Assignment

Q. What does Vygotsky identify key influence on cognitive development?

Ans : Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture has a
major impact on a child’s cognitive development. Piaget and Gesell believed development
stemmed directly from the child, and although Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic
development, he argued that it is the language, writings, and concepts arising from the culture
that elicit the highest level of cognitive thinking (Crain, 2005). He believed that the social
interactions with adults and more learned peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning.
Vygotsky’s theory revolves around two key concepts:

1. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is defined as the distance between
a child’s actual developmental level and their potential level of development with
guidance and support from adults or more skilled peers.
2. Scaffolding, a teaching strategy derived from Vygotsky’s theory, involves providing
support and guidance within a child’s ZPD to help them learn and develop new skills.

Language plays a pivotal role in this process, serving as the primary tool for mediating social
interaction and shaping thought. Vygotsky identified three stages of language development:
● External/Social Speech: Children initially use language for social communication,
expressing needs and interacting with others.
● Egocentric Speech: Around the age of three, children engage in self-directed speech,
verbalizing their thoughts and actions aloud. This private speech, often observed
during play, serves as a cognitive tool for self-guidance and problem-solving.
● Inner Speech: As children mature, egocentric speech gradually becomes internalized,
transforming into silent thought. Inner speech represents the culmination of language's
influence on cognitive development.

Q. Explain these key concepts that Vygotsky uses to explain development of thinking.

Social interaction

According to Vygotsky, cognitive development is fundamentally social. Children learn and

develop through interactions with others who have more knowledge or expertise in a
particular domain. These interactions provide the child with opportunities to observe, imitate,
and eventually internalize new skills and strategies.

For example, when a child learns to solve a puzzle with the help of an adult, they start by
watching the adult demonstrate how to solve it. Through repeated practice and guidance, the
child gradually internalizes the steps and strategies involved in solving the puzzle.
Eventually, they can solve similar puzzles independently, without external support.

Internalization

Internalization is a pivotal concept in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, explaining

how children acquire higher mental functions through social interactions and cultural tools.
Here's a detailed explanation focusing specifically on internalization:

Definition of Internalization:

Internalization refers to the process through which external activities (originating in the social
environment) become internal mental processes. Initially, when a child engages in a new task
or activity, they rely on external support and guidance from more knowledgeable others (such
as parents, teachers, or peers). Over time, through repeated social interactions and practice
with these tasks, the child internalizes the processes involved. This means that what was once
an external social interaction or tool becomes a part of the child's independent cognitive
repertoire.

Cultural tools

Internalization is closely tied to the concept of cultural tools, which are the symbolic and
physical artifacts (such as language, writing, numbers, and technology) that mediate cognitive
processes. These tools are not just means of communication or action; they also shape how
individuals think and solve problems.

For instance, language serves as a crucial cultural tool that facilitates internalization. As
children interact with caregivers and peers, they use language to express thoughts, negotiate
meanings, and receive feedback. Through these interactions, children internalize language
structures, which in turn influence their thinking processes and cognitive development.
Q. Explain these ideas that relates to Vygotsky’s belief about how learning occurs.

ZPD
Vygotsky’s best known concept is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky
stated that children should be taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can almost perform
a task, but not quite on their own without assistance. With the right kind of teaching,
however, they can accomplish it successfully. A good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and
helps the child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher) gradually withdraws support until
the child can then perform the task unaided.
This zone represents the gap between a child's current level of independent problem-solving
ability and their potential level with guidance from a more knowledgeable other.
The ZPD can be broken down into three distinct stages in terms of a learner's skillset. In
order to improve the ability of the learner the more knowledgeable person must understand
what stage they are in.

● Tasks a learner can accomplish without assistance

This refers to tasks that the learner can perform independently. If the learner has reached this
stage, the teacher or mentor will need to increase the level of difficulty of the task in order to
facilitate further learning.

● Tasks a learner can accomplish with assistance

This is referred to as their zone of proximal development. In this stage, the learner needs the
guidance of a more knowledgeable other to help them complete the task.

