): DNA alignment

Another application of molecular phylogeny is in DNA barcoding, wherein
the species of an individual organism is identified using small sections of
mitochondrial DNA or chloroplast DNA. Another application of the techniques that
make this possible can be seen in the very limited field of human genetics, such as
the popular use of genetic testing to determine a child's paternity, as well as the
emergence of a new branch of criminal forensics54 focused on evidence known as
genetic fingerprinting.

10
 2

KINGDOM: PROTISTA

Subkingdom: Protozoa

11
 I. KINGDOM: PROTISTA

Protista are predominately55 unicellular organisms with plant or animal-like

characteristics. Examples include protozoa and all algae except the blue-green
algae. They have a true nucleus and nuclear membrane (eukaryotes). Protista is
classified into two subkingdoms: Protozoa (Animal-like) and Algae (Plant-like). In
animal taxonomy, we are concerned with Protozoa.
2. SUBKINGDOM: PROTOZOA
Approximately 65,000 protozoan species have been described56. Protozoa
are unicellular and small in size. Uncellularity restricts57 the size of the organism.
i.e. volume increases slower than surface area. Why is this important?
Answer: Life at small scale requires large surface area to size ratio and thus:
 Diffusion58 of gases occurs across membranes.
 Food vacuoles59 for feeding.
 Contractile vacuoles60for osmotic regulation61.
 Encystment62 for protection from environmental extremes.
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PROTOZOA
1- They are small microscopic organisms. They are the simplest and most
primitive63 animals.
2- They are unicellular i.e. single – celled animals that perform64 all the vital
activities characterising the animal body.
3- Many species live solitary65 while few live in colonies66.
4- Locomotary organelles67 are present. They are in the form of
pseudopodia68, flagella69 or cilia70.
5- Nutrition may be Holozoic (animal–like), Holophytic (plant–like), Saprozoic
(by diffusion) or Parasitic71.
6-There are no organelles for respiration or excretion which occur by simple
diffusion through the general body surface.
7-Freshwater forms have an osmoregulatory system in the form of
contractile vacuole.
8- All protozoa can reproduce asexually by binary fission72 or by multiple
fission73. In addition, some protozoa can reproduce sexually by forming
male and female gametes as in conjugation.
9- Encystement commonly occurs to help in dispersion74 and to resist
unfavourable conditions.

12
 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTZOA
Subkingdom Protozoa is divided into three Phyla according to their
locomotory organelles (Table, 2-1).
Table (2-1): Classification of Protozoa
Phylum Locomotory organoids Examples
1. Phylum: Sarcomastigophora

A. Subphylum  Move by one or more -Euglena

Mastigophora flagella -Trypanosoma
(Flagellates)

B. Subphylum
-Amoeba
Sarcodina  Move by pseudopodia
-Entamoeba
(Rhizopoda)

2. Phylum: Ciliophora  Move by cilia -Paramecium

3. Phylum: Apicomplexa  Without locomotary -Monocyst.

(Sporozoa) organelles -Plasmodium

2.1. PHYLUM: SARCOMASTIGOPHORA

They are the largest protozoan phylum comprising75 about 18,000 species.
GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. Unicellular solitary or colonial.
2. Locomotion by flagella, pseudopodia, or both.
3. Autotrophic, saprozoic, or heterotrophic nutrition.
4. Single nucleus.
5. Asexual reproduction.
Sarcomastigophoraes are classified into two subphyla: Mastigophora and
Sarcodina
2.1.1. SUBPHYLUM: MASTIGOPHORA (FLAGELLATES)
General characters
1. Includes protozoa which move by one or more flagella.
2. Nutrition autotrophic (plant- like) or holozoic (animal- like).

13
 3. With one nucleus.
4. Free living or parasitic.
5. Body covered with pellicle.
Matigophora are divided into two Classes (Table, 2-2).
Table (2-2): Classification of Mastigophora

A. Class: Phytomastigophora B. Class: Zoomasigophora

1. Chromatophores present. 1. Chromatophores absent.
2. Autotrophic nutrition. 2. Holozoic or parasitic nutrition.
3. Flagella rarely more than one. 3. Flagella one to many.
4. Free – living. 4. Free – living or parasitic.
5. Store starch. 5. Store glycogen.
e.g. Euglena sp. e.g. Trypanosoma sp.

A. Class: Phytomastigophora
e. g. Euglena1
Euglena is a mobile photosynthetic and photosensitive76 cell. It is found in
aquatic environments, almost freshwater ponds77. Because they are autotrophs
and produce their own energy from chlorophyll in the same manner of plants, a
high enough population can make their habitat78 appear quite green.
79
MORPHOLOGY

Fig. (2-1): Morphology of Euglena

1
The word "Euglena" is formed from the two Greek words "eu" and "glene" which
mean "good" and "eyeball" respectively, because of the clearly visible (with optical microscopes)

14
LOCOMOTION
Euglena moves in its environment by two methods:
A-Euglenoid movement: This is a slow worm–like movement80. It is carried out by
contraction81 and relaxation82 of the different parts of the body by the aid of
muscles (Fig., 2-2).

Fig. (2-2): Euglenoid movement

B- Flagellar movement: This type is faster and enables83 the animal to swim rapidly
in water. It is carried about by the active vibrations of its highly contractile
flagellum. The flagellum lashes obliquely84 backwards with waves passing along the
flagellum from base to tip in a spiral manner85. As a result, the whole body move
forward through the water with a spiral rotation (Fig., 2-3). The flagellum beats at a
rate of 12 times / second.

Fig. (2-3): Flagellar movement

86
NUTRITION
A- Holophytic (autotrophic) nutrition In the presence of sunlight, Euglena can
synthesize87 carbohydrates from CO2 and water by the aid of88 its
chlorophyll - bearing chloroplast. This method of nutrition is identical to the
process of photosynthesis in plants.
B- Holozoic (animal – like) nutrition in the absence of light, Euglena can
absorb soluble food materials from the surrounding medium89 through the
body surface by pinocytosis90.

15
OSMOREGULATION
Since the outer covering of Euglena is semi–permeable91 and the
concentration of salts is higher in its cytoplasm than in the surrounding fresh water,
water tends92 to flow into its body by osmosis. Osmoregulation is carried out by the
“contractile vacuole system “as following:
a- Excess93 water collects as minute droplets94 in the small vacuoles.
b- The small vacuoles empty in the large central vacuole.
c- The large vacuole bursts95 into the reservoir which evacuates96 water into the
exterior.
RESPIRATION & EXCRETION
 Exchange of O2 and CO2 takes place by simple diffusion97.
 Soluble excretory products98 pass also from the cytoplasm to the
surrounding environment by simple diffusion.
N.B. CO2 resulting from respiration is utilized99 in photosynthesis and O2 produced by
photosynthesis is used in respiration.
REPRODUCTION100
Euglena reproduces asexually by one of the following methods

Fig. (2-4): Longitudinal binary fission in

Fig. (2-5): Encystment of Euglena
Euglena

Longitudinal binary fission101 in suitable conditions102, Euglena multiplies by a

simple longitudinal binary fission into two daughter individuals (Fig., 2-4).
B-Encystement: In unsuitable condition103, Euglena rounds up and secrets104 a
thick gelatinous cyst105 around itself. The encysted animal can withstand106 the
adverse107 conditions of life. Encystement is normally followed by a
longitudinal binary fission with the formation of two daughter Euglena (Fig.,
2-5). When the conditions become suitable, the daughter individuals become
liberated108 from the cyst.

16
Euglena: an alga or an animal?
Some phycologists109 believe that Euglena is considered110 as an alga because it
possesses111 chloroplasts and exhibits autotrophic nutrition. However, most
zoologists believe that Euglena should be considered as animal because of:
a. Its ability112 to perform holozoic nutrition.
b. The presence of some animals characters such as eye spot, flagellum and
contractile vacuole.
c. Longitudinal binary fission.
Such characters are not found in any algae.
B. Class:- Zoomostigophora
e.g1. Trypanosoma2
Trypanosoma is the causative agent113 of disease known as sleeping sickness,
which in many parts of Africa considers as the first problem in economic and social
progress114.Trypanosoma lives as a parasite in the blood of many vertebrates
(definite host115). The life cycle also involves blood–sucking invertebrate host
(intermediate host116) mainly TSE TSE fly. Man hosts 3 species of Trypanosoma
namely Trypanosoma gambiense, Trypanosoma rhodesiense and Trypanosoma
cruzi. It transmitted to man by Tse Tse fly.
MORPHOLOGY
 It has fusiform body covered with hard pellicle.
 There is a large oval nucleus with a large central endosome.
 A long flagellum joined to the body by a thin undulating membrane117. The
flagellum extends freely in front of the body.
 At the base of the flagellum, there is a granule known as basal granule or
blepharoplast. Very close to the blepharoblast is a larger granule known as
parabasal granule. (Fig., 2-6).

Fig. (2-6): Morphology of Trypanosoma

2
is derived from the Greek word ‘trypano” meaning auger or screw-like and “soma” meaning body,

17
LOCOMOTION
Trypanosoma swim in the blood plasma of the host by the vibratile
movements of the flagellum and undulating membrane.
LIFE CYCLE OF T. gambiense & T. rhodesiense. (Fig., 2-7)
Life cycle is completed within two hosts:
A-Primary host118: Man and other vertebrates.
B-Secondary host: TSE TSE fly.
1-Life Cycle In Man
A-Infection119: If an infected tse tse fly bits a healthy person, the parasite120
inters his blood with the fly’s saliva121.
B-Multiplication122: Inside the blood plasma of human host, the parasite
multiplies rapidly by longitudinal binary fission for about two weeks (a
period known as incubation period123) before the symptoms124 of the
disease start to appear.

Fig. (2-7): Life cycle of T. gambiense

2- Life cycle in tse tse fly
A-Transfer to tse tse fly: when tse tse fly bits an infected person the
tryparanosomes are taken with sucked blood into the midgut125 of the fly.

18
 B-Development in midgut: in the midgut, the parasites divide by longitudinal
binary fission producing a large number of immature stages126.
C-Development in salivary glands127:
1. After 10 –12 days, the immature forms migrate128 to the salivary glands.
2. The parasite continues to multiply in the salivary glands by binary fission
producing a stage known as crithidial stage. It has a narrow undulating
membrane. The basal and parabasal granules lie in front of the nucleus.
3. Multiplication by binary fission continues for few more days when
another stage known as the metacyclic stage (its basal and parabasal
granules lie behind the nucleus).
4. Metacyclic stage is the infective stage129, which may infect another
human host.
130
HOST-PARASITE RELATIONSHIP
Trypanosoma lives in the blood plasma and affect the human host in the
following ways:
1. It consumes131 a large amount of blood glucose.
2. The excretory products of the parasite are toxic132 to the human host.
3. When the parasites invade133 the tissues of the brain, they produce a
great damage and cause coma134 (hence the name sleeping disease) and
finally death of the host.

e.g2 Leishmania donovani3

Leishmania is an endoparasite lives inside the macrophage cells of several
vertebrates135. There are two stages:
A- Leishmania stage
 Round with central large nucleus.
 With parabasal body and blepharoblast.
 With short flagellum which does not extend outside the body.
 Found in phagocytes136 of final host.
B- Leptomonad stage
 Spindle137 shape with large nucleus.
 With free flagellum arising from the blepheroblast.
 Found in the gut of sand fly (intermediate host).

3
modern Latin, from the name of William B. Leishman (1856–1926), British pathologist

19
 LIFE CYCLE (Fig., 2-8)
Leishmania completes its life cycle in two hosts: man and sand fly
(Phlebotomas sp).
a- In Man
1. The parasites are introduced138 into the human blood with the bite of an
infected sand fly.
2. They find their way into macrophages and assume Leishmanial form.
3. They undergo binary fission to produce large number of leishmanial stages.
4. The macrophage rupture139 and the parasites released140 into the blood.
b- In sand fly
1. While feeding, the sand fly ingests141 the leishmanial forms.
2. In the gut, the parasite developed into Leptomonad stage that multiplies
by longitudinal binary fission.
3. Leptomonads migrates into the buccal cavity and become ready to infect
another host.

Fig. (2-8): Life cycle of Lieshmania

HOST PARASITE RELATIONSHIP
Leishmaniasis currently infects 350 million men, women, and children in 88
countries around the world and there are three kinds :Cutaneous, Mucocutaneous
and Visceral Leishmaniasis.
 L. Donovani causes a disease known as visceral leishmaniasis (Kala-
Azar)142 ( Fig., 2-9). or black fever characterized by:
 Enlargement143 of the liver and spleen.
20
  Anaemia, weakness and fever.
 Darkening of the skin.
 L. tropica causes a disease known as cutaneous leishmaniasis144 (also
called oriental sore145 or Baghdad sore). It infects the skin of hands, legs
and face causing a sore at the bite site, which heals146 in a few months to
a year, leaving an unpleasant looking scar. This form can progress147 to
visceral forms (Fig., 2-9).

Fig. (2-9): Visceral and Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

2.1.2. SUBPHYLUM: SARCODINA

GENERAL CHARACTERS
 Mostly free living.
 Locomotory organoids in the form of pseudopodia.
 Holozoic nutrition.
 Asexual reproduction.
e.g.1 Amoeba4
MORPHOLOGY
The living Amoeba appears under the microscope as an irregular jelly-like
mass which is constantly changing its shape due to the formation of finger-like
protoplasmic projection known as pseudopodia (Fig., 2-10). The body is covered
with thin plasma membrane. The cytoplasm is differentiated into an outer clear
ectoplasm and an inner granular endoplasm. The cytoplasm contains: oval nucleus
with centrosome, contractile vacuole and many food vacuoles.

4
mid 19th century: modern Latin, from Greek amoibē'change, alternation'

21
 Fig. (2-10): Morphology of Amoeba
LOCOMOTION: (Amoeboid movement)
Amoeba move and capture148 food by means of protoplasmic protrusions149
known as pseudopodia. The pseudopodium is produced as following:
1. The colloidal state150 of the ectoplasm is changed from plasmagel to plasmasol.
2. The internal pressure causes the plasmasol from the endoplasm to flow out at
this weak point forming the pseudopodium.
3. Then plasmasol is changed again into plasmogel.
4. A similar process takes place at the other end of the body where a
pseudopodium is drawn151. (Fig., 2-11).

Fig. (2-11): Formation of pseudopodium

22
 NUTRITION, Fig. (2-12).
Nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic (animal – like) and takes place as following:
1. Feeding: when an amoeba comes in contact with food particles152 (e.g. small
protozoa, bacteria, microscopic plants…. etc.), it flows around it by a number of
pseudopodia, forming a food cup.
2. Formation of food vacuole. The food cup gradually encloses153 the food
together with a drop of water and thus a food vacuole is formed inside the
cytoplasm.
1. Digestion154: food vacuole acts155 as a temporary stomach where food is
digested by the action of enzymes secreted156 from the cytoplasm.
2. Assimilation157: the digested food materials are absorbed by diffusion into the
cytoplasm and distributed in the cell.
3. Egestion158: The remaining undigested materials are egested by bursting of food
vacuole at any point of the surface (Fig., 2-12).

Fig. (2-12): Nutrition in Amoeba

OSMOREGULATION
The protoplasm of Amoeba is more concentrated159 than the surrounding
medium. So, water diffuses into it by osmosis and may lead to bursting of Amoeba.
The regulation of water content or osmoregulation is carried out by the contractile
vacuole which collect excess water, enlarges and then bursts at any point of the
surface where its water content is expelled160 to outside.
RESPIRATION
Gaseous exchange takes place by simple diffusion through the permeable
plasma membrane. O2 diffuses from outside (high concentration) to the cytoplasm
(low concentration). CO2 diffuses from cytoplasm (high concentration) to the
surrounding water (low concentration).
161
EXCRETION
Amoeba has no special excretory organs. The harmful162 excretory substances
diffuse to the surrounding medium through the plasma membrane by simple
diffusion.

23
REPRODUCTION
Amoeba asexually reproduces by one of the following methods:
A-Binary fission: It takes place during suitable conditions of food and
temperature as following (Fig., 2-13).
1. Amoeba grows in size and withdraw163 its pseudopodia.
2. It then divided into two parts.
3. Each part feeds and grows into new individual.

Fig. (2-13): Binary fission in Amoeba

B- Regeneration164:- It takes place also in suitable condition. When an Amoeba is
cut into two or more pieces, each piece, containing part of the nucleus, will
grow into a complete Amoeba.
C-Encystment:- It takes place during unsuitable condition, such as the drying up of
the water, as following (Fig., 2-14).
1. Amoeba withdrows its pseudopodia, become spherical and forms a
resistant cyst165 around itself.

Fig. (2-14): Encystment in Amoeba

1. The nucleus divides repeatedly to form a large number of daughter
nuclei.
2. Each daughter nucleus becomes surrounded by portion of the cytoplasm
forming a small Amoeba.
3. When the environmental conditions improved166 the wall of the cyst
rupture and the daughter Amoeba become liberated.
D-Sporulation167: It is similar to encystment but no external cyst is formed.
Instead168, each daughter nucleus is protected by formation of spore around

24
 itself. When the condition improved, this cyst disintegrate to set them free
(Fig., 2-15).

Fig. (2-15): Sporulation in Amoeba

e.g2. Entamoeba histolytica5

This is an intestinal parasite of man.
MORPHOLOGY
Three forms are recognized in the life cycle: Trophozoite, Precystic stage and cyst.
1-Trophozoite169 (trophic stage)
 It is spherical but at one end there is a single ectoplasmic pseudopodium.
 The cytoplasm is differentiated170 into outer clear ectoplasm and an inner
granular171 endoplasm containing food vacuoles (Fig., 2-16).
 It has single nucleus with central endosome.
 The surface is bounded172 by thin plasmalemma.
Two types of trophozoites are recognised:
a. Minute173 trophozoite: 10-20 m in diameter. It lives in the lumen of the
intestine174 and feed on bacteria.
b. Large trophozoite: when minute trophozoite invades175 the mucosal
layer176 of intestine, it feeds on cellular elements and blood cells and
develops into large trophozoite.
2-Precystic stage
a. It is also found in the lumen of intestine.
b. It is small in size.
c. The cytoplasm is free from food vacuoles
3-Encysted stage (Infective stage):
The precystic stage is transformed into the mature cyst as following:
a. It rounds up and secretes a thin protective cyst around itself.
b. The nucleus divides twice by mitosis to produce 4 nuclei.

5
modern Latin, from Greek entos 'within' + ameba

25
 c. It stores 2 chromatin bodies (protein reserve177).
REPRODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLE (Fig., 2-16).
A- Binary fission: The trophozoite multiplies asexually by binary fission in the
lumen of the large intestine.
B- Encystment: it is the transformation of trophozoites into cyst. The
trophozoite rounds up and secrets a thin protective cyst around itself. The
nucleus divides into 4 daughter nuclei and chromatoid material are stored in
the cytoplasm.