● Tasks a learner cannot accomplish with assistance

This refers to tasks that the learner cannot do, even with the guidance of a more
knowledgeable person. If the learner's ability falls within this range, the level of difficulty
may need to be decreased to accommodate their skillset.

Scaffolding
Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a task.
Effective scaffolding involves adjusting the level of support to match the child's current
abilities, gradually fading the assistance as the child internalizes the skills and knowledge.
Techniques for instructional scaffolding might include using visual aids (such as diagrams),
providing examples, working one-on-one with the student and providing feedback. The aim
of scaffolding is to create an environment in which the student feels comfortable asking
questions until they can perform the skill without any help.

The benefits of scaffolding include:

● Motivating the learner by helping them through aspects of a task that they have
trouble with
● Minimising frustration for the learner
● Providing a faster learning experience

Classroom practice (Implications)

● Concepts like the ZPD and scaffolding have revolutionized teaching practices,
encouraging educators to create collaborative learning environments that foster peer
interaction and provide tailored support.
● Techniques such as 'scaffolding' and/or 'apprenticeship' are often used in the
classroom to describe ways of teaching students according to their level of ability. In
these techniques, the learning is structured by a teacher and then their role is gradually
reduced over time. This allows the student to learn the topic within their zone of
proximal development and then adjust to doing it by themselves or tackling something
of a higher difficulty.

● Vygotsky's theories also inform some contemporary ideas about collaborative

learning, such as pairing students of lesser capability with more advanced peers to
help them learn. Discussion groups, small group learning and collaborative exercises
in schools and universities have also been incorporated in response to theories about
social learning.
 ● Understanding what tasks, processes and concepts might lie in a student's zone of
proximal development is also essential.

Challenges to Application of Vygotsky's Theory in the Classroom

Although applications of the zone of proximal development can be beneficial to helping

students learn in the classroom, there can be some challenges for teachers. These challenges
include:

● Not having enough time or resources to address the needs of each student or help

them individually

● The possibility of misjudging a student's ZPD and causing frustration for both the

student and teacher

● There might be too many students in the class, with rapidly changing ability levels, to

employ this method successfully

● If the lesson plan is not arranged to accommodate scaffolding beforehand, it might be

difficult to be flexible enough to follow through with it

● If the teacher is unaware of the student's ZPD, the techniques might not be effective

Q. According to Erikson’s stages of Psychosocial development, what is the primary

psychosocial conflict during adolescence (12 to 18 years)?
Ans: Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and
influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst
Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than
psychosexual.
- The primary psychosocial conflict during adolescence (12 to 18 years) in Erik
Erikson’s theory is Identity versus role confusion.
- This stage occurs during adolescence between the ages of approximately 12 and 18.
During this stage, adolescents explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
- Identity vs. role confusion is a stage characterized by asking "Who am I," and
learning more about your own goals, values, and beliefs.
 - According to Erikson, people progress through a series of stages as they grow and
change throughout life. During each stage, everyone faces a developmental conflict
that must be resolved to successfully develop the primary virtue of that stage. Erikson
was interested in how social interaction and relationships affect development and
growth.
- Psychosocial conflict: Identity vs. role confusion
- Major question: "Who am I?"
- Basic virtue: Fidelity
- Important event(s): Social relationships

Identity

Erikson defines identity as a “fundamental organizing principal which develops constantly

throughout the lifespan.”

Identity involves the experiences, relationships, beliefs, values, and memories that make up a
person's subjective sense of self. This helps create a continuous self-image that remains fairly
constant even as new aspects of the self are developed or strengthened over time. Identity
provides:

Self-sameness: A sense of continuity within the self and in interaction with others
Uniqueness: A frame to differentiate between self and interaction with others
Psychosocial development: Mental and physical health for adolescents

During the identity vs. role confusion stage, the conflict is centered on developing a personal
identity. Successfully completing this stage leads to a strong sense of self that will remain
throughout life.

Role Confusion

Kids who are not allowed to explore and test out different identities might be left with what
Erikson referred to as role confusion, which can result in the following:

● Being unsure of who you are and where you fit

● Drifting from one job or relationship to another
● Feeling disappointed and confused about your place in life
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