Fig. (2-16): Life Cycle of E. hisolytica

C- Infection of new host: The mature cysts are the infective stage.
1. It passes out with the faces178 and can survive179 outside for sometimes.
2. A new host acquires180 the infection by ingestion of the encysted stage of the
parasite in contaminated food181or drinking water.
3. This stage passes into the intestine without any change in the stomach.
D. Excystation: It is process of transformation182 of cysts into trophozoites:
1. In the small intestine, the cyst dissolved183 by the action of trypsin enzyme
and four nucleated individual are liberated.
2. The four nuclei divide once more producing eight – nucleated individual.

26
 3. This is followed by cytoplasmic division. Thus 8 small uni - nucleated
trophozoites are produced.
HOST PARASITE RELATIONSHIP (effect of parasite on the host)
There are two types of infection in man:
1- Harmless184 infection: the small trophozoites live in the lumen of the
intestine, feed on bacteria and are harmless.
2- Pathological infection185: the large trophozoites which invade the mucosal
wall of the intestine, penetrate186 into the deeper tissue causing bleeding187
and ulcers188 (Fig., 2-17) and developing a disease known as Amoebic
dysentery189. Moreover, some of trophozoites may penetrate to the blood
streams and reach liver, lungs, brain…. etc. producing some ill effects.

Fig. (2-17): Intestinal lesion and numerous microulceration of large intestine due to
amoebiasis

E.g3 Entamoeba coli

It differs from E. hitolotyca in the following (table, 3):
Table (2-3): Comparison between E. histolytica and E. coli.

E. histolytica E. coli
 It may attack the wall of intestine.  It never attacks the wall of intestine.
Trophozoite
 small 10 – 20   large 20 – 30 
 with single pseudopodium.  with two pseudopodia.
 with small central endosome.  with large accentric acrosome.
Cyst (infective stage)
 small (12 ).  large (17 ).
 with two chromatin bodies with four  two chromatin bodies and eight nuclei .
nuclei.  harmless.
 harmful causing diseases.

27
 

Fig. (2-18): Life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica and E, coli

e.g4 . Elephidium
(The Foraminefera)
Foraminefera are amoeboid protozoa which are mostly marine190. Their
calcareous shells191 represent the major constituents of the ocean192. So, they play a
major role in the geological history of the earth. For example, the great pyramids were
built from lime stone deposition of such shells.
MORPHOLOGY
The young foraminefiran resembles 193Amoeba but it secretes many chambered
shell around itself. Pseudopodia project from numerous minute pores to the exterior to
form network194. The food is captured by this pseudopodia network and enclosed
within a food vacuole (Fig., 2-19).
REPRODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLE
Elehhidium is dimorphic i.e. exists in two forms during life cycle (Fig., 2-18).
This phenomenon195 is called “alternation of generation196."
1- Microspheric Form (Schizont):
 Has a small central shell chamber.
 With many nuclei.
 Reproduces asexually by multiple fission. The protoplasm flows outside to
cover the shell and divides into a number of small amoeboid bodies; each of
them secretes a shell around itself and develops into a macrospheric form.

28
 Fig. (2-19): Life cycle of foraminifer
2- Macrospheric Form
 Has a large central shell chamber.
 With one large nucleus.
 Reproduce sexually as following:
a. When mature197, the protoplasm divides to produce flagellated gametes
which swim into water.
b. Each gamete unites with a similar gamete from another individual to from
Zygote that develops into a microspheric from to complete the life cycle.
2.2. PHYLUM: CILIOPHRA
GENERAL CHARACTERS
 Move by cilia.
 With nuclear dimorphism.
 Mouth or gullet present.
 Reproduction asexual or sexual.
e.g. Paramecium6
This protozoan lives in freshwater ponds and streams containing decaying
vegetation.
MOPHOLOGY (Fig., 2-20)
 It has a slipper- shaped198 body with convex199 dorsal surface.
 The body is covered by a firm pellicle and the cytoplasm is differentiated into
an outer clear ectoplasm and an inner granular endoplasm.

6
mid 18th century: modern Latin, from Greek paramēkēs 'oval', from para-'against' + mēkos 'length'

29
 Fig. (2-20): Morphology of Paramecium

 The body surface is provided by a layer of small hair-like processes 200known

as cilia.
 In the flat surface of the body there is an oral groove that extends into the
cytoplasm forming cytopharynx (cell mouth).
 It is characterized by the presence of two nuclei: a large kidney-shaped 201

macronucleus and a small rounded micronucleus.

 The cytoplasm includes a number of food vacuoles as well as two contractile
vacuole systems.
LOCOMOTION (ciliary movement)
Paramecium swims rabidly in water by means of well - coordinated movement
of cilia found on its body. A cilium beats and stricks202 the water so that the
organism move. The animal not move in a straight line but it follows left spiral pass
and at the same time it rotates along its longitudinal axis203 (Fig., 2-21). This type of
movement is caused by three components:

Fig. (2-21): Spiral locomotion of Paramecium

a. The backward beating of the cilia propels204 the animal forward in water.
b. The cilia arranged and beat obliquely to the right causing the body to roll
over on its left side.

30
 c. The spiral nature of the movement is by the large cilia along the oral
groove205, which are larger and beat more strongly.
NUTRITION
Paramecium feeds on small living organisms (bacteria, algae, other protozoa)
as following:
a. Feeding: While feeding, the cilia of oral groove beat strongly, so that food
particles are sucked with water current into the oral groove and then follow
through the vestibule to the cytopharynx.
b. Formation of food vacuole: Food particles are taken with a drop of water in
a food vacuole into the cytoplasm.
c. Digestion and Assimilation: The food vacuole circulates in the cytoplasm
where digestive enzymes are secreted into it. The digested soluble food
materials are then absorbed and assimilated.
d. Egestion: The undigested particles are ejected through the cytoproct or
temporary anus206 (Fig., 2-22).

Fig. (2-22): Feeding in Paramecium

OSOMOREGULATION
By two contractile vacuole systems as in other protozoa (Fig., 2-23).

Fig. (2-23): Osmoregulation in Paramecium

31
RESPIRATION & EXCRETION
By simple diffusion as in others protozoa.
REPRODUCTION
A- ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
During normal conditions, Paramecium
reproduces by transverse binary fission as in
other protozoa (Fig., 2-24).
B-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
I- Conjugation207: Fig.(2-24): Binary fission
Repeated binary fission causes the daughter paramecia to be less viable208.
Conjugation is necessary for the continued vitality of the species. Conjugation is a
temporary union of two individuals for mutual exchange of genetic materials. It
occurs during unfavourable conditions and involves following steps (Fig., 2-25):
1. Two paramecium of opposite mating types come in contact with their ventral
surface. Pellicle and ectoplasm at the point of contact degenerate to form a
cytoplasmic bridge. This united paramecium is called conjugants.
2. Micronucleus undergoes two successive divisions one of which is reduction
division. So, 4 haploid nuclei are produced in each conjugant, three nuclei of
them disappear in each conjugant.

Fig. (2-25): Conjugation in Paramecium

3. The remaining nucleus divides unequally to produce smaller male pronucleus
(n) and larger female pronucleus (n), but they are genetically identical. Male

32
 pronucleus is active and migratory whereas female pronucleus is inactive and
stationary.
4. Male pronucleus of each conjugant cross the cytoplasmic bridge and fused
with female pronucleus to form diploid zygote nucleus.
5. The conjugants then separate from each other after 12 to 48 hours of the
union. They are called exconjugants.
6. The original macronucleus disintegrates. Zygote nucleus of each
exconjugants divides three times to produce eight nuclei.
7. Out of eight, four become macronuclei whereas other four become
micronuclei.
8. Two round binary fission yield four daughter cells.
In this way, 8 paramecia are produced as a result of conjugation. They are
metabolically active and can undergo repeated binary fission.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CONJUGATION:
Nuclear Reorganization: In conjugation new and metabolically active macronucleus is
produced by reorganization of micronuclear materials.
Rejuvenation: In conjugation old, weak and defective macronucleus is replaced by new
one which can control metabolism and growth.
Genetic variation: In conjugation, genetic materials are exchanged between Paramecium
of opposite mating types. It brings variation in daughter individuals due to genetic
recombination.
II-Autogamy209:-
It is similar to conjugation but occurs within one individual and thus gives pure
lines (Fig., 2-26). It runs as following :

Fig. (2-26): Autogamy in Paramecium

1. In one Paramecium micronucleus undergoes two successive divisions one of which
is reduction division. So, 4 haploid nuclei are produced in each conjugant.
2. Out of four three nuclei disappear in each conjugant.
3. The remaining nucleus divides into two equal nuclei (n).
4. The two nuclei fuse to form zygotic nucleus (2n).

33
 5. The original macronucleus disintegrates. Zygote nucleus divides three times to
produce eight nuclei; four of them enlarge to become macronuclei (2n).
6. The cytoplasm then undergoes two repeated division producing four daughter
paramecia, each with two nuclei (macronucleus and micronucleus).
Table (2-4): Comparison between conjugation and autogamy

Conjugation Autogamy
 Occurs between two individuals.  Occurs within one individual.
 Involves rearrangement and  Involves rearrangement of genetic
exchange of genetic materials. materials only.
 Leads to more variation.  Produce pure line of individuals.
 8 paramecia are produced.  4 paramecia are produced.

2.3. PHYLUM: APICOMPLEXA (SPOROZOA)

The Apicomplexa are a large group of Protozoa, most of which possess a
unique210 organelle called apicoplast, an apical complex structure involved in
penetrating the host's cell (Fig., 2-27). They are unicellular, spore-forming, and
exclusively animal parasites. Motile structures such as flagella or pseudopods are
absent except in certain gamete stages.

Fig. (2-27): strucutre of Apicomplexa

GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. They have no locomotary organelles.
2. They reproduce by spores.
3. Most are parasitic.
4. Saprozoic nutrition.
5. The life cycle is complex and involves asexual and sexual generation.

34
 e.g.Plasmodium7
Four species of Plasmodium infect man and cause a disease which is
commonly known as Malaria, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. falciparum. The
most dangerous species is P. falciparum which causes malignant211 tertian malaria
for human and other mammals212.
Plasmodium species are transmitted by anopheles mosquitoes213 (Fig., 2-29).
Both sexes of mosquitoes feed on nectar214. Because nectar's protein content
alone is insufficient215 for oogenesis (egg production) one or more blood meals is
needed by the female. Only female mosquitoes bite transmits disease.
PLASMODIUM LIFE CYCLE

Fig. (2-28): Life cycle of Plasmodium malaria

There are three phases of development in the life cycle of malaria parasite:
Tissue phase216, Erythrocytic phase217 and Invertebrate phase218 (Fig., 2-28).

A- Tissue phase: (Fig., 2-29)

1. Human infection is initiated219 when sporozoites (minute fusiform organism)
are injected with the saliva during mosquito feeding.

7
late 19th century: modern Latin, based on late Latin plasma 'mould, formation'

35
 Fig. (2-29): Tissue phase and erythrocytes phase of Plasmodium malaria

2. The sporozoites enter the circulatory system and within 30-60 minutes will
invade a liver cell (hepatocytes).
3. After invading the hepatocyte, the parasite undergoes an asexual
replication. This replicative stage is called exoerythrocytic schizogony.
Schizogony refers to a replicative process in which the parasite undergoes
multiple rounds of nuclear division without cytoplasmic division followed by
a budding, or segmentation to form merozoites.
4. Merozoites are released into the circulatory system following rupture of the
host hepatocyte.
B- Erythrocytic phase (Fig., 2-30)
1. Merozoites released from the infected liver cells invade erythrocytes (red
blood cells).
2. Inside the erythrocyte, the parasite undergoes a trophic220 period followed
by an asexual replication forming young trophozoite which is often called a
ring form
3. As the parasite increases in size, this 'ring' morphology disappears and then
become adult trophozoite. The parasite ingests the host cell cytoplasm and
breaks down the haemoglobin. The haemoglobin digestion is the malaria
pigment, or hemozoin. These golden-brown granules have been long
recognized as a distinctive feature of blood-stage parasites.
6- Nuclear division marks the end of the trophozoite stage and the beginning of
the schizont stage.

36
7- Erythrocytic schizogongy consists of 3-5 rounds of nuclear replication and
releases the merozoites at the end of each cycle. These merozoites invade
new erythrocytes and initiate another round of schizogony.
8- Sexual Stage. As an alternative to schizogony some of the parasites will
undergo a sexual cycle and differentiate into either (male)
microgametocytes or (female) macrogametocytes.
C- Invertebrate phase (Fig., 2-30).

Fig. (2-30): Invertebrate phase of Plasmodium malaria

1. When female mosquito sucks the blood of an infected host, the
microgametes and macrogametocytes enter its alimentary canal221.
2. The microgametocyte undergoes three rounds of nuclear replication.
3. Exflagellation: These eight nuclei then become associated with flagella that
emerge from the body of the microgametocyte.
4. The highly mobile microgametes fuse with a macrogamete to form zygote
that develops into an ookinete.
5. The ookinete penetrates the midgut epithelium of the mosquito and
develops into an oocyst. The oocysts undergo an asexual replication, called
sporogony, to form several thousand sporozoites.
6. The sporozoites make their way to the salivary gland and become ready to
infect another host
N.B.: The life cycle of plasmodium illustrate the phenomenon known as
“Alternation of Generation” as it involoves the alternate succession of sexual
generation (reproducing by gametes) and asexual generation (reproducing by
schizogony or sporogny).

37
HOST – PARASITE RELATIONSHIP
Plasmodium is the causative agent of a Malaria disease. Malaria is
widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, (22 countries), including parts of
the Americas Asia, and Africa. Each year, there are approximately 350–500 million
cases of malaria, killing between one and three million people, the majority of
whom (90% of malaria-related deaths) are in sub-Saharan Africa.
The symptomes222 of malaria appears during erytrhocytes phase. In the
blood, the plasmodia parasites destroy the red blood cells, which carry vital oxygen
to the tissues of the body. The classic symptom of malaria is cyclical occurrence of
sudden coldness followed by rigor223 and then fever and sweating224 lasting for few
hours, in addition to joint pain, vomiting225 and anaemia (caused by haemolysis)
and retinal damage226.
Malaria can result in:
1. Anaemia due to the destruction of red blood cells by the parasites.
2. The remains of the destroyed red blood cells clump together and cause
blockages in the blood vessels. This can result in brain damage or kidney
damage, which is potentially fatal227.
3. The parasite also produce Lecithinase enzyme which damage the
mitochondria and thus inhibits the respiratory process of erythrocytes.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PROTOZOA
Protozoa, though minute and apparently insignificant, are of considerable
economic value to mankind. They are beneficial as well as harmful:
A- BENEFICIAL228 PROTOZOA
The Protozoa are useful in the following ways:
1. Food: Protozoa form the first link in many food chains ending in man. They
furnish229 food for the small crustaceans230 and worms, which are eaten by
larger animals, like crabs, lobsters, clams and fishes, which ultimately come
to human table.
2. Industry231. The siliceous and calcareous shells of marine Protozoa
(Foraminifera and Radiolarida) sink down and collect on the sea floor. These
skeletal deposits are put to many commercial uses. Some are employed as
filtering agents, others are made into chalk.
3. Building Material. The skeletal deposits in due course of time change into
the limestone rocks. These rocks are used as building material. For example,
the great Egyptian pyramids are built of stones carved out from the
limestone beds composed of the shells of foraminifera.

38
 4. Oil Exploration. The skeletal deposits of Foraminiferidae and Radiolaridae
are often found in association with oil deposits. These, therefore, help to
locate this important fuel.
5. Scientific Investigation. Many Protozoa are employed in biological and
medical researches.
6. Insect Control. Protozoa keep many harmful insects under check by
parasitizing their bodies.
B. HARMFUL PROTOZOA.
The Protozoa are harmful in the following ways:
1. Reduction of Soil Fertility232. About 200 to 300 species of Protozoa, including
flagellates, amoeboid forms and ciliates, inhabit the soil and feed on
nitrogen-fixing bacteria. This decreases the production of nitrates and
reduces soil fertility.
2. Pollution233 of Water. The Protozoa of fecal origin contaminate drinking
water in open reservoirs. Some free-living Protozoa render the water of open
quiet reservoirs and unfit it for drinking by giving it an unpleasant odour.
3. Destruction of Wooden Articles. Some flagellates live in the intestines of
termites and help them in the digestion of wood. Without these flagellates,
the termites would die.
4. Destruction of Food Animals. Phosphorescent Dinoflagellates like Gonyaulax
and Noctiluca, when present in large number, turn the ocean red. This gives
the water foul odour, kills food animals like fish, clams, oysters and mussels,
rendering them unfit for human consumption. Certain parasitic protozoa also
destroy useful animals. For Example, Trichomonas foetus causes abortion234
in cattle :
5. Production of Diseases. About 14 species of Protozoa live as parasites in the
human body and cause diseases, some of them are serious or fatal.

39
 3

II. Kingdom: Animalia

40
 II. KINGDOM: ANIMALIA
3. Basics of Animals Classifications

About 1.3 million living species of animals have been identified. Several
characteristics, taken together, sufficiently define the group.

Animals differ from plants in:

1. Contain centrioles and asters.
2. Lack chlorophyll, plastids and cell walls.
3. Exhibit both embryonic and larval stages.
4. Exclusively heterotrophic.

3.1. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF ANIMALS

The following features characterize the animals:

1. Exhibit multicellular construction.
2. Composed of eukaryotic cells.
3. Nutrition is by ingestion235 (heterotrophic).
4. Nervous tissue and muscle tissue are unique to animals.
5. All animals, and only animals, have Hox genes that regulate the development
of body form. Although the Hox family of genes has been highly conserved, it
can produce a wide diversity of animal morphology.
6. Most animals reproduce sexually, with the diploid stage usually
dominating236 the life cycle. After a sperm fertilizes an egg, the zygote
undergoes rapid cell division called cleavage237. Cleavage leads to formation
of a blastula. The blastula undergoes gastrulation, forming a gastrula with
different layers of embryonic tissues (Fig., 3-1).

Fig. (3-1): Early embryonic development of animals.

41
 3.2. BASICS OF CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL KINGDOM

About 1.3 million living species of animals have been identified. They are
classified according to the following bases:
 Level of Organization238, Type of Body Symmetry239, Type of
Body Cavity and Embryonic Development
3-2.1. Level of Organization

IF the animal develops from a single All others develop to an organ or

cell to the tissue level only, it belongs organ system level:
to:

Subkingdom Parazoa
Subkingdom Eumetazoa
(beside the animals)
(true later animal)
Phylum Porifera240 (sponges)

3.2.2. Type of Body Symmetry

ASYMMETRICAL RADIAL SYMMETRY242. BILATERIAL SYMMETRY243.

241

 Organisms whose body parts are  Organisms whose body parts are
The body halfs are not organized around a central axis arranged along a longitudinal axis where
identicals. and radiate from the central core right and left half are mirror images of
like the spokes of a wheel exhibit each other exhibit (Think of a butterfly).
 The body consists of two germ  The body consists of three germ layers
layers ( Ectoderm & Endoderm). (Ectoderm, Mesoderm & Endoderm).

Subkingdom: Grade: RADIATA Grade: BILATERIA

Parazoa (Diploblastica244) (Triploblastica245)

42
 Fig. (3-2): Classification of animals according to the types of body symmetry.

3.2.3. Type of Body Cavity (COELOM)

NO body cavity False cavity (false coelom) True body cavity

(Solid layer of (Pseudocoel only partially lined with (Coelom completely lined
mesoderm) mesoderm) with mesoderm

Subgrade :ACOELOMATA Subgrade: PSEUDOCOELOMATA Subgrade: COELOMATA

Phylum Platyhelminthes Phylum Nematoda Phyla Annelida  Chordata

Fig. (3-3): Classification of animals according to the type of body cavity.

The morphology-based tree divides bilaterians into two clades: deuterostomes and
protostomes.

43
 3.2.4. Type of Embryonic Development

If the first opening into the blastocoel is If the second opening into the
the mouth blastocoel is the mouth

Protostome. Deutrostome.

Fig. (3-4): Classification of animals according to their embryonic development.

44
 Classification of Animal Kingdom

Fig. (3-5): Classification of Animal Kingdom.

45
 SUBKINGDOM: PARAZOA
4. Phylum: Porifera (Sponges)
Parazoa literally translated as "beside the animals". They are aside from the
mainstream of animal evolution; thus they are often called Parazoa. Parazoa includes only
one phylum: Porifera (Sponges). Sponges are sessile246 and mostly marine animals which
show little or no detectable movement. They are regarded as the most primitive
multicellular animals that possess no proper organs. More than 10,000 species have been
described to date.
4.1. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PORIFERA
The sponges are intermediate between Protozoa and Metazoa. They have the
following characters:
1. They are sessile and aquatic (mostly marine). They depend on water current to bring in
food and oxygen and carry away wastes247.
2. The body is multicellular but there is no coordination 248 between the activities of the
cells and therefore, they do not form proper tissues249.
3. Porifera means pore-bearing. The body is perforated250 by numerous pores, canals and
chambers251 through them water flows into the central “Paragastric Cavity”.
4. They are holozoic and digestion is intracellular252.
5. They respire and excrete by simple diffusion.
6. They have no sensory or nerve cells. So, coordination of their activities is limited .
7. They have a skeleton253 made of calcareous spicules or organic spongin fibers or both.
8. Reproduction either sexually (by budding and regeneration) or asexually (by forming
gametes). Development includes larval stage254 known as “Amphiblaslula”.
4.2. MORPHOLOGY
Sponges lack symmetry, and unlike all other marine invertebrates, they have no
true tissues or organs. Neither do they have nerve or muscle cells. The body of a sponge is
hollow255, and composed of a simple aggregation256 of cells, between which there is little
coordination. However, these cells perform a variety of bodily functions and appear to be
independent257 of each other. The cells are embedded258 in a gelatinous matrix which is
supported259 by an internal skeleton of spicules of silica, calcium carbonate, or fibrous
protein known as 'spongin'. The sponge's body encloses a vast network of chambers and
canals that connect to the open pores on their surface.
4.3. THE COMPLEXITY OF ORGANISATION
Regarding body organization, sponges have three structural grades with increasing
complexity which are Ascon, Sycon and Leucon (Fig., 4-1a&b and table, 4-1).

46
 Fig. (4-1a): Grades of sponges (Morphology).
Table (4-1): Comparison between grares of sponges.
Characters Ascon Sycon Leucon
Colonisation  Live in colony  Solitary.  Solitary.
Shape  Tube or vase – shaped.  Vase – shaped.  Spherical.
 Thick and highly
Body wall  Thin and perforated.  Thick and folded.
folded
 Lined with flagellated  Flagellated chamber
Paragastric cavity  Very Reduced
cells. lined with pinacocyte
1-Ostia. 1-Ostia261. 1-Ostia.
2-Paragastric cavity. 2-Inhalent canal. 2-Inhalent canal.
3-Osculum260. 3-Flagellated chamber. 3-Subdermal cavities.
Water current
4-Paragastric cavity. 4-Flagellated chamber.
passes throw:
5-Osculum. 5-Exhalent canal.
6-Paragastric cavity.
7-Osculum.
Example  Leucosolenia  Sycon  Euspongia

Ascon Sycon Leucon

Fig. (4-1b): Grades of sponges(L.S.).
4.4. BODY WALL
The body wall consists of two layers: Outer dermal layer262 and Inner gastric layer263.
(Fig., 4-2).
Dermal layer
Consists of two layers:
1. Outer covering layer: of thin flattened cells known as pinacocytes.

47
 2. Inner skeletogenous layer: which contains scattered cells embedded in a jelly
substance. These cells are:
a. Scleroplasts: Which secrete spicules.
b. Amocbocytes: They wonder264 in the jelly substances and act to:
 Transpont food and other subtances.
 Give rise to the reproductive cells.
 They can differentiate265 into any cell type.
C .Porocytes: Tubular cells which form the pores.
Gastric layer
 Consists of choanocytes266 :These are rounded cells with flagellum and collar and
lining267 the paragastric cavity (Fig., 4-3).
 Their functions are:
 Collection and digestion of food particles.
 The beating of their flagella create the water current.

Fig. (4-2): Histological structures of sponges.

Fig. (4-3): Structure of choanocyte.

48
 4.5. SKELETON
All sponges have a definite skeleton which provides a framework that supports the
animal. It may be mineral in nature (calcareous or siliceous) or composed of protein and
other components (spongin fibers).
The mineral skeleton is formed for the most parts by units called spicules, either
scattered throughout the sponge or united to form fibres; spicules are classified as
megascleres, which function in support, and microscleres, which function in protection
and also add in support. Some are composed of a calcareous skeleton while others use
silica for the same purpose. Still others are comprised of a softer spongy material
known as spongin. In all species, however, this skeleton is made up of a complex
arrangement of spicules, which are spiny strengthening rods with a crystalline
appearance. The skeleton of sponges is of great taxonomic significance (Fig., 4-4).

Fig. (4-4): Skeleton of sponges.

268
4.6. WATER CURRENT
Sponges feed by drawing269 a current of seawater in through their entry pores, the
ostia,(sing., ostium) to the paragastric cavity, filtering out food particles, then ejecting 270
the water out through their exit pores, the oscula. This flowing water provides271 both
food and oxygen, as well as being a means for waste removal272 (Fig., 4-5).
4.7. NUTRITION & RESPIRATION
In general, sponges feed by filtering bacteria from the water that passes through
them. Some sponges trap273 about 90% of all bacteria in the water they filter, but others
appear to be less efficient274 at capturing bacteria. These may specialize in feeding on
other organisms or smaller bits of organic matter. Still other sponges harbour 275
symbiotic276 unicellular algae such as green algae, dinoflagellates, or cyanobacteria, which
supply them with food and allow salt accumulation for the skeleton. Sponges are
characterized by the possession of a feeding system unique among animals. Unlike all
other animals, Poriferans do not have mouths. Instead 277, they simply pump278 water
through their bodies, drawing it in and expelling it via pores. Food particles (such as
diatoms, protozoa, etc.) suspended in water adhere to the outer surface of the collar of
the choanocytes. They are then passed down to the base of the choanocytes where they

49
become ingested by these cells then passed to the amoebocytes to complete their
digestion. Intracellular digestion occur within food vacuoles. The digested food is then
distributed into other cell types. Deprived of 279 its nutrients, the water is then expelled
through the oscula.

Fig. (4-5): Water current of sponges.

4.8. REPRODUCTION
4.8.1. Asexual reproduction:
a. Budding. Sponges usually reproduce by developing buds which grow to form new
individual. The buds may be separated or remain attached to form a colony.
b. Regeneration. Sponges have the capacity280 to replace lost parts. If a living
sponges is broken into pieces, or even blended281, the cells aggregated and a
complete individual may grow from each piece.This process is known as “somatic
embryogenesis”.
c- Gemmule formation. In unsuitable conditions,
fresh water sponges develop internal buds
known as gemmules, Gemmules are
developed from a group of amoebocytes rich
in food reserves which gather 282and become
surrounded by protective cyst (Fig., 4-6). As
the sponges die, gemmule are freed.
Gemmules withstand283 unfavourable conditions, the amoebocytes escape from
small pore, aggregate and grow into a new sponge.
Fig. (4-6): Gemmule of sponges

50
4.8.2. Sexual reproduction (Fig., 4-7):
Sponges may be unisexual (i.e. there is male and female) or hermaphrodite 284. The
process of sexual reproduction requires the production and release of large numbers of
male sperm cells that are often released in dense clouds. Fertilization takes place and a
zygote is formed. Zygote divides forming single – celled blastula that gradually
developed into amphiblastula. The amphiblastula escapes and lives as free swimming
larva for some times thus disposing285 the species. The amphiblastula then rotates. The
flagellated cells invaginate286 so that a double wall gastrula is formed.
1. The gastrula soon settle down on the rocks and develops into a sponges. Where:
Flagellated cells ----► choannocytes and Granular cells -----► Pinacocyts.
4.10. SOME ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SPONGES
The soft elastic skeletal frameworks of certain species of the class Demospongiae,
as Spongia officinalis, S. graminea, Hippospongia communis ,have been familiar
household items since ancient times. In ancient Greece and Rome, sponges were used to
apply paint, as mops287, and by soldiers as substitutes for drinking vessels. During the
Middle Ages, burned sponge was reputed288 to have therapeutic value289 in the treatment
of various diseases. Natural sponges are now used mostly in arts and crafts 290 such as
pottery291 and jewelry making292, painting and decorating, and in surgical medicine.
Synthetic sponges have largely replaced natural ones for household use. Below are some
other uses of sponges.
A. As Food for other organisms
Even though sponges are rarely taken as food by other animals, crustaceans 293 are
found leading parasitic life on them and some molluscs294 like nudibranchs 295depend on
them for their diet.
B. As commensals296:
Sponges serve as protective houses for animals like crustaceans, molluscs, small
fishes, etc. In addition to the protection, the animals that live inside the sponge get a rich
food supply from the water circulating through them. Moreover, Sponges allow certain
forms of algae to live on their surface.
C. Commercial uses:
The dried, fibrous skeleton of many sponges like Spongia, Hippospongia and
Euspongia are used for the purpose of bathing(bath sponges), polishing, washing cars,
walls, furnitures, and scrubbing floor etc. The skeleton of some sponges like Euplectella
are of great commercial value and used as decorative pieces.
D. Medical uses:
Some chemical substances secreted by sponges have anti-inflammatory297,
antibiotic and anti-tumoral activities and are used in the production of medicines.

51
 The Venus Flower Basket - Symbol Of Love
One of the most beautiful of all the creatures that live in the oceans is the rare and very seldom
seen Venus Flower Basket (Euplectella aspergillum). It only grows on the ocean floor at depths of
three thousand to five thousand feet, in the warm tropical waters of the South Pacific, mostly
around the Philippines and Japan. This glass sponge of the Class Hexactinellida frequently acts as
hosts to other organisms. One of the most intriguing298 of these symbiotic relationships concerns
decapods shrimps of the Family Spongicolidae, known as wedding shrimps. These shrimps enter
the sponge at a pre-reproductive stage and eventually form sexual pairs that remain entrapped
within the sponge for the rest of their lives. The shrimp inside of the basket clean it, and in return,
the spongocoel offers a secure environment for the shrimps, with its constant circulation of clean
water, a continuous supply of food particles and relative safety from many predators. It is also
speculated that the bioluminescent light of bacteria harnessed 299 by the sponge may attract other
small organisms. Male and female shrimps breed, and when their offspring are tiny, the offspring
escape to find a Venus Flower Basket of their own.
It has long been the custom in Asian culture, particularly in Japan, to present the dried skeleton
of a glass sponge containing the pair of shrimps as a wedding gift. This is to celebrate the lifetime
bond that will hopefully exist between the bride and groom, The Japanese name for hexactinellid
sponges, Kairou-Douketsu (meaning “together for eternity300”), reflects this long term
involvement.

The Venus Flower Basket Sponge dwelling shrimp

52
 B. SUBKINGDOM: EUMETAZOA
i. GRADE: RADIATA
Grade Radiata includes organisms whose body parts are organized around a
central axis and radiate from the central core like the spokes of a wheel exhibit.
5- Phylum : Cnidaria301
Cnidaria (Gr. knide = nettle302) includes the polyps, hydroids, jellyfishes, sea
anemons and corals. They are first multicellular animals to have tissues, a digestive
cavity and two germ layers. Cnidarians show a distinct advance303 in structure over the
Porifera., their cells are much more specialized, with a higher coordination than in
sponges, maintained by unpolarized nervous system in the form of a network. Similar
cells, therefore work together to perform a common function, thus begin to form
“tissues” . On other word, they reach the tissue grade of organization. This phylum
includes plant-like colonies of colourful sea anemones304, massive reef-building
corals305, as well as the free swimming jelly fishes306.
5.1. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF CNIDARIA
Cnidarians show the following characters:
1. They are simple aquatic, mostly marine and radially symmetrical.
2. They possess central cavity known as Coelenteron or “Gastrovascular cavity”
opened by a single opening.
3. They are diploblastic i.e. the body is formed of two layers, an outer ectoderm
and an inner endoderm separated by mesoglea.
4. They are the only animals which possess nematocysts (stinging cells307 used for
defense308 and food capture).
5. The digestive cavity have a single opening which serves as both mouth and
anus309 (incomplete digestive system). Digestion is partly extracellutar310 (in the
gastrovascular cavity) and partly intracellular311 (inside the endodermal cells).
6. Respiration and excretion takes place by simple diffusion.
7. They possess a simple nerve net.
8. They reproduce asexually,by budding or regeneration, and sexually, by
formation of gametes.
They exihibit the phenomenon of alternation of generations i.e. most cnidarians
exhibit two different forms in the life cycle (Fig., 5-1):
 Hydra – like polyp: sessile hydroid form.
 Medusa : free – living jelly fish.

53
 Fig. (5-1): Dimorphism in Cnidaria

5.2. CLASSIFICATION OF CNIDARIA

Cnidarians are classified into four classes (table, 5-1) which are:
Table (5-1): Classification of Cnidaria
CLASS MAIN CHARACTERS EXAMPLE(S)
 Most marine, few freshwater. Hydra – Obelia
 Both polyp and medusa in most
Hydrozoa species.
 Polyp stage ofen colonial.

 All marine. Aurelia

 Polyp stage absent or reduced.
Scyphozoa  Free swimming medusa up to 2 mm in
diameter.

 All marine. Sea anemon, most corals

 Medusa stage completely absent.
Actinozoa  Most sessile; many colonial.
(Anthozoa)

 All marine. Box jellies, Sea waspes

 Box shaped medusa.
Cubozoa  Complex eyes.

5.2.1. CLASS: HYDROZOA

GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. Cheifly marine (few being freshwater) , solitary or colonial.

54
 2. Alternation of generation is the typical form although a suppression312 of one phase
may exist.
3. Mesoglea non - cellular.
4. Gastrodermis (endodermis) without nematocysts.
5. Medusa with velum, nerve ring and ectodermal gonads.
e.g.1 Hydra8
HABITAT313It is a simple cylindrical314 cnidarians, lives in cool and clean
freshwater ponds, lakes315 and streams 316. It usually attaches to submerged317 objects
like weeds, sticks and stones near the surface where oxygen is more abundant318.
Morphology
Its size ranges from 2 to 20 mm in length. Hydra has a tubular body attached to
the substratum by a simple adhesive319 foot called the basal disc320. Gland cells in the
basal disc secrete a sticky fluid that allows for attachment. At the free end of the
body is a mouth opening surrounded by 4-12 thin, mobile tentacles321. The adult
Hydra may bear buds and gonads322 on the surface of its body (Fig. 5-2).

Fig. (5-2): Morphology of Hydra

CELLULAR STRUCTURE (BODY WALL) (Fig., 5-3).
Body wall of Hydra is built up of two layers, the outer ectoderm and the inner
endoderm (gastroderm). Inbetween the two layers there is a jelly – like mesoglea.The
different cell types are listed in Table (5-2):
8
a many-headed snake whose heads grew again as they were cut off, killed by Hercules…
Greek myth a monster with nine heads, each of which, when struck off, was replaced by two new ones a many-
headed serpent or monster in Greek mythology that was slain by Hercules and each head of which when cut off was
replaced by two others

55
 Fig. (5-3): Histological structures of body wall of Hydra
Table (5-2): Types of cells found in the body wall of Hydra.
Layers Cell type Structure Function
• Movement.
 Ectodermal
Large cone- shaped cells. • Support.
epithelial cells
• Secrete thin cuticle.
• They can differentiate into
 The interstitial
323 Small rounded cells. any cell type including
cells 324
gametes .
 The nerve cells Each consists of cell body and two • Coordinate the activitis of
Epidermis

(Neurons) or more fibrils that connect to all cells.

325
form a nerve – net .
326 Narrow columnar cells connected • Have a sensory function.
 The sensory cells
with the nerve net.

They are most numerous on the • Produce mucous secretion

327
 The mucous cells basal disc and contain a large for attachment.
number of secretory granules.
• Food capture
 The cnidocytes328
See above • Defense
(Nematoplasts)
• Locomotion
329
• Inbetween ectoderm and endoderm lies a thin homogeneous acellular layer known as
Mesoglea 330
mesoglea that acts as a basement membrane for cells and have some muscle fibers.
Endodermal epithelial Tall columnar cells have • Engulf food for intracellular
(Gastrodermis)

cell muscle tails. Some carry digestion inside food vacuoles

Endoderm

(musculo-nutritive cell) flagella and others produce • Its flagella create a current inside
pseudopodia. the gastrovascular cavity.
331 -Without muscle tails. • They secrete enzymes for
 The gland cells
-Did not reach mesoglea extracellular digestion.
• In addition, Interstitial cells, Nerve cells, Sensory cells are also found in the gasrtoderm

56
 The cnidocytes (Nematocysts):
These are specialized cells lie in groups specially on tentacles. Cnidocytes
contain specialized structures called nematocysts with a coiled thread inside (Fig., 5-4).
At the narrow edge of the cnidocyte is a short trigger332 hair called a cnidocil. Upon
contact with a prey333,or an enemy, the contents of the nematocyst are explosively
discharged334, firing a dart-like thread335 containing toxic substance which can
paralyse336 the prey.

Fig. (5-4): Structure of cnidocyte.

Three kinds of nematocysts (Fig., 5-5) were found in Hydra:
1-Penetrant337 nematocysts. (Fig., 5-4)
It is the largest and has armed thread tube. When this type is stimulated338 from a
prey or an enemy, water ruches inside the capsule, which swells up. The lid is forced
open, the thread is suddenly shot out of the capsule and pierces339 the skin of the prey
or the enemy causing a paralysis by the action of poisonous secretions
2-Volvent340 nematocyst
It is similar to the penetrant one, but smaller and its thread is smaller. The thread is
discharged and wrapped around341 the processes342 of the pry’s body thus seizes it.
3. Glutinat mematocytes which are of two types:
 Small :have long armed adhesive thraed.
 Large :have long unarmed adhesive thread.
Both respond to mechanical stimuli and used for food collection and locomotion.

57
 Fig. (5-5): Types of cnidocyte
LOCOMOTION
Hydra is essentially sessile and lives attached to the substratum. Occasionally343
it moves from one place to another by one of the following methods (Fig., 5-6):
a-Gliding344
Hydra can glide over the substratum with the help of mucous secretions and
amoeboid movement of the cells of the basal plate .
b-Walking
1. The animal elongates its body, bends over345 and then attaches the tentacles to
the substratum with the help of glutinate nematocysts.
2. The basal disc is then freed and moved near the tentacles where it attached.
3. The tentacles are then freed, the body assumed an upright positionand the
process is repeated (Fig., 5-6).
c- Somersaulting346
1. The animal elongates, bends over and attaches the tentacles to the substratum.
2. It then frees its basal disc, swing347 it over the tentacles and attaches it to the
substratum on the other side of the tentacles.
3. The tentacles are then freed, the body assumed an upright position and the process
is repeated (Fig., 5-6).

Fig. (5-6): Locomotion in Hydra

d-Floating
Sometimes Hydra floats on water surface with current. Its pedal disc's gland
cells sometimes secrete gas which assumes the shape of an air bubble. Due to this air

58
bubble Hydra detaches348 itself from the substratum and hangs obliquely downward
and thus floats along (Fig., 5-6).
NUTRITION
a- Feeding: Hydra is mainly holozoic and carnivorous. It feeds on small aquatic
organisms which present within the reach of its tentacles. If such organism
touches one of the tentacles, a large number of nemotocysts shot into it and
thus the prey is paralyzed. The tentacles then cooperate349 to bring the prey to
the mouth. The mouth swallows350 the prey and passes it into the gastrovascular
cavity.
b- Digestion: Digestion occurs in two phases:
 Extracellular digestion: The prey is partially digested within the gastrovascular
cavity by the action of digestive enzymes secreted from glandular cells.
 Intracellular digestion: Partially digested food is engulfed351 by the endodermal
epithelial cells where the process of digestion is completed inside food
vacuoles.The digested food is then distributed to all parts of the body by
diffusion from cell to cell.
c- Egestion Undigested remains are passed into the gastrovascular cavity and then
expelled352 through the mouth, which therefore acts as an anus. Therefore the
digestive system is incomplete.
REPRODUCTION
a-Asexual reproduction (Fig., 5-7).
Hydra has high ability of regeneration and budding due to the presence of interstitial
cells

Budding
Regeneration
Fig. (5-7): Asexual reproduction in Hydra .

59
 1-Budding353
a. A protrusion occure at one side of the body and grow gradually to form a bud.
b. A crown of tentacles is formed
c. The bud detaches from the body to form a new individual
2 - Regeneration Hydra has a great ability of regeneration due to the presence of a
large number of interstitial cells. If Hydra is cut into pieces, each piece will
develop into a complete individual.
b-Sexual reproduction (Fig., 5-8).
With the beginning of unfavourable season, Hydra starts to develop gonads and
reproduce sexually as following:
1. Some species of Hydra are hermaphrodite and in others the sexes are separate.
However, the ovary produces one mature ovum while the testis produces a
large number of sperms which discharge and carried out by water to fertilize the
ova inside the ovary of other individual.
2. After fertilization, the zygote undergoes repeated division (cleavage) forming a
single – layered hollow blastula with a central cavity known as blastocoel.

Fig. (5-8): Sexual reproduction in Hydra

3. The embryo then develops into gastrula in which the cells become arranged in
two layers; the outer ectoderm and the inner endoderm.
4. The embryo secrets a protective cyst around itself and settles in the bottom.
5. When the environmental conditions improved354, the embryo escapes from the
cyst, gradually elongates, attaches at one end and develops tentacles and mouth
at the other end. The cells differentiate and the embryo develops into a young
Hydra.
Immortality Of Hydra
P. Brien(1955) and others observed that Hydra is at least potentially immortal. Just
below the tentacles, there is a growth zone where interstitial cells give rise to all other cell of

60
the body. With the formation of new cells, old cells are pushed towards the end of tentacles
and oral discs, from there they are shed out. In about 45 days the older body cells are
replaced. This process of cell replacment is an endelss process. It has also been shown that, if
interstitial celss of growth zone are destroyed, then Hydra live only for few days.
.g2 Obelia9
This is a marine cnidarian which is dimorphic. i.e. it exists in two forms which
alternate in the life cycle ( Hydra – like polyp or colony & Medusa).
1. THE COLONY (Fig., 5-9a):

Fig. (5-9a): Colony of Obelia.

9
= a narrow fascia or band of colour

61
 The colony of Obelia consists of a branching root -like horizontal portion known
as the hydrorhiza, which extends over the surface of the substratum, and one or more
upright stems, each called a hydrocaulus. Short branches arise alternately on both
sides of the hydrocaulus; each ending in a small individual or polyp. The polyps are of
two kinds ; hydranth and blastostyle.
a. Hydranth: It is hydra-like polyp, has mouth and tentacles and covered with
hydrotheca. The hydranths feed the colony in a similar way as in Hydra. They
capture small organisms by means of their tentacles which are richly supplied
with nematoblasts (cnidocytes). The paralyzed prey is passed through the mouth
into the gastrovascular cavity of the hydranth where digestion starts. Partly
digested food is then circulated through the whole colony by the beating of the
flagella of the endodermal cells. The food is thus distributed to all parts of the
colony and digestion is completed within food vacuoles in the endodermal cells.
b. The blastostyle: This is a modified355 polyp which usually develops in the
angles where hydranths arise. It is an elongated hollow body which has no
mouth or tentacles and enclosed within gonotheca. Its function mainly in
asexual reproduction to produce medusa by budding.
2. THE Medusa (Fig., 5-9b): This is a small free living with bell- like body. Tentacles 16
in young and numerous in adult. The gastrovascular cavity is restricted and
differentiated into manubrium, four gastric cavity, four radial canals and circular
canal. There are eight sense organs, the statocysts.The medusa brings about sexual
reproduction and dispersion.it has four gonads and reproduces sexually by
gametes (sexual generation).

Fig. (5-9b): Medusa of Obelia.

62
 The differences between polyp and medusa are summarized in table (5-3)
Table (5-3): Comparison between polyp and medusa of Obelia
Hydroid Polyp Medusa
 Live in colony.  Live solitary
 Body is long and cylindrical.  Body is short and umbrella-shape.
 Fixed zooid.  Free – living zooid.
 Enclosed in protective hydrotheca.  Without any covering.
 Tentacles usually 24.  Tentacles 16 in young and numerous in adult.
 The gastrovascular cavity is a single cavity.  The gastrovascular cavity is restricted and
differentiated into manubrium, radial canals and
 There is no sense organ. circular canal.
 The polyp feeds and protects the colony.  There are eight sense organs, (the statocysts).
 Without gonads.  The medusa brings about sexual reproduction and
 Reproduces asexually by budding. dispersion of the colony.
 With four gonads.
 Reproduces sexually by gametes.
REPRODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle exhibits alternation of generation where the colony and medusa
alternate in the life cycle. The colony reproduces asexualy to produce medusa while
medusae reproduce sexually to produce colony.
a-Asexual reproduction Hydroid colony of Obelia reproduces asexually by
budding. The colony increases in size and adds new stems, hydranths and blostostyles
by budding. The blastostyle also produces medusae by budding. When fully developed,
the medusae escape and swim freely in water.

Fig. (5-10): Life cycle of Obelia.

63
 b-Sexual reproduction (Fig.,5-10).
The male and female medusae are separate. The medusae reproduce sexually by
producing gametes as following:
1. The mature ova and sperms are shed into seawater by rapture of gonads.
2. After fertilization, the zygote develops into planula larvae.
3. The planula larva swims freely with the help of cilia and settles on the rock.
4. It fixes itself and developed into a small polyp.
5. The small polyp gives rise to a new colony by repeated budding.
1.3. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CNIDARIA
1.3.1. RELATION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS
The cnidarians are predaceous. Many forms carry on relationship with them as they
could easily used as food. Various types of relationships with other animals can be studied
under following headings:
a. Commensal relations
Commensalism is a phenomenon where one organism living in or on another, with
only one of the two benefiting356 . Many hydroid live commensally on sponges, molluscs and
floating plant species. For example, Hydractinia grows on the shell of some snails. Hermit
crab (Eupagurus prideauxi) can recognize the particular species of sea-anemones by
touching. The hermit crab carries the anemone about in an inseparable partnership where
the crab move to a large shell due to growth. The anemone is also detached and placed on
the new shell. The hermit crab is protected from its enemies by the stinging power of the
anemone due to nematocysts and may share food caught by the anemone. In return, the
anemone also benefits as it is carried about by the hermit crab getting better chances to
obtain food and also shares food particles dropped by the crab. This is an example of
mutualism357.
b.Symbiotic relations
Several species of unicellular algae called Zooxanthcltoe live as intracellular symbionts
in the gastrodermal cells of different regions in a number of cnidarians. During day time the
algae produce oxygen by photosynthesis by utilizing carbon dioxide which is produced by the
cnidrians cells respiration. During photosynthesis food and oxygen are produced which are
utilized by the cnidarians.
5.3.2. RELATIONS TO MAN
a. Food : as food, the cnidarians are little used by man. However, some jelly fishes are
eaten in the oriental region. Two species of sea-anemones are also eaten in Italy under the
name of Ogliole.

64
 b. Corals : The stony corals produce calcareous reefs and ultimately dry lands. Corals
of geological part were favorable sites for accumulation of petroleum deposits. The hard
coral lime can be used for building purposes.
c. Decorative materials: Some corals are very beautiful and have been used in
decorative art from old times. The red coral commonly known as red moonga is used in
jewellery. Others are used in indoor aquariums ..etc.
d. Biological experiments: Cnidarians are used in laboratories to demonstrate the
phenomenon of budding, grafting, regeneration etc .
e. Harmful cnidarians: The cnidarians, possessing the nematocysts or stinging cells
directly affecting man . Aurelia can produce an uncomfortable358 burning sensation. Physalia,
the Portuguese man-of-war, is one of the most dangerous free-swimming species.. It can
inflict359 painful and often serious stings. Its poison is neurotoxic affecting the nervous system
to man and brings about collapse and unconsciousness360 .

65
 B- GRADE: BILATERIA
In contrast to the Radiata (Cnidaria and Ctenophora), the remaining
eumetazoa phyla: the Bilateria are characterised by bilateral symmetry, i.e. the
body can be divided into two symmetrical halves through one plane (Fig., 6-1).
Bilateral symmetry starts early in development but may be masked361 later by
secondary radial condition, as in echinodermates362, or only modified by spiral
coiling as in gastropod molluscs. A definite anus is common to all bilateral phyla
except platyhelminthes363.

Fig . (6-1): Bilateral symmetry

All Bilateria are triploblastic ( i.e. with three germ layers: ectoderm, mesodem
and endoderm) (Fig., 6-2).

Fig 6-2): All Bilateria are tribloplatic.

According to the type of body cavity (coelom), the Grade: Bilateria is divided
into three subgrades namely: Acoelomata, Pseudocoelomata and Coelomata.
i. Subgrade: Acoelomata
The acoelomates are radiates which lack body cavity. The mesodermal layer
arises by cell proliferation from the ectoderm and endoderm and the resulting
mesodermal cells fill the whole of the blastocoel (Fig., 6-3). Acoelomata includes
only two Phyla: Platyhelminthes and Nemertea.

66
 Fig . (6-3): Acoelomate animals have no coelom.

6. PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES (Flat worms)

Platyhelminthes or flat-worms are bilateria with dorsoventrally flattened
bodies displaying definite cephalization364. They are the lowest triploblastic animals,
and the first to develop distinct organs and systems.
6.1. GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. They are free - living or parasitic triploblastic (i.e. have three germ layers) and
acoelomate (i.e. possess no coelom). Parenchyma fills the internal space of
the body.
2. They have soft dorsoventerally flattened and bilaterally symmetrical bodies.
3. They display definite cephalization , i.e. the anterior end forms the head.
4. Muscle layers are well developed.
5. The digestive system, if present, is simple with only a mouth, but no anus.
6. Respiratory and circulatory systems are absent.
7. The excretory system consists of a basic units known as flame cells365
connected together by one or more excretory ducts366.
8. Nervous system is primitive and ladder–like. It consists of a pair of cerebral
ganglia367 (brain) and 1-3 pairs of longitudinal nerve cords368.
9. The majority are hermaphrodite with complicated reproductive system
including internal gonads, genital ducts, accessory genital glands369 and
copulatory organs.
6.2. CLASSIFICATION OF PLATYHEMLMINTHES
This phylum includes a group of free-living aquatic forms (turbellaria) and two
other groups of very important parasites: the flukes (Trematoda) and the tapeworm
(Cestoda ) (Table, 6-1).

67
 Table (6-1): Classification of Platyhelminthes.
CLASS:
Character CLASS: TREMATODA CLASS: CESTODA
TURBELLARIA
Habits Free – living& aquatic Parasitic & unsegmented. Parasitic & segmented.
Ciliated, without With minute spicules and Smooth and with
Body wall
cuticle370. tegument. cuticle
Digestive system Incomplete Incomplete Absent.
Nutrition Carnivorous. Holozoic feeding. Saprozoic feeding.
371
Suckers Without suckers. With two suckers. With four suckers
Example(s) Planaria Fasciola - Schistosoma. Taenia.

6.2.1. CLASS: TURBELLARIA (TRICLADIDA)

Turbellarian ( about 5,000 species) are non-parasitic flatworms. They are
common to many parts of the world, living in both saltwater and freshwater (ponds
and rivers). Their name is given by Ehrenberg in 1831, refere to the disturbance
(turbellae372) caused in water by their cilia. Some species are terrestrial and are
found in or on the soil, and on plants in humid373 areas. Primarily free-living,
planarians are characterized by a soft, broad, leaf-shaped body with cilia and a
three-branched digestive tract (as reflected in the name Tricladida).
GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. Unsegmented leaf-like bodies.
2. Have ciliated epidermis without cuticle.
3. The mouth is usually ventral and the pharynx is protractible.
4. Life cycle is simple.
5. Planarians range in size from about 3 to 12 mm. The head has two
eyespots known as ocelli that act as photoreceptors374 and are used to
move away from light sources.
e.g. Planaria
Planaria inhabits freshwater bonds, streams and springs. It adhers into
submerged plants, stones or any other objects.

68
MORPHOLOGY
The Planaria has a soft, flat, wedge-shaped375 body that may be black, brown,
gray, or white and is about 1.3 cm long. The blunt, triangular head has two eye pots
“ocelli” ; pigmented areas that are sensitive to light. There are two auricles (ear-like
projections) at the base of the head, which are sensitive to touch and the presence
of certain chemicals. The mouth is located in the middle of the underside of the
body, which is covered with cilia. A common genital opening lies behind the mouth
(Fig., 6-4).

Fig . (6-4): Morphology of Planaria.

6.2.2. CLASS: TREMATODA
Termadota have received a wide spread medical and veterenary376 attention
because many species are known to be the causative agents of some diseases of
man and his demostic animals377.
CHARACTERS
1. They live as parasites either on or in other organisms.
2. Outer body lacks cilia; tegument has a layer of glycoproteins that are
important in protection and absorption.
3. Incomlete digestive system.
4. Possess two suckers:
 Oral sucker378 encircling the mouth.
 Ventral sucker or acetabulum; used for attachment to host’ tissues.
CLASSIFICATION OF TREMATODA
Trematoda are classified into three orders, Monogenea379, Aspidogastrea
and Digenia380 (Table, 6-2). Some taxonomists consider Monogenea as a separate
class belong to Phylum Platyhelminthes and others cosidered these three as classes
instead of Trematoda.

69
 Table (6-2): Classification of Trematoda
Order: Monogenea Order: Digenea
Order: Aspidogastrea
(Heterocotylea) (Malacocotylea)
 Aquatic ectoparasite.  A small group  Endoparasite (over 9,000
intermediate species).
 With direct life cycle. between Monoginea  With complicated indirect life
and Digenea but cycle.
 Use one host. nearer to Digenea
 Requires two hosts to
 e. g. Diplozoon complete life cycle:
 e.g. Aspidogaster  e.g Fasciola

Order: Digenea
CHARACTERS
1. Some are very important parasites of man.
2. Most are hermaphroditic, Schistosomes are exception being dioecious381.
3. Some can reproduce parthenogenetically382.
4. Often have complex life cycles that alternate between sexual and asexual
stages.
5. Most require at least two different hosts to complete their life cycle:
 Definitive host (primary host)
 The host in which the parasite matures and reproduces sexually.
 The host in which eggs are released.
 Intermediate host
 Hosts in which larval stages develop and undergo asexual
reproduction.
 Results in an increase in the number of the individuals.
E.g.1 Faciola (liver flukes383)
It is a common endoparasite of sheep and cattle (sometimes man). It lives in
the bile ducts384 of the liver and causes serious losses in such animal due to
destruction of the liver.
MORPHOLOGY
The adult fluk has a leaf –like body, 25-75 mm in length. It has a head cone
at the anterior end of the body. It has two suckers; oral sucker encircling the
mouth and a ventral sucker. The latter is used for fixing the worm to the wall of
bile ducts. The genital atrium lies between the two suckers while the excretory
pore is located at the posterior end (Fig.,6-11).

70
HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE (Fig., 6-12a&b).
 Body wall: There is no epidermis, instead the body wall consists of thick living
tegument which represents surface extension of tegument forming cells.
Pinocytotic vesicles385 may be present in the tegument. The deep part of the
tegument is rich in mitochondria. The tegument is rich in sharp spinules386
used to fix the worm to the wall of the bile ducts.
 Musculatures: The muscles are differentiated into circular, longitudinal and
vertical muscles.
 Parenchyma: Scattered cells that fill the internal spaces.

Fig. (6-12a):T.S. of Fasciola

Fig. (6-12b):Hisotogical structure of body wall of Fasciola.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND FEEDING

 Fasciola is a parasite and the digestive system is very simple. It consists of mouth
(bounded by the oral sucker), short oesophagus387, and two intestinal caecum
branched into lateral diverticula (Fig., 6-13).
 Fasciola feeds on bile and blood of the host which ingested by the mouth and
reach to the intestinal caecae where they are digested and absorbed. Morever,
simple suger and protein may taken from the blood plasma of the host by
pinnocytosis through the tegument.

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 Fig. (6-13): Digestive system of Fasciola

EXCRETORY SYSTEM AND EXCRETION

The excretory system consists of a large number of branched tubules which
ramify throughout the parenchyma and collect in main long. excretory canal that
opens to the exterior by the excretory pore. The terminal ends of tubules have
excretory unit known as Flame cell or Solenocytes (Fig., 6-14).

Excretory and Nervous system

Fig. (6-14): Excretory system of Fasciola.

Flame cell: It is the excretory unit in Fasciola. It has branched protoplasmic

processes and a hollow cytoplasm with a large nucleus. A tuft of flickering cilia hang
down in the cavity and move like the candle flame.

72
The flame cells collect waste products and excess water from the parenchyma and
drive them, with help of cilia, down the excretory tubules to the exterior.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Fasciola is hermaphroditic i.e. it possesses both male and female
reproductive system in the same individual (Fig., 6-15).

Fig. (6-15): Reprodctive system of Fasciola.

Male Reproductive system
It consists of:
 Two Testes: produce spermatozoa.
 Two Vasa differentia: convey sperms from the testes.
 Vesicula seminalis: store the sperms.
 Cirrus pouch and cirrus. the male copulatory organ that insert sperms into
other worm.
Female Reproductive system:
 Single Ovary: produce ova

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  Oviduct: convey ova to the ootype
 Ootype388: It is the egg forming apparatus.
 Vitelline glands : A large number of vitelline glands are found on both sides
of the body. They produce yolk that convey to the ova in the ootype through
four long. vitelline ducts -------►two trans. vitelline ducts -----►one median
vitelline ducts ----► ootype
 Uterus389: Inside which fertilization takes place.
 Genital atrium: Into which open the male and femal genital pore.
 Mehlis’ gland. Secrete the egg shell.
 LIFE CYCLE (Fig., 6-16)
Life cycle is complicated and requires two hosts: Intermediate host (Lymnaea
snail) and final host (Sheep).
1. Cross or self-fertilization takes place where the
egg is fertilized inside the uterus.
2. The fertilized eggs leave the worm, travel with the
bile secretion into the intestine of the host, then
Egg
they are shed with faeces into water.
3. After two weeks, the egg hatches into a ciliated
free – living Miracidium.
4. The miracidium swims actively searching its
intermediate host (Lymnaea snail) and penetrates
its tissue by the secretions of its penetration Miracidium

gland.
a. Inside the snail tissue, the miracidium loses
its ciliary covering, changing into “Sporocyst”.
b. Inside the sporocyst, there are masses of
germ cells which develop into other larvae
called Radia.
c. Inside the body of the radia, there are
clusters of germ cells which divided to form
Cercaria.
5. The cercaria leave the body of the radia through
Redia
the birth pore and penetrate the tissues of the

74
 snail to the surrounding water and swim actively
for few days by the aid of their tails. Then they
form shell around itself changing into Encysted
Metacercaria. (Infective stage)
6. Grazing animals acquire the infection by eating
aquatic vegetation390 infested391 with
metacercaria. Cercaria
7. In the duodenum of the final host (cattle, sheep,
goats.. etc), the metacercaria lose their protective
cyst, penetrate the intestinal wall and migrates
into the liver where it becomes mature fluke. Encysted metacercaria

Fig. (6-16):Life cycle of Fasciola

HOST PARASITE RELATIONSHIP
1. Effect of parasite on definite (final) host
Fasciola lives in the bile ducts of the liver where it causes:
a. Hemorrhages392 during its migration from intestinal wall to the liver.

75
 b. Tissue reactions which leads to the development of fibrous tissues that
replace liver cells.
c. They block393 the bile ducts causing jaundice394 and disturbances395 in the
digestive system.
d. The secretary products are toxic causing anaemia to the host.
2-Effects of parasite on the intermediate host:
The large number of parasites inside the snail’s tissues greatly effect:
Viability396 of the snail host and its reproduction capacity and Cause shorter live
span.
Parasitic adaptation of Fasciola
Liver fluke has undergoe great modification, morphological as well as
physiological, to suit its existence as an endoparasite in the bile ducts:
1. Outer tegument is thick, permeable to water but enzyme-resistant to protect
the parasite from the digestive enzymes.
2. Locomotory organs are absent as not required by the adult.
3. Oral suckers and spines of body seve as organs for attachment in the host’s
body.
4. Alimentary canal has many modification suited with the ready meal.
a. No anus because there is no undigested food
b. Suctorial pharynx to suck bile etc.
c. Much branched intestine to distribute food in the body.
5. Adult lacks circulatory, respiratory and sensory organsas they are not
needed.Respiration is anaerobic as free Oxygen is not available.
6. Reproductive system is highly developed and produce enormous amount of
eggs to offset great mortality.
7. Resistent egg shell provides more saftey from severe environmental
conditions.
8. Hermaphroditism ensure sefl fertilisation in the absence of other partner.

e.g.2 Schistosoma (Blood flukes)

Schistosoma (“Schisto” prefix meaning "split, or cleft":Soma means body) or blood
flukes inhabit the blood stream of certain vertebrate hosts (birds and mammals)
and produce a disease known as “Bilhariziasis”. Many species of schistosomes are
the causative agents of the disease in man. The most common species are: S.
haematobium, S. mansoni and S. japonicum.

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Schistosoma haematobium
 Commonly known as the bladder397 fluke.
 Adult stage lives in the viens around the urinary bladder and its eggs are
passed out in urine. It produces urinary398 schistosomiasis.
 Originally found in Africa, the Near East, and the Mediterranean basin399, and
introduced into India during World War II.
 Eggs have terminal spine400.
 Freshwater snails of the genus Bulinus are an important intermediate host
for this parasite. Among final hosts humans are most important. Other final
hosts are rarely baboons and monkeys.
Schistosoma mansoni
 Commonly known as Manson's blood fluke or swamp fever.
 Adult stage lives in mesentric veins and its eggs are passed out in stool.
 It produces intestinal schistosomiasis.
 Found in Africa, Brazil and Venezuela.
 Eggs have lateral spine.
 Freshwater snails of the Biomphalaria genus are an important intermediate
host for this trematode. Among final hosts humans are most important.
Other final hosts are baboons, rodents401 and raccoons.
Schistoma japonicum
 Its common name is simply blood fluke.
 Found widely spread in Eastern Asia and the southwestern Pacific region. In
Taiwan this species only affects animals, not humans. It produces intestinal
schistosomiasis.
 Adult stage lives also in mesenric veins and its eggs are passed out in stool.
 Freshwater snails of the Oncomelania genus are an important intermediate
host. Final hosts are humans and other mammals including cats, dogs, goats,
horses, pigs, and rats.
MORPHOLOGY
The worm is cylindrical and have two suckers; oral sucker encircling the
mouth and ventral sucker. Sexes are separated but usually found in a pairing where
the male incubating402 the female inside the gynaecophoric canal403. The
differences between male and female is summerized in table (6-3).

77
 Fig. (6-17): Morphology of Schistosoma
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The mouth leads directly into an oesophagus which surrounded by
oesophageal glands and divides into two intestinal caeca that reunite in a single
caecum. The intestines end blindly, meaning that there is no anus (Fig., 6-18).
Schistosomes feed on blood of the host. Portal blood rich in amino acids and
sugars is ingested through the mouth and pass into the intestine where it is
digested and absorbed. The remains of haemoglobine form what is known Bilharsia
pigments which accumulated in the intestine and periodically extruded from the
mouth into the blood stream.
Table (6-3): Differences between male and female Schistosoma.

Male Female

 Short (10- 15 mm) and

Shape  Longe (16-20mm)r and slim
broad
 Dark grey due to the the
presence of Hemozoin
Colour  White
pigment in the digestive
system
 Covered with numerous
Body wall tubercles404 (to fix it to the
 Not tuberculated.
wall of blood vessel) and
carrying papillae
Gynaecophoric canal  Found to carry the female  Absent
Suckers  More developed  Simple

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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Male System:The male genital apparatus is composed of six to nine testicular
masses, situated dorsally. There is one deferent canal beginning at each testicle
which is connected to a single deferent that dilates into a seminal vesicle, located
at the beginning of the gynaecophoric canal.
Female System: The ovary is elongated and is located on the anterior half of the
body. A short oviduct conducts to the ootype which continues with the uterine
tube. In this tube it is possible to find one to two eggs (rarely three to four) but only
one egg is observed in the ootype at any one time. The genital pore opens
ventrally. The posterior two-thirds of the body contain the vittelogenic glands and
their canal, which unites with the oviduct a little before it reaches the ootype.

Digestive system Reproductive system

Fig. (6-18): Digestive and Reproductive systems of Schistosoma.

LIFE CYCLE
Life cycle of Schistosoma illustrates the phenomenon of “Alternation of
Generation” as it includes both “Sexual generation” (Adult worms) and “Asexual
generation” (Miracidium- sporocyst, cercaria) (Fig., 6-19). The following stages are
found in the life cycle which is completed within two hosts (Man and Snail).

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 Fig. (6-19): Life cycle of Schistosoma

1. Eggs
The femal lays fertilized egg in the blood vessels around the
urinary bladder405 ( S. haematobium) or around the rectum (S.
mansoni). The eggs of S. haematobium have terminal spine
and that of S. mansoni have a lateral spine by which they
penetrates the wall of urinary bladder or intesine and passed
with urine or stools respectively. Upon reaching freshwater,
the eggs hatch into miracidium.

2-Miracidium
The miracidium have cilia, boring papilla406 but lack eye spot.
It swimms freely in water for 24-36 h searching the
intermediate host (Bulinus snail in case of S. haematobium
and Biomphlaria snail in case of S. mansoni). It then
penetrate the snail’s tissue and changed into sporocyst.

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3-Sporocyst
Its germ cells divides parthenogenically inside the snail tissue
to form daughter sporocyst which migrate to the digestive
gland then developed into cercaria. About 100,000 cercaria
produced from a single miracidium.

4- Cercaria ( Infective stage)

Cercaria leave tissues of the snail to reach surrounding
water. It is characterised by forked tail, two suckers and
simple digestive system. Upon finding the human host,
cercaria penetrates the skin of new host, loses its tail,
migrates into the portal circulation and developed into the
adult worm.

HOST-PARASITE RELATIONSHIP
Effect of Schistosomes on the intermediate host:The development of huge number
of larval stage (one miracidium produce 100,000 cercariae) affect biology, feeding
and reproduction of the snail host and reduce its life spane.
Effect of Schistosomes on the final host: Schistosomes produce direct ill effects407
to the human host. Schistosomiasis is a chronic408 disease. It is one of the greatest
parasitic disease of mankind. The other two being malaria and hook-worms. China
and Egypt have maximum cases. Many pathological changes are developed which
are:
1. Penetration of the skin by the larvae causes inflamation409 at the site of
entry.
2. Females rupture smaller blood vessels during migration for egg laying.
3. Passage of eggs through the intestinal wall or urinary tract cause diarrhea,
haemorrhage and anaemia.
4. Formation of certain tissue reactions towards the metabolites of the
developing worms (mainly the bilharzias pigment).
5. Chronic stage (stage of irreversible changes):Tissue reaction starts by the
formation of fibrous tissue around the eggs, either those which are directly
laid by the worms in the urinogenital or intestinal organs, or those which are
passively carried by the blood stream to other organs, such as liver, lungs, . .
etc. This lead to:
 Lesions in the urinary bladder, ureters, kidneys and genital organs.
 Fibrosis and enlargment of liver and spleen.

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 7.2.3. CLASS: CESTODA (TAPEWORMS)
Cestodes, or tapeworms, are internal parasites ( about 5000 species) and
with few exceptions the adults inhabit the intestine of a vertebrate. The life cycle
almost includes an intermediate host inhabited by a larval stage. Either
invertebrates or vertebrates may be intermediate hosts. The intermediate host is
usually the prey of the definitive host. The definitive host is a vertebrate.
CHARACTES:
1. The cestode body is composed of an anterior scolex410, and a long posterior
strobila which is divided into numerous segment-like units known as
proglottis411.
2. Most organ systems are reduced or absent except for the reproductive
system, which is well developed.
3. There is no gut.
4. The syncytial neodermis (epidermis) bears microvilli.
5. Excretion and osmoregulation are accomplished via protonephridia which
empty into two pairs of excretory canals.
6. Cestodes are hermaphroditic with either self- or cross-fertilization.

e.g. Taenia
There are two common species of Taenia: T. saginata and T. solium. Table (6-
4) summerize the main differences between them.
Table (6-4): Main differences between T. saginata and T. solium
T. saginata T. solium
(beef412 – tapeworm) 413
(pork – tapeworm)
Size  May reach 25 meters long  3-5 meters long
 Provided with Rostellum and
Scolex  Without Rostellum
Hooklets
Intermediate host  Cattle  Pig

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MORPHOLOGY (Fig., 6-20).
The body is composed of an anterior scolex, with which the worm attaches to
its host, unsegmented neck and a long posterior strobila which is divided into
numerous segment-like units known as proglottis.
1- Scolex
It is the anterior region of Taenia which attaches the worm
to the gut wall of the host. Scolex is provided with:
-Four suckers: work on vacuum principle.
-Rostellum armed with two rings of rostellar hooks
which attache the worm into the intestinal wall (Fig., 6-
20).
Fig. (6-20): Scolex of T. solium

Fig. (6-21): Morphology of Taenia

2- Strobila
The strobila is long and wormlike, sometimes reaching
20 or more meters in length. The strobila is strongly flattened
dorsoventrally and is composed of a linear series of hundreds or thousands of
segment-like proglottis. New proglottis are produced by an area of mitotically
active cells just behind the scolex. Proglottis are of three types:

83
  Young immature414 proglottis at its anterior end. They are short and wide and
do not yet contain differentiated cells or organs.
 Sexually mature proglottis in the middle. Each mature proglottis contains its
own complete hermaphroditic reproductive system as well as its share of the
common excretory and nervous systems.
 Gravid proglottis at the posterior end. The gravid proglottis contain
branched uterus (Fig., 6-22) filled with viable embryonated “ eggs” (about
100,000)
HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
The body wall (Fig., 6-22) consists of :
1. Tegument: A syncytial415, microvilliated, absorptive neodermis. The outer
surface of the neodermis is folded into microvilli to facilitate the absorption
of food. The nuclei of the syncytium are submerged below the basal lamina
and muscle layers into the parenchyma.
2. A basal lamina,
3. Layers of circular and longitudinal muscles.
4. Parenchyma: Inside the body wall is connective tissue consisting of the
mesenchymal parenchyma in which the reproductive, excretory, and nervous
systems are embedded.

Fig. (6-22): Histological structure of Taenia

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Tapeworms have no digestive system. Organic molecules, mostly glucose,
other sugars and amino acids, are absorbed across the specialized, heavily
microvillous neodermis and metabolism is largely anaerobic.

84
RESPIRATORY AND FLUID TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
There is no need for a gas exchange mechanism and there is none. Food
and waste molecules diffuse to and from the body surface and there is no fluid
transport system. The microvilli of the neodermis absorb food molecules directly
from the environment.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The excretory system consists of numerous flame bulb protonephridia
scattered throughout the parenchyma of each proglottis. Individual protonephridia
drain into an elaborate system of nephridial canals which ultimately open to the
exterior at the posterior end of the last proglottis of the strobila. Dorsal and ventral
lateral nephridial canals on each side of each proglottis extend the length of the
worm. These longitudinal canals are jointed at the posterior end of each proglottis
by a transferse excretory canal.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The right and left lateral longitudinal nerve cords arise from nerve rings in
the scolex and pass posteriorly in the sides of the proglottis. Nerves extends from
this system to the muscles and internal organs.
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Tapeworms are hermaphroditic. The reproductive systems of the youngest,
anteriormost proglottis are not yet formed but a mature proglottis possesses
complete reproductive system of both sexes (Fig.,6-23).
 The male organs: Consists of numerous small spherical testes (about 500 in
number), scattered within the parenchyma. The vas efferens comes out from
each testis. All vasa efferentia join together to form a convoluted tube, the vas
deferens, which dilates to form the vesicula seminalis and ends by a muscular
cirrus (penis) enclosed in a cirrus pouch. The cirrus opens by the male genital
opening in the genital atrium.
 The female organs: Include a single ovary composed of two lobes. From each
lobe arises a short duct which leads into the median oviduct that open into
ootype, which is surrounded by Mehlis' gland (which secrete egg shell). There is
a single vitelline gland whose secretions are carried through the vitelline duct
which opens into the ootype. Two other canals arise from the ootype : the
uterus which acts as a reservoir for the fertilized eggs produced in the ootype,
and the vagina which open by the female genital pore in the genital atrium. The

85
 proximal part of the vagina may be slightly swollen to form the receptaculum
seminis416 (which store sperms received from male system).

Fig. (6-23): Mature proglottide

Fertilization and Development
Commonly self-fertilize, a convenience417 for an animal
that lives in a habitat where it may be the only member of
its species. Cross-fertilization may occur if more than one
worm is present in the host. Fertilization of ova by sperms
(from the seminal receptacle) occurs in the oviduct. The
fertilized egg moves in the oviduct to the ootype where it
receives yolk from the vitellain gland and become enclosed
Fig. (6-24): Gravid proglottide
with a shell or embryophore. Shelled embryonated eggs
move anteriorly into the uterus where they accumulate
and
stored. The uterus become enlarged and fill most of the proglottis which changed
into gravid proglottis (Fig., 6-24).
LIFE CYCLE (Fig., 6-25)
1. The gravid proglottis (full of fertilized eggs) are detached418 and passed with
the stool to the exterior where they degenerates and extrudes419 the eggs on

86
 moist earth. The egg contains Onchosphore (hexacanth embryo) which has
six hooklets and surrounded by shell or embryophore (Fig., 6-26).
2. When the eggs are ingested by cattle (intermediate host of T. saginata) or
pigs, (intermediate host T. solium), the embryophores is digested by the
action of the digestive enzymes and the onchosphore is liberated in the
intestinal lumen.
3. The onchosphore bores the intestinal wall by the secretion of histolytic
enzymes and reach to the blood circulation.
4. The onchosphore is carried to a skeletal or cardiac muscle420 where it loses its
hooks and develops (within 60 - 70 days) into a bladder worm orcysticercus,
Fig., 6-27). This is the infective stage which occur in the muscles of heart,
tongue, shoulder, diaphragm..etc. Man becomes infected through eating
under cooked meat infected with these Cysticerc
5. The wall of the cysticercus digested in the stomach and the liberated larva
migrates into the intestine where it develops into the adult worm.

Fig. (6-25): Life cycle of T. saginata

87
 Fig., (6-26): Hexacanth embryo Fig., (6-27): Bladder worm (Cystcercus)

HOST-PARASITE RELATIONSHIP
Effect of cysticerci on the intermediate host
The presence of cysticerci in the muscle of the
intermediate host (Fig., 6-28) usually produce
little reaction except when they occur in a large
numbers in some vital organs as the heart andFig. (6-28): Bladder worm in muscles
diaphragm.
Effect of adult worms on the final host
1. The worm is volumetric; its size may reach one litre and may occupy most of the
lumen of the intestine causing intestinal obstruction and disturbance in the
digestion and absorption processes.
2. The worms absorb a large amount of the digested food found in the intestine
and this usually leads to weakness and loss of weight.
3. The worms excrete poisonous metabolites which may be absorbed in the blood
and cause certain systemic complications.
PARASITIC ADATATIONS OF TAENIA
1. External body covering is freely permeable of water and nutrients by resist
digestion by the host ‘s alkaline digestive juices
2. Internal osomotic pressure is higher than that of the surrounding fluid and pH
tolerance is high.
3. Adult as well as larvae lack cilia and any other locomotory orans, which are not
needed.
4. Scolex, with suckers and spines serves for attachment to the intestinal mucosa.
5. Alimentary canal is totally absent as the parasite absorb digested food directly
through the skin.
6. Adult lacks circulatory, respiratory and sensory organsas they are not needed.

88
7. Respiration is anaerobic as free Oxygen is not available.
8. Reproductive system is highly developed and produce enormous amount of eggs
to offset great mortality.
9. Resistent egg shell provides more saftey from severe environmental conditions.
10. Hermaphroditism and prglottids ensure sefl fertilisation in the absence of other
partner.
Table (6-5):Comparison between Fasciola and Taenia
Fasciola Taenia
(Sheep liver fluke) (Pork or beef – tapeworm)
Class  Trematoda.  Cestoda.
Final host  Man.  Man.
 Cattle (for T. saginata).
Intermediate host  Lymnaea snail.
 Pig (for T. solium).
 Leaf -like , unsegmented.  Ribbon – like , segmented
Shape
 With two suckers.  With 4 suckers.
 Live inside bile ducts.  Live inside the intestine.
 10 cm  May reach 25 m.
Adult worm
 Several worms can live inside one  Only one worm usually occur in
host. one host.
 Incomplete  Absent
Digestive system
 Holozoic Nutrition.  Saprozoic Nutrition.
 Egg with operculum. It passes  Egg without operculum. It sets
from the genital atrium. free by disintegration of gravid
proglottis.
 Zygote produces ciliated  Zygote produces a spherical six-
miracidium, with a single wall. hooked hexacanth with two
Life Cycle
protective walls.
 Larval multiplication occurs  No larval multiplication occurs
inside intermediate host. inside intermediate host.
 There is alternation of generation  There is no alternation of
generation
 Cysticercus (in musle of
Infective stage  Metacercaria (on aquatic plants).
intermediate host)

89
 ii- Subgrade: Pseudocoelomata
In contrast to acoelomate bilateral animals (flat worms and nemerteans), in
which the space between the digestive tract and body wall musculature is filled
with mesenchyme, all other bilateral animals have a fluid-filled space, the body
cavity. The fluid within the body cavity can function as a hydraulic skeleton and
maintaining the turgidity421 of the body. It can also aid in the translocation of gases,
food and waste materials, particularly in the absence of circulatory system. Through
the Animal Kingdom, there are two types of body cavities, the pseudocoel and
coelom. The pseudocoel is a derivative of the embryonic blastocoel, arising
between the mesoderm and endoderm (Fig., 8-1). During early development, the
blastocoel, after the formation of archaentron, is not obliterated422 but persist as a
cavity surrounding the internal organs. Since it does not form within the mesoderm,
as does the coelom, the pseudocoel has neither peritoneal lines nor mesentries,
characteristics of coelomates.

Fig. (8-1): Pseudocoelomate body

We are going to study the two common phyla of pseudocoelomates: Rotifera
and Nemata (Nematoda).
7- PHYLUM : NEMATA (NEMATODA)
(Round worms)
Roundworms or eel worms are unsegmented pseudocoelomate cylindrical
worms which have been able to adapt to almost all habitat available to animal life.
The 20,000 known nematode species inhabit terrestrial, marine, and freshwater
environments and are found in almost all moist habitats. The taxon includes
numerous plant and animal parasites, many of which are of medical or agricultural
importance, but most are free-living (non-parasitic). The human body harbour more

90
than 50 parasitic species of these worms. Most nematodes, or roundworms, are
long, slender, almost featureless externally, tapered at both ends, and round in
cross section.
7.1. GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. Bilateral symmetrical pseudocoelomates.
2. They have elongate, cylindrical, unsegmented body.
3. The body is covered with thick cuticle which moulted423 during growth.
4. With well – developed longitudinal muscles.
5. They have a complete digestive system with a mouth and an anus.
6. Most nematodes lack cilia or flagella, even in the sperm.
7. The rspiratory and circulatory systems are lacking.
8. The excretory system consists of two longitudinal excretory canals.
9. The nervous system is composed of a circumoesophageal ring from which
arises six anterior cords and six posterior cords.
10. Sexes are separate and with direct life cycle.
7.2. CLASSIFICATION OF NEMATODA
Nematodes are classified into two classes:
7.2.1. Class: Aphasmidia
 Most primitive forms of nematoda including nearly marine members,
beside other freshwater, terrestrial and parasitic forms.
 Without caudal phasmids.
7.2.2.Class : Phasmidia
 Includes free living terrestrial and the majority of nematodes parasites of
plants (about 2000 species) and animals (about 3,000 species).
 With a pair of caudal phasmids.

e.g.1 Ascaris lumbricoides

(Intestinal fluck)
Ascaris lumbricoides , common saying “round worm of man”, is the largest
and the most common of the intestinal nematodes parasitizing humans.
Distribution of Ascaris is worldwide, but most prevelance in areas of wormer
climates, moisten and poor sanitation424.
MORPHOLOGY
The adults are cylindrical in shape andcreamy-white in colour. The female
averages

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 20-35 cm in length. The male is smaller,
averaging 15-31 cm in length and distinctly
more slender than the female. Male is also
distinguished from female by a curved
posterior end bearing cloacal opening425 from
which protrude a pair of copulatory spicules
(Fig., 7-1).
BODY WALL:
The body wall (Fig., 7-2) consists of:
1-Epidermis: of thin syncytial layer and covered
with a thick proteinaceous cuticle which plays an
important role, in the absence of circular Female male
muscles, in containing the high hydrostatic Fig. (7-1): Posterior end of Ascaris
pressure of the hemocoel. It has:

Fig. (7-2): Body wall of Ascaris.

 Dorasal ridge (enclosing dorsal nerve cord).
 Ventral ridge (enclosing ventral nerve cord).
 Two lateral ridges (enclosing two excretory canals).
2-Longitudinal muscle layer: each fiber is differentiated into:
 Outer contractile portion.
 Inner cytoplasmic portion.

92
3-Pseudocoelom: vacuoles containing paraenchyma cells. It is filled with fluid under
exceptionally high pressure (higher than that of any other animal). The pressure
maintains the body shape and acts as a hydrostatic skeleton against which the
body wall muscles act to accomplish locomotion.DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The gut is complete with terminal anterior mouth and subterminal posterior
anus. It comprises ectodermal foregut and hindgut and an endodermal midgut
(Fig., 7-4).
a- Foregut (stomodaeum): It is ectodermal and lined with cuticle. It begins with
the mouth, provided with three lips lined with minute teeth (Fig., 7-3).
The mouth opens into thin-walled buccal cavity426.
Immediately posterior to the buccal cavity is the
longer, thicker-walled pharynx whose heavily
muscularized walls are used to suck food into the
gut in opposition to the high hydrostatic pressure
of the hemocoel.
b- Midgut (intestine). It is a long
dorsoventrallyflattened tube that extends
posteriorly. Unlike the ectodermal foregut, its wall Fig. (7-3): Lips of Ascaris
consists solely of a simple columnar epithelium.
c- Hindgut or Proctodaeum. In females, the rectum is difficult to differentiate
from the intestine but in males the rectum is a cloaca which receives the male
gonoduct and the intestine before opening to the exterior via the anus. Being
ectodermal, the rectum is lined with cuticle.
Adult Ascaris feed on semi-digested food found in the intestine of the host.
Nutrition takes place as following:
• Ingestion: food enters the mouth through the pharynx.
• Digestion: food is passed into the intestine where nutrients are broken down
and absorbed.
• Elimination427: undigested food wastes leave through the anus.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Energy metabolism is anaerobic428 and there are no special gas exchange
structures.
EXCRETORY/OSMOREGULATORY SYSTEM
The excretory system consists of an enormous H-shaped canal system
contained within a single cell . The uprights of the “H” are longitudinal canals
located in the lateral epidermal cords and extend over the entire length of the
93
worm. The two longitudinal canals connect with each other via a transverse canal
near the anterior end of the worm. A short excretory duct leads from the
transverse canal to the excretory pore on the anterior ventral midline. The system
is thought to be chiefly osmoregulatory. The excretory pore is located immediately
posterior to the mouth on the ventral midline but it is difficult to find.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproductive organs (Fig., 7-4). are tubular. Male has a single reproductive
tubule. The female has double reproductive tubules and the vulva is ventrally
located at the posterior part of the anterior third of the body.

Fig. (7-4): Digestive and reproductive systems of Ascaris.

A- Male System
The male system consists of a single thread – like coiled testis. It leads into
vase differense and then to a wider tube, the vesicula seminalis. This ends in
ejaculatory tube, which join the proctodaeum to the anus and have a pair of penial
sacs containing two copulatory spicules.
B- Female system

94
 The female system consists of two long coiled thread – like ovaries found in
both ends. Each ovary leads into an oviduct which passes into a wider tube , the
uterus. The two uteri join to form the vagina that open into the exterior by a
gonopore. A seminal receptacle is found at the base of either uterus to store the
sperms received during copulation.
During copulation the male introduces the amoeboid sperms into the vagina.
The sperms travel to the lower part of the uteri to fertilize the eggs.
The produced zygote is then enveloped429 by a vitelline membrane and a
mammillated coat.
LIFE CYCLE (Fig., 7-5).

Fig. (7-5): Life cycle of Ascaris.

1. Eggs Fertilized egg is enveloped with a vitelline membrane (secreted by the
zygote) and a mammilated coat (secreted by gland cells in the wall of the
uterus). Eggs passed in faeces of human host including an uncleaved zygote.
 In unsuitable condition: The eggs may remain inactive for 6 years.

95
  In suitable condition: (22 – 35 C˚, O2 and humidity) the zygote
develops into rhabidiform larvae (the infective stage) which moult and
remain in the egg envelop.
2. Man acquires the infection by the ingestion of the infective stage.

3. In the intestine, the egg envelope rupture, larvae are liberated and penetrate
the intestinal wall and enter into the blood stream.
4. They then travel into liver ►►heart ►► lungs ►►trachea430 ►► pharynx
and finally swollowed to the intestine where they moult and become mature
worms.
PATHOGENESIS431
A. Effect of migrating larvae on the host The presence of larvae in the lung
initiates some tissue reactions and hemorrhages and this may allow
secondary infection. The larvae may also cause a pneumonia432. These clinical
manifestation is also called Loeffler’s syndrome.
B. Effect of the adult worms on the host:
1. The nutritional demonds433 and the space requirement of the parasite
may lead to serious problems.
2. They secrete certain substance which inactivate trypsine434. Thus, host’s
food protein remains undigested. This causes the school childern infected
with Ascaris to become shorter and have less memory and thinking
capacity.
3. They may entangled435 in masses which completely block the intestine.
4. They may invade the bile or pancreatic ducts and obstructing these
passages.
5. The excretory products are toxic.
PARASITIC ADAPTATIONS OF ASCARIS
1. The mouth is bounded by three lips which help the parasite to attach with
mucous membrane of the host’s intestine.
2. The parasite is devoid of locomotory organs as the parasite lives in the
intestine where protection from enemies and food supply are ensured.
3. The body wall of Ascaris is covered with cuticle, resistant to the digestive
enzymes of the host.
4. The pharynx is muscular that facilitates ingestion of food by sucking action.
There are no digestive glands.
5. Sense organs are ill-developed, being found only on lips papillae papillae.

96
 6. Ingested food of this parasite is pre- digested, so the digestive tract is simple
without provision for storage, as there is constant supply of food.
7. The body wall is covered with tough, thick and resistant cuticle, shields
against the digestive enzymes of the host and antitoxins.
8. The respiration is almost entirely anaerobic. Extremely low metabolic rate
and anaerobic respiration enable the worm to live inside the host’s intestine,
where the free oxygen is negligible.
9. Reproductive system of Ascaris is well- developed and numerous eggs are
produced to make up for the poor chances of the right host being reached.
10.The eggs are covered with resistant covering or chitinous shell which provide
safety to the zygote and embryonated eggs from unfavourable
environmental factors.
11.Infection of new host is direct and fast and need no intermediate host.
e.g.2 Ancylostoma duodenale (Hookworm436)
Ancylostoma duodenale (ancylo-Ankylo a combining form meaning “hook,”
“joint has head slightly bent in relation to the rest of the body. This bend forms a
definitive hook shape at the anterior end for which hookworms are named. This
nematode parasite of man is much more dangerous than Ascaris. Adult hookworm
lives in enormous number in the small intestine of man attached by their buccal
capsules to the mucosa of the intestine which they bite to suck plentiful of blood
for nutrition.
MORPHOLOGY
Ancylostoma duodenale is an S-shaped worm because of its flexure437 at the
frontal end (Fig., 7-7). The worm is pinkish-white. Adult male hookworms range in
size from 8-11 mm long , whereas adult females range in size from 10-13 mm long.
This species is dimorphic, with the males having posterior copulatory bursa.
Females have a vulva located approximately one-third of the body length
from the posterior end. Both male and female hookworms have two powerful
ventral teeth in the adult forms of the parasite, one along each side of the buccal
capsule and a smaller pair of teeth are located deeper in the capsule. The genital
opening and anus are separated in female, while they are united into cloaca in case
of male.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND NUTRITION
The mouth leads into an cup-like buccal cavity which is lined with cuticle,
thus forming a buccal capsule (Fig., 7-6). This capsule is armed with 2 pairs of
ventral teeth and one pair of smaller dorsal teeth.

97
 Two more saw-like teeth project from the floor of
the buccal capsule.
The capsule is followed by a long muscular
oesophagus, both forming the STOMODAEUM. This is
followed by a simpletubular intestine, then a short
PROCTODAEUM or rectum (Fig., 7-7). Connected with the
digestive system are two large cephalic glands 438which
extend along the anterior third of the body and open in
the buccal capsule.
Fig. (9-6): Buccal capsule

Their secretion prevents coagulation439 of the host’s blood. Hook -worms hold on
to the mucosa440 of the intestine with their buccal capsule and cut bits of the
mucosa with their teeth causing haemorrhage. They feed on the blood and bits of
the mucosa which they suck by their muscular oesophagus. The wound continues
to bleed for a short time after the worm leaves it.
EXCRETORY AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS
Ankylostoma has an H-shaped excretory cell or renette with a canal system
similar to that of Ascaris, in adddition to two cervical glands of excretory function
which connect with the transverse canal.
The nervous system resembeles that of Ascaris.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The male has a single tubular coiled testis which leads into a narrow vase
deferens , then into a dilated vesicula seminalis. This is followed by a long
ejaculatory duct441, which is surrounded by a large cement gland and opens into
the rectum, both leading to the outside by the cloacal opening. Two long
copulatory spicules lie in pouches dorsal to the ejaculatory duct. The posterior end
of the male is expanded into a copulatory bursa which curves about the genital
opening of the female during copulation . It has three lobes supported by fleshy
rays. The female has two coiled ovaries which lead by narrow oviducts into two
dilated and coiled uteri. These join in a very short vagina which opens to the
exterior by the genital opening.
LIFE CYCLE (Fig., 7-7).
1. Eggs: Female worms can lay 25,000 eggs per day. The eggs are released with
the feces into the soil. Within two days, the eggs hatch in warm, moist soil.
The larvae live in the soil, waiting for contact with a host.

98
2. Rhabditiform Larval Stage (non-infective stage): The first form of the larval
stage is called rhabditiform larva and exists in contaminated feces or soil.
Within five to ten days, the larva will grow and moult twice.

3. Fig. (7-7): Life cycle of Ankylostoma

99
 4. Filariform Stage (Infective stage): After the last molt, larvae will enter a
filariform stage and can then infect a host. Filariform larvae can survive for
up to thirty days in the soil. If a host touches the contaminated area, the
larva enters through it's skin. It then inters the circulatory system and carried
to the lungs. The host will eventually cough up the larva and swallow it. The
larva will then pass through the digestive tract to the small intestine where it
will grow into an adult.
5. Adult Stage: In a definitive host, adult hookworms attach themselves to the
wall of the small intestine, feeding on the blood of the host and reproduce.
Females will then lay eggs in the digestive tract to start the life cycle again.
Adult hookworms can live for as long as two years in the intestine of the
host.
6. PATHOGENSIS
7. When the hook-worms reach the small intestine of man, they will attached
to the villi442 with their buccal capsules. The tips of the villi become
eroded443, a haemorrhage is produced and the worms start to suck the
flowing blood. It has been recently demonstrated that each worm is capable
of removing 0.67 ml of blood per day. In light infections the blood loss can be
compensated444 by new supplies from blood - producing organs. However, in
heavy infections, severe blood loss lead to anaemia. Heavy infections in
children may cause considerable retardation445 in their physical and mental
growth, as well as an increase in their susceptibility to other diseases.
Table (7-1): Comparison between Ascaris and Ankylostoma
Ascaris Ankylostoma
Size  Large, may reach 35 mm  Small, up to 14 mm
 Live in the intestinal lumen
 Found attached to the intestinal mucosa
Habitat and feed on semi-digested
of the intestine by its buccal capsule.
food
Mouth  Surrounded by three lips  Have buccal capsule provided with teeth
The posterior end  Curved and provided with  Expanded and modified into copulatory
of male two copulatory spicules bursa
 Second stage Rhabidiform
Infective stage  Filariform larva
larva inside the egg envelope.
Mode of Infection  By ingestion  by penetration of the skin

100
 SELECTED REFERENCES
1. Al-Hussaini, A.H. and Demian, E.S. (1994): “Practical Animal Biology”. Vol. II: Systematic
Zoology. 13th ed., Dar Al-Maaref, Cairo.
2. Al-Hussaini, A.H. and Demian, E.S. (1994): “Practical Animal Biology”. Vol. III: Coelomate
Invertebrates. 13th ed., Dar Al-Maaref, Cairo.
3. Brusca, R.C., Brusca, G.J. and Haver, N.J. (2003): Invertebrates” 2nd ed. Sinauer Associates.
4. Campbell, N.A. and Reece, J.B., (2015): “Biology” 8th ed. Pearson Education Inc.
5. El-Benhawy, M., Demian, E.S., Shalaby, A.A. and Roshdy, M.A. (1994): “Text Book of
Zoology”. 9th ed., Dar Al-Maaref, Cairo.
6. Gamil, M. Soliman (2004): Invertebrate Zoology: The Mideastern Invertebrate Fauna. Part I: The
Noncoelomate. 2nd ed.,. The Palm press, Cairo.
7. Hyman, L.H. (1992): “Invertebrates: Protozoa Through Ctenophra”. Vol. 1.
International Books and Periodicals Supply Services, Delhi.
8. Hyman, L.H. (1992): “Invertebrates: Echinodermata, The Coelomate Bilateria”. Vol.4.
International Books and Periodicals Supply Services, Delhi.
9. Kaestner, A. (1970): “Invertebrate Zoology”. Vol. 3. Interscience Publishers, New York.
10. Kotbal, R.L. (2016): “Modern Text Book of Zoology. Invertebrates. 11th ed., Rakesh & Rastogi,
Meerut, India.
11. Macalister, A. (2010): “ Zoology of the invertebrate animals”. Goldstein Press .
12. Macalister, A. (2009): “An Introduction to Animal Morphology and Systematic Zoology”. Part I.
“Invertebrata”. BiblioLife. Pp, 348.
13. Pechenik, J. (2009): “Biology of the Invertebrates”. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill.
14. Randall, T. Schuh, R.T. and Andrew V.Z. Brower, A.V.Z. (2009): “Biological Systematics: Principles
and Applications”. 2nd ed. Comstock Publishing Associates.
15. Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S. and Barnes R.D. (2004): “Invertebrate Zoology”. 7th edition. Saunders
College Publishing.
16. Wallace, R.L. and Taylor, W.K. (2003): “Invertebrate Zoology Lab Manual”, 6 th Edition.
Benjamin Cummings.
WEB PAGES

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate_zoology

2. http://www.marietta.edu/~mcshaffd/invert/

3. http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/zoology/hickman11/?bcsi_scan_53A23A8130582379=1

4. http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Invertebrate_Zoology

5. http://webs.lander.edu/rsfox/invertebrates/

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 DICTIONARY
fertilization ‫ اخصاب‬.32 diverse ‫متنوع‬ .1
viable ‫ حيوي‬.33 unique ‫متفرد‬ .2
independent evidence ‫ أدلة مستقلة‬.34 task ‫َم َهمة‬ .3
contaminated ‫ ملوث‬.35 arranged ‫ُرتبت‬ .4
inconsistent ‫ متناقض‬.36 applied ‫تطبيقي‬ .5
predecessors ‫ السابقين – األسالف‬.37 pests ‫اآلفات‬ .6
hierarchical ‫ تدرجي‬.38 disease vectors ‫ناقالت األمراض‬ .7
binomial nomenclature ‫ نظام التسمية الثنائية‬.39 pathogens ‫مسببات األمراض‬ .8
Phylum ‫ شعبة‬.41 ecosystem ‫النظام البيئي‬ .9
Class ‫ طائفة‬.41 base ‫ قاعدة‬.11
Order ‫ رتبة‬.42 development ‫ تطور‬.11
weasels ‫ ابن عرس‬.43 evidence ‫ دليل‬.12
top rank ‫ المرتبة العليا‬.44 elementary ‫ أساسي‬.13
primitive ‫ بدائي‬.45 inclusive ‫ شامل‬.14
multinucleate filaments ‫خيوط متعددة األنوية‬ .46 morphological ‫ من حيث الشكل الظاهري‬.15
emphasis ‫ تأكيد‬.47 ecological ‫ بيئي‬.16
molecular level ‫ المستوى الجزيئي‬.48 phylogenetics ‫ عالقات تطورية‬.17
establish ‫ يؤسس‬.49 taxonomy ‫ علم التصنيف‬.18
blending ‫ مزج‬.51 outset ‫ المستهل – البداية‬.91
standard ‫ معيار‬.51 estimates ‫ تقديرات‬.21
butterfly ‫ فراشة‬.52 tropical regions ‫ المنطقة االستوائية‬.21
molecular taxonomy ‫ ِعْلم التَصنيف الجزيئي‬.53 extinct ‫ منقرض‬.22
criminal forensics ‫ الطب الشرعي الجنائي‬.45 nutrition ‫ التغذية‬.23
predominately ً‫ غالبا‬.55 bear ‫ الدب‬.24
described ‫ ُوصفت‬.56 assumed ‫ افترض‬.25
restricts ‫حد ُد‬
ّ ‫ ُي‬.57 abridged ‫ اختصر – لخص‬.26
diffusion ‫ انتشار – مرور‬.58 define ‫عرف‬
ٌ .27
food vacuole ‫ فجوة غذائية‬.59 interbreed ‫ تتزاوج‬.28
contractile vacuole ‫ فجوة منقبضة‬.61 fertile ‫ خصيبة‬.29
osmotic regulation ‫ التنظيم األسموزي‬.61 sterile ‫ عقيمة‬.31
encystment ‫ التكيس‬.62 mule ‫ البغل‬.31

102
 minute droplets ‫ قطيرات صغيرة‬.94 primitive ‫ بدائية‬.63
bursts ‫ تنفجر‬.95 perform ‫ تؤدي – تقوم‬.64
evacuate ‫ تخلي – تفرغ‬.96 solitary ‫ منفردة‬.65
simple diffusion ‫ االنتشار البسيط‬.97 colonies ‫ مستعمرات‬.66
excretory products ‫ النواتج اإلخراجية‬.98 locomotary organelles ‫ عضيات الحركة‬.67
utilized ‫ يستخدم‬.99 pseudopodia (sing., ‫ األقدام الكاذبة‬.68
reproduction ‫ التكاثر‬.111 pseudopodium)
longitudinal binary fission ‫ االنشطار الثنائي الطولي‬.111 flagella ( sing. flagellum) ‫ األسواط‬.69
suitable conditions )‫ الظروف المناسبة (العادية‬.112 cilia (sing., cilium) ‫ األهداب‬.71
unsuitable condition )‫ الظروف غير العادية (الصعبة‬.113 parasitic ‫ طفيلي‬.71
secrets ‫ تفرز‬.114 binary fission ‫ االنشطار الثنائي‬.72
cyst ‫ كيس – حوصلة‬.115 multiple fission ‫ االنشطار المتعدد‬.73
withstand ‫ تتحمل‬.116 dispersion ‫ االنتشار‬.74
adverse ‫ الصعبة‬.117 comprising ‫ تشتمل – تحوي‬.75
liberated ‫ تتحرر‬.118 photosensitive ‫ حساسة للضوء‬.76
phycologists ‫ علماء الطحالب‬.119 ponds ‫ البرك‬.77
considered ‫ تُعتبر‬.111 habitat ‫ البيئة‬.78
possesses ‫ تمتلك‬.111 )‫ الشكل الظاهري (المظهر الخارجي‬.79
ability ‫ مقدرة‬.112 morphology
worm – like movement ‫ حركة دودية‬.81
causative agent ‫ العامل المسبب‬.113
contraction ‫ انقباض‬.81
economic and ‫ التقدم االقتصادي واالجتماعي‬.114
social progress relaxation ‫ انبساط‬.82
definite host ‫ العائل األساسي‬.115 enables ‫ تم ٌكن‬.83
intermediate host ‫ العائل الوسيط‬.116 obliquely ً‫ مائال‬.84
undulating membrane ‫ غشاء متموج‬.117 spiral manner ‫ بطريقة حلزونية‬.85
host ‫ العائل‬.118 nutrition ‫ التغذية‬.86
infection ‫ العدوى – اإلصابة‬.119 synthesize ‫ تصنع – تركب‬.87
parasite ‫ الطفيل‬.121 by the aid of ‫ بمساعدة‬.88
saliva ‫ اللعاب‬.121 surrounding medium ‫ الوسط المحيط‬.89
multiplication ‫ التكاثر‬.122 ‫ االرتشاف أو الشرب الخلوي (امتصاص المواد‬.91
‫ فترة الحضانة (الفترة التي تنقضي منذ دخول‬.123 pinnocytosis )‫السائلة عن طريق الغشاء الخلوي‬
)‫الطفيل جسم العائل حتى ظهور اعراض المرض‬ semi – permeable ‫ شبه منفذ‬.91
incubation period tends ‫ تميل‬.92
symptomes ‫ أعراض المرض‬.124
excess ‫ الزائد‬.93

2
103
 acts ‫ تعمل‬.155 )‫ المعي المتوسط ( أحد أجزاء القناة الهضمية للذبابة‬.125
secreted ‫فرز‬ َ ُ‫ ت‬.156
midgut
immature stages ‫ الطور غير الناضج‬.126
assimilation ‫ التمثيل – االستيعاب‬.157
salivary glands ‫ الغدد اللعابية‬.127
egestion )‫ التغوط ( التخلص من الفضالت‬.158
migrate ‫ يهاجر‬.128
more concentrated ‫ أكثر تركي ًاز‬.159
infective stage ‫ الطور المعدي‬.129
expelled ‫ يطرد‬.161
host-parasite relationship ‫ العالقة بين العائل والطفيل‬.131
excretion ‫ اإلخراج‬.161
consumes ‫ يستهلك‬.131
harmful ‫ ضارة‬.162
toxic ‫ سام‬.132
withdraw ‫ تسحب‬.163
invade ‫ تهاجم‬.133
regeneration ‫ التجدد‬.164
coma ‫ إغماء‬.134
resistant cyst ‫ كيس مقاوم‬.165
vertebrates ‫ الفقاريات‬.135
improved ‫ تتحسن‬.166
)‫ الخاليا الملتهمة (إحدى أنواع كريات الدم البيضاء‬.136
sporulation ‫ التجرثم‬.167
phagocytes
instead ‫ بدالً من ذلك‬.168 spindle )‫ مغزلي الشكل (مدبب الطرفين‬.137
trophozoite ‫ الطور المغتذي‬.169 introduced ‫ يدخل‬.138
differentiated ‫ تتميز‬.171 rupture ‫ يتمزق – ينفجر‬.139
granular ‫ محبب‬.171 released ‫ يتحرر – ينطلق‬.141
bounded ‫ محاط‬.172 ingest ‫ يبتلع – يزدرد‬.141
minute ‫ صغير‬.173 )‫ مرض الليشمانيا الحشوي (مرض كاالزار‬.142
lumen of the intestine ‫ تجويف األمعاء‬.174 visceral leishmaniasis (Kala- Azar)
invade ‫ تهاجم‬.175 enlargment ‫ تضخم‬.143
)‫ الطبقة المخاطية ( الطبقة المبطنة لألمعاء‬.176 cutaneous ‫ مرض الليشمانيا الجلدي‬.144
mucosal layer leishmaniasis
reserve ‫ مخزون‬.911 oriental sore ‫ مرض القرحة الشرقية‬.145
faeces ‫ الغائط – الفضالت‬.178 heal ‫ يشفى‬.146
survive ‫ تبقى حية‬.179 progress ‫ يتحول‬.147
acquires ‫ يكتسب‬.181 capture ‫ تصطاد‬.148
contaminated food ‫ طعام ملوث‬.181 protrusion ‫ بروز‬.149
transformation ‫ تحول‬.182 )‫ الحالة الغروية (حالة وسط بين السوائل والجوامد‬.151
dissolved ‫ يذوب‬.183 colloidal state
drawn ‫ ينسحب‬.151
harmless ‫ غير ضار‬.184
particles ‫ جزيئات‬.152
pathological infection ‫ اصابة مرضية‬.185
gradually encloses ً‫ تحيط تدريجيا‬.153
penetrates ‫ تخترق‬.186
digestion ‫ الهضم‬.154
bleeding ‫ نزف‬.187

3
104
 ‫‪ .221‬غذائي ‪trophic‬‬ ‫‪ .188‬تقرحات ‪ulcers‬‬
‫‪ .221‬القناة الهضمية ‪alimentary canal‬‬ ‫‪ .189‬الدوسنتاريا األميبية ‪amoebic dysentery‬‬
‫‪ .222‬أعراض ‪symptomes‬‬ ‫‪ .191‬بحري ( يعيش في المياه المالحة) ‪marine‬‬
‫‪ .223‬رعشة ‪rigor‬‬ ‫‪ .191‬صدفة ‪shells‬‬
‫تعرق ‪sweating‬‬
‫‪ُ .224‬‬ ‫‪ .192‬المكون الرئيسي للمحيطات ‪the major‬‬
‫‪ .225‬تقيؤ ‪vomiting‬‬ ‫‪constituents of the ocean‬‬
‫‪ .193‬تشبه ‪resembles‬‬
‫‪ .226‬أضرار بشبكية العين ‪retinal damage‬‬
‫‪ .194‬شبكة ‪network‬‬
‫‪ .227‬مميت ‪fatal‬‬
‫‪ .195‬ظاهرة ‪phenomena‬‬
‫‪ .228‬مفيدة ‪beneficial‬‬
‫‪ .196‬ظاهرة تبادل األجيال ‪alternation of‬‬
‫‪ .229‬تمد ‪furnish‬‬
‫‪generation‬‬
‫‪ .231‬القشريات (مجموعة من الحيوانات مفصلية األرجل‬
‫‪ .197‬ناضج ‪mature‬‬
‫مثل الجمبري) ‪crustaceans‬‬
‫‪ .198‬شبيه بالنعل ‪slipper- shaped‬‬
‫‪ .231‬الصناعة ‪industry‬‬
‫‪ .199‬محدب ‪convex‬‬
‫‪ .232‬خصوبة التربة ‪soil fertility‬‬
‫‪ .022‬زوائد ‪processes‬‬
‫‪ .233‬تلوث ‪pollution‬‬
‫‪ .211‬تشبه الكلية ‪kidney-shaped‬‬
‫‪ .234‬اإلجهاض ‪abortion‬‬
‫‪ .212‬تضرب ‪stricks‬‬
‫‪ .235‬االبتالع‪ -‬التغذية على كائنات أخري ‪ingestion‬‬
‫‪ .213‬المحور الطولي ‪longitudinal axis‬‬
‫‪ .236‬تسود ‪dominating‬‬
‫‪ .214‬تدفع ‪propels‬‬
‫‪ .237‬التفلج (انقسام الخاليا في المراحل الجنينية المبكرة)‬
‫‪ .215‬الميزاب الفمي ‪oral groove‬‬
‫‪cleavage‬‬
‫‪ .216‬الشرج ‪anus‬‬
‫‪ .238‬التعضي – تكوين األعضاء ‪organization‬‬
‫‪ .217‬اإلقتران ‪conjugation‬‬
‫‪ .239‬تماثل الجسم ‪body symmetry‬‬
‫‪ .218‬أقل حيوية ‪less viable‬‬
‫‪ .241‬شعبة المثقبات (المساميات) ‪Phylum: Porifera‬‬
‫‪ .219‬التزاوج الذاتي ‪autogamy‬‬
‫‪ .241‬عديمة التماثل ‪asymmetrical‬‬
‫‪ .211‬فريدة ‪unique‬‬
‫‪ .242‬التماثل الشعاعي ‪radial symmetry‬‬
‫‪ .211‬خبيث ‪malignant‬‬
‫‪ .243‬متماثلة الجانبين ‪bilaterial symmetry‬‬
‫‪ .090‬الثدييات ‪mammals‬‬
‫‪ .244‬ثنائية الطبقة ‪Diploblastica‬‬
‫‪ .213‬بعوضة األنوفيليس ‪anopheline mosquitoes‬‬
‫‪ .245‬ثالثية الطبقة ‪Triploblastica‬‬
‫‪ .214‬رحيق األزهار ‪nectar‬‬
‫‪ .246‬جالسة (ملتصقة بقاع البحر) ‪sessile‬‬
‫‪ .215‬غير كاف ‪insufficient‬‬
‫‪ .247‬المواد اإلخراجية ‪wastes‬‬
‫‪ .248‬التنسيق – التآزر بين الخاليا ‪coordination‬‬ ‫‪ .216‬الطور النسيجي ‪tissue phase‬‬
‫‪ .249‬نسيج حقيقي ‪proper tissue‬‬ ‫‪ .217‬طور كريات الدم الحمراء ‪erythrocytic phase‬‬
‫‪ .251‬مثقبة ‪perforated‬‬ ‫‪ .218‬طور العائل الالفقاري ‪invertebrate phase‬‬
‫‪ .251‬حجرات ‪chambers‬‬ ‫‪ .219‬ينشأ ‪initiated‬‬

‫‪4‬‬
‫‪105‬‬
 ‫‪ .286‬تنغمد ‪invaginate‬‬ ‫‪ .252‬داخل الخلية ‪intracellular‬‬
‫‪ .287‬المماسح(ألغراض النظافة) ‪mops‬‬ ‫‪ .253‬هيكل ‪skeleton‬‬
‫‪ .288‬مزعوم ‪reputed‬‬ ‫‪ .254‬طور يرقي ( طور في دورة الحياة يختلف عن‬
‫‪ .289‬قيمة عالجية ‪therapeutic value‬‬ ‫األبوين ) ‪larval stage‬‬
‫‪ِ .291‬‬
‫الح َرف ‪crafts‬‬ ‫‪ .255‬مفرغ ‪hollow‬‬
‫‪ .291‬الفخار ‪pottery‬‬ ‫‪ .256‬تجمع ‪aggregation‬‬
‫‪ .292‬صناعة المجوهرات ‪jewelry making‬‬ ‫‪ .257‬مستقلة ‪independent‬‬
‫‪ .293‬الحيوانات القشرية ‪crustaceans‬‬ ‫‪ .258‬مغمورة ‪embedded‬‬
‫‪ .294‬الرخويات ‪molluscs‬‬ ‫‪ .259‬مدعمة ‪supported‬‬
‫‪ .295‬عاريات الخياشيم ‪nudibranchs‬‬ ‫‪ .261‬الفتحة الزفيرية ‪osculum‬‬
‫‪ .296‬شريك في عالقة نافعة مع الكائنات األخري ‪commensals‬‬ ‫‪ .261‬ثقوب شهيقية ‪ostia‬‬
‫‪ .297‬مضادة لاللتهاب ‪anti-inflammatory‬‬ ‫‪ .262‬طبقة األدمة ‪dermal layer‬‬
‫‪ .298‬غريب ‪intriguing‬‬ ‫‪ .263‬طبقة معوية ‪gastric layer‬‬
‫‪ُ .299‬م َس َّخر ‪harnessed‬‬ ‫‪ .264‬تتجول ‪wonder‬‬
‫‪ .311‬معا لألبد ‪together for eternity‬‬ ‫‪ .265‬تتمايز – تتحول ‪differentiate‬‬
‫‪ .311‬شعبة‪ :‬الالسعات ‪Phylum: Cnidaria‬‬ ‫‪ .266‬الخاليا الطوقية ‪choanocytes‬‬
‫‪ .312‬شوكة ‪nettle‬‬ ‫‪ .267‬تبطن – تغلف ‪lining‬‬
‫‪ .268‬تيار الماء ‪water current‬‬
‫‪ .313‬تقدم – تطور ‪advance‬‬
‫‪ .269‬سحب ‪drawing‬‬
‫‪ .314‬شقائق النعمان ‪sea anemones‬‬
‫‪ .271‬يطرد – يخرج ‪ejecting‬‬
‫‪ .315‬الشعاب المرجانية ‪corals‬‬
‫‪ .271‬تمد ‪provides‬‬
‫‪ .316‬قناديل البحر ‪jelly fishes‬‬
‫‪ .272‬التخلص من الفضالت ‪waste removal‬‬
‫‪ .317‬الخاليا الالسعة ‪stinging cells‬‬ ‫‪ .273‬تمسك – تصطاد ‪trap‬‬
‫‪ .318‬الدفاع عن النفس ‪defense‬‬ ‫‪ .274‬أقل كفاءة ‪less efficient‬‬
‫‪ .319‬الشرج ‪anus‬‬ ‫‪ .275‬تستضيف – تحوي ‪harbour‬‬
‫‪ .311‬خارج الخلية ‪extracellutar‬‬ ‫‪ .276‬تعايشي (صورة من صور تبادل المنفعة بين‬
‫‪ .311‬داخل الخلية ‪intracellular‬‬ ‫الكائنات الحية) ‪symbiotic‬‬
‫‪ .277‬بدال من ذلك ‪instead‬‬
‫‪ .312‬اختزال – اخماد ‪suppression‬‬
‫‪ .278‬يضخ ‪pump‬‬
‫‪ .313‬البيئة – طبيعة المعيشة ‪habitat‬‬
‫‪ .279‬خالية من ‪deprived of‬‬
‫‪ .314‬اسطوانية الشكل ‪cylindrical‬‬ ‫‪ .281‬المقدرة ‪capacity‬‬
‫‪ .315‬بحيرات ‪lakes‬‬ ‫فرم ‪blended‬‬
‫‪ .281‬تُ َ‬
‫‪ .316‬الجداول – المستنقعات ‪stream‬‬ ‫‪ .282‬تتجمع ‪gather‬‬
‫‪ .317‬مغمورة ‪submerged‬‬ ‫‪ .283‬تتحمل ‪withstand‬‬
‫‪ .318‬وفير ‪abundant‬‬ ‫‪ُ .284‬مخنث ‪hermaphrodite‬‬
‫‪ .319‬الصق ‪adhesive‬‬ ‫‪ .285‬تنشر ‪disposing‬‬

‫‪5‬‬
‫‪106‬‬
 ‫‪ .352‬تطرد ‪expelled‬‬ ‫‪ .321‬قرص قاعدي ‪basal disc‬‬
‫‪ .353‬التبرعم ‪budding‬‬ ‫‪ .321‬لوامس ‪tentacles‬‬
‫‪ .354‬تتحسن ‪improved‬‬ ‫‪ .322‬المناسل (الخصية أو المبيض) ‪gonads‬‬
‫‪ .355‬متحور ‪modified‬‬ ‫‪ .323‬الخاليا البينية ‪the interstitial cells‬‬
‫‪ .356‬مستفيد ‪benefiting‬‬ ‫‪ .324‬األمشاج ( الحيوانات المنوية أو البويضات)‬
‫‪ .357‬تبادل المنفعة ‪mutualism‬‬ ‫‪gametes‬‬
‫‪ .358‬غير مريح ‪uncomfortable‬‬ ‫‪ .325‬شبكة عصبية ‪nerve – net‬‬

‫‪ .359‬يوقع ‪inflict‬‬ ‫‪ .326‬خاليا حسية ‪sensory cells‬‬

‫‪ .361‬اغماء ‪unconsciousness‬‬ ‫‪ .327‬الخاليا المخاطية ‪mucous cells‬‬

‫‪ .361‬يختفي ‪ُ -‬يغطى ‪masked‬‬ ‫‪ .328‬الخاليا الالسعة ‪cnidocytes‬‬
‫‪ .362‬شوكيات الجلد ‪Echinodermates‬‬ ‫‪ .329‬متجانسة ‪homogenous‬‬
‫‪ .363‬الديدان المفلطحة ‪Platyhelminthes‬‬ ‫‪ .331‬غشاء قاعدي ‪basement membrane‬‬
‫‪ .364‬وجود منطقة رأس واضحة ‪cephalization‬‬ ‫‪ .331‬الخاليا الغدية ‪glandular cells‬‬
‫‪ .365‬خلية لهبية ‪flame cell‬‬ ‫‪ .332‬الزناد ‪trigger‬‬
‫‪ .366‬قنوات إخراجية ‪excretory ducts‬‬ ‫‪ .333‬الفريسة ‪prey‬‬
‫‪ .367‬عقد عصبية مخية ‪cerebral ganglia‬‬ ‫‪ .334‬تنطلق ‪discharged‬‬
‫‪ .368‬أحبال عصبية ‪nerve cords‬‬ ‫‪ .335‬خيط شبيه بالسهم ‪dart-like thread‬‬
‫المساعدة ‪accessory genital glands‬‬
‫الغدد التناسلية ُ‬
‫ّ‬ ‫‪.369‬‬
‫‪ .336‬يشل ‪paralyse‬‬
‫الجليد (طبقة جلدية سميكة) ‪cuticle‬‬
‫‪َ .371‬‬ ‫‪ .337‬المخترقة ‪penetrant‬‬
‫‪ .371‬الممصات ‪suckers‬‬
‫‪ .338‬تُستثار ‪stimulated‬‬
‫‪ .372‬دوامات ‪turbellae‬‬
‫‪ .339‬تخترق ‪pierces‬‬
‫‪ .373‬رطبة ‪humid‬‬
‫‪ .341‬الملتفة ‪volvent‬‬
‫‪ .374‬مستقبالت ضوئية (خاليا حساسة للضوء)‬
‫‪ .341‬يلتف حول ‪wrapped around‬‬
‫‪photoreceptors‬‬
‫‪ .375‬وتدي الشكل ‪wedge-shaped‬‬ ‫‪ .342‬زوائد ‪processes‬‬
‫‪ .343‬من ٍ‬
‫حين آلخر‪ -‬عرضيا ‪occassionly‬‬
‫‪ .376‬بيطري ‪veterenary‬‬
‫‪ .377‬الحيوانات األليفة ‪demostic animals‬‬ ‫‪ .344‬التزحلق ‪gliding‬‬

‫‪ .378‬ممص فمي ‪oral sucker‬‬ ‫‪ .345‬ينثني ‪bends over‬‬

‫‪ .379‬وحيدة العائل ‪Monogenea‬‬ ‫‪ .346‬الشقلبة ‪somersaulting‬‬

‫‪ .381‬ثنائية العائل ‪Digenia‬‬ ‫‪ .347‬يتأرجح ‪swing‬‬

‫‪ .381‬منفصلة األجناس ‪dioecious‬‬ ‫‪ .348‬تنفصل ‪detaches‬‬

‫‪ .382‬تتكاثر بالتوالد البكري (من بويضة غير مخصبة‬ ‫‪ .349‬تتعاون ‪cooperate‬‬

‫بحيوان منوي) ‪parthenogenetically‬‬ ‫‪ .351‬تبتلع ‪swallows‬‬

‫‪ .383‬الدودة الكبدية ‪liver fluck‬‬ ‫‪ُ .351‬تلتهم ‪engulfed‬‬

‫‪6‬‬
‫‪107‬‬
‫‪ .415‬مدمج خلوي (تركيب متعدد األنوية ينشأ من اندماج‬ ‫‪ .384‬القنوات الصفراوية ‪bile ducts‬‬
‫العديد من الخاليا) ‪syncytial‬‬ ‫‪ .385‬حويصالت ارتشافية ( تقوم بادخال الغذاء السائل‬
‫‪ .416‬المستقبل المنوي (كيس يقوم بتخزين المني في الجهاز األنثوي بعد‬ ‫بطريقة االرتشاف) ‪pinocytotic vesicles‬‬
‫استقباله من الذكر) ‪receptaculum seminis‬‬
‫‪ .386‬شويكات ‪spinules‬‬
‫‪ .417‬مناسب – مريح ‪convenience‬‬
‫‪ .387‬مريء ‪oesophagus‬‬
‫‪ .418‬تنفصل ‪detached‬‬
‫‪ .388‬مكان إعداد البيض ‪ootype‬‬
‫‪ .419‬تقذف – تخرج ‪extrude‬‬
‫‪ .389‬الرحم ‪uterus‬‬
‫‪ .502‬العضلة القلبية ‪cardiac muscle‬‬
‫‪ .391‬النباتات المائية ‪aquatic vegetation‬‬
‫‪ .421‬صالبة ‪turgidity‬‬
‫‪ .391‬المصابة ‪infested‬‬
‫‪ُ .422‬يزال ‪obliterated‬‬
‫‪ .392‬نزف ‪hemorrhages‬‬
‫‪ .423‬ينسلخ ‪moulted‬‬
‫‪ .393‬تسد ‪block‬‬
‫‪ .424‬أنظمة الصرف الصحي ‪sanitation‬‬
‫‪ .394‬مرض الصفراء ‪jaundice‬‬
‫‪ .425‬فتحة المذرق (فتحة تجمع فتحة الشرج والفتحة‬
‫التناسلية البولية) ‪cloacal opening‬‬ ‫‪ .395‬اضطرابات ‪disturbances‬‬
‫‪ .426‬التجويف الفمي ‪buccal cavity‬‬ ‫‪ .396‬حيوية ‪viability‬‬
‫‪ .427‬إزالة الفضالت ‪elimination‬‬ ‫‪ .397‬المثانة ‪bladder‬‬
‫‪ .428‬الهوائي ‪anaerobic‬‬ ‫‪ .398‬بولي ‪urinary‬‬
‫‪ُ .429‬يغلٍف ‪enveloped‬‬ ‫‪ .399‬حوض البحر المتوسط ‪Mediterranean basin‬‬
‫‪ .431‬القصبة الهوائية ‪trachea‬‬ ‫‪ .411‬شوكة طرفية ‪terminal spine‬‬
‫‪ .134‬التأثيرات المرضية ‪pathogenesis‬‬ ‫‪ .411‬القوارض ‪rodents‬‬
‫‪ .432‬التهاب رئوي ‪pneumonia‬‬ ‫‪ .412‬يحتضن ‪incubating‬‬
‫‪ .433‬االحتياجات الغذائية ‪nutritional demonds‬‬ ‫‪ .413‬قناة اإلحتضان ‪gynaecophoric canal‬‬
‫‪ .434‬انزيم التربسين (انزيم مسئول عن هضم البروتين في‬
‫‪ .414‬حلمات ‪tubercles‬‬
‫األمعاء) ‪trypsine‬‬
‫‪ .415‬المثانة البولية ‪urinary bladder‬‬
‫‪ .435‬يتشابك ‪entangled‬‬
‫‪ .416‬حلمة ثاقبة ‪boring papilla‬‬
‫‪ .436‬الدودة الخطافية )األنكلستوما) ‪hookworm‬‬
‫‪ .417‬تأثيرات َم َرضية ‪ill effects‬‬
‫‪ .437‬انحناء ‪flexure‬‬
‫‪ .438‬غدد رأسية ‪cephalic glands‬‬ ‫‪ُ .418‬مزمن ‪chronic‬‬

‫‪ .439‬تَجُلط – تخثر ‪coagulation‬‬ ‫‪ .419‬التهابات ‪inflamations‬‬

‫‪ .441‬الطبقة المخاطية لألمعاء ‪mucosa‬‬ ‫‪ .411‬منطقة الرأس ‪scolex‬‬
‫‪ .441‬قناة قاذفة ‪ejaculatory duct‬‬ ‫‪ .411‬قطعة لسانية ‪proglottids‬‬
‫‪ .442‬خمالت (زوائد تبرز من جدار األمعاء) ‪villi‬‬ ‫‪ .412‬لحم البقر ‪beef‬‬
‫آكل ‪eroded‬‬
‫‪ُ .443‬متَ َ‬ ‫‪ .413‬لحم الخنزير ‪pork‬‬
‫‪ُ .444‬يعوض ‪compensated‬‬ ‫‪ .414‬غير ناضجة ‪immature‬‬
‫‪ .444‬تأخر ‪retardation‬‬

‫‪7‬‬
‫‪108‬‬
 Zagazig University
Faculty of Science
Zoology Department

Practical Notes
‫(المذكرة العملية)‬
Ertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwert
yuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui
opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopa
sdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdf
Student Name:

ghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghj
Secialization

Section:
klzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklz
ID
xcvbnmqw[[[[[ertyuiopasdfghjkl
zxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxc
Weeks Date Lesson Instructor’s Signature
vbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvb
1
nmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwe
2
3
rtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwerty
4
uiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuio
5
pasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopas
6
dfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg
hjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjk
lzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx
Kingdom: Protista
Subkingdom: Protozoa
Phylum: Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum Mastigophora
Class: Phytomastigophora
e. g. Euglena sp.

Fig. (1): Euglena sp

1
2
Kingdom: Protista
Subkingdom: Protozoa
Phylum: Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum Mastigophora
Class: Zoomastigophora
e.g. Trypanosoma sp.

Fig. (2): Trypanosoma sp

3
4
Kingdom: Protista
Subkingdom: Protozoa
Phylum: Sarcomastigohpora
Suphylum: Sarcodina
e.g. Amoeba sp.

Fig. (3): Amoeba sp

5
6
Kingdom: Protista
Subkingdom: Protozoa
Phylum: Ciliophora
e.g. Paramecium sp.

Fig. (4): Paramecium sp.

7
8
Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Parazoa
Phylum: Porifera (Sponges)
e.g. Sponges

Fig. (5): Grades of sponges

Fig. (6): Types of skeleton in sponges of sponges

Fig. (7): Diagrammatic sectional view of Grantia

9
10
Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
Grade Radiata
Phylum : Cnidaria
Class: Hydrozoa
e.g. Hydra

Fig. (8): Hydra sp (W.M.)

11
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Fig. (9): T.S. of Hydra

13
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Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
Grade Radiata
Phylum : Cnidaria
Class: Hydrozoa
e.g. Obelia

Fig. (10): Colony of Obelia

15
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Fig. (11): Medusa of Obelia

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Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
Grade Bilateria
Subgrade Acoelomata
Phylum: Platyhelminthes (Flat worm)
Class: Trematoda
Order: Digenea
e.g. Fasciola hepatica
(Liver Fluke)

Fig. (12): Fasciola sp

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 (13a):T.S. of Fasciola

Fig. (13 b): Hisotogical structure of body wall of Fasciola.

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Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
Grade Bilateria
Subgrade Acoelomata
Phylum: Platyhelminthes (Flat worm)
Class: Trematoda
Order: Digenea
e.g. Schistosoma sp. (Liver fluck)

Conjugated male and female Separated male and female

Fig. (14 a): Schistosoma sp. (W.M.)

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 S. haematobium s. mansonia

A. Eggs B. Miracidium

C. Sporocysts D. Cercaria (infective stage)

Fig. (14 b):Different stages of life cycle of Schistosoma sp. (W.M.)

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Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
Grade Bilateria
Subgrade Acoelomata
Phylum: Platyhelminthes (Flat worm)
Class: Cestoda
e.g. Taenia sp.

Fig. (15 a): Taenia sp

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 Fig. (15 b) : Mature proglottide of Taenia

Fig. (15 c): Gravid proglottide of Taenia

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Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
Grade Bilateria
Subgrade Pseudocoelomata
Phylum: Nematoda
Class Phasmida
e.g. Ascaris lumbercoides

Fig. (16 a): Ascaris. A: Male B: Female

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Fig. (16 b): Digestive and reproductive systems of Ascaris.

33
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 Fig. (16 c): T.S. of mature male Ascaris

Fig. (16 d): T.S. of mature female Ascaris

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Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
Grade Bilateria
Subgrade Pseudocoelomata
Phylum: Cestoda
e.g. Ankylostoma

Fig. (17): Life cycle of Ankylostoma

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 Zagazig University
Faculty of Science
Zoology Department

Practical skills
(Bufo regularis)
 Student Name:
Section:

Student No:

Weeks Date Lesson Instructor’s Signature

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

1
 Systematic Position
PHYLUM : Chordata
SUB-PHYLUM : Vertebrata
CLASS : Amphibia
ORDER : Anura
FAMILY : Bufonidae
e.g. : Bufo regularis
(The maculated toad)

2
 Morphological adaptations

Examine the provided specimen and noticed the following

morphological adaptations:
1. Stream-like body to reduce the resistance of water during swimming.
2. Colouration: The general body colouration and pattern of pigments patches help tin
camouflaging.
3. Skin is wet and slippery to help in cutaneous respiration on land and underwater.
4. The skin is provided with poisonous gland. The parotid glands are aggregations of
these glands. They secrete poisonous white secretion for protection against
predators.
5. The Z-shape hind limb is large, powerful land provided with webbed toes for jumping
and to propel the animal in water.
6. Short forelimb provided with two horney pads to absorb the shock of jumping.
7. Transparent nictating membrane protects the eye and enable the toad to see under
water.
8. The protruded eyes enable the toad to see in all directions to compensate the
absence of neck.
9. Anteriorly fixed slimy tongue enables it to catch the insects.
10. Up and down movement of the floor of the buccal cavity is a respiratory movement.

How we can differentiate between Male and Female Toad

By the colour of subguar area being black (represent the vocal sac) in the male, witish in the
female (secondary sexual character)

For dissection instructions follow the video in the link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Ambj0Y-8qQ&t=162s

3
 1. Morphology
For dissection instructions follow the video ni the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3WJ2APNyik&t=121s
Draw

4
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 2. Superificial Muscles

A. For Dissection instructions follow the video in the link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KQ_yjQLKGE&t=39s
B. Draw a labelled diagrams

6
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 3. General Viscera
For Dissection instructions follow the video in the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6189Ns8doUU&t=16s

Draw a labelled diagram:

8
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 4. A. Male Urinogenital System
For Dissection instructions follow the video in the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xaBbCSgmgs&t=8s
Draw a labelled diagram

10
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 4. B Female Urogenital System

For Dissection instructions follow the video in the link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xaBbCSgmgs&t=8s

Draw a labelled diagram

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 5. Venous Portal System

For Dissection instructions follow the video in the link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QkHyJirvwJQ&t=684s

Draw a labelled diagram

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 6. Arterial System
Draw a labelled diagram

16
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 7. Spinal nerves and Sympathetic chain
For help instructions follow the video in the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7G1KpkxFN0k

Draw a labelled diagram

18
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 8. Axial Skeletal System
A. Skull
For help of skeletal system follow the video in the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ozSN3Tffr_Y
Draw a labelled diagram

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 8. Axial Skeletal System
B. Verebral Column
For help follow the video in the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ozSN3Tffr_Y

Draw a labelled diagram

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 10.Appendicular Skeleton
A.Pectoral girdle & Forelimps
For help follow the video in the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ozSN3Tffr_Y
Draw a labelled diagram

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 9.Appendicular Skeleton
B.Pelvicl girdle & Hindlimps
For help follow the video in the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ozSN3Tffr_Y
Draw a labelled diagram

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