Name:

Course/Section:

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

MODULE 1

1
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this self -learning kit, the students should be able to:

Explain the concepts of work as dot product as well as the effects

of conservative forces, infer force using potential energy diagrams.

Solve problems involving work, energy, and power in contexts; and

Integrate the concepts learned in work, energy, and power to real- life
situations.

PRE -TEST:

Directions: Identify the words described by the brief description. Use the

jumbled words as your clue to the words being described. Write your answers on

your notebook.

1. This is the result of the scalar multiplication of two vectors.

2. It is the product of the force magnitude in the direction of the
displacement F and the displacement magnitude Δx due to a constant
force.
3. It is a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a
unified whole.
4. It explains the relation be tween the sides of a right-angled triangle. It is
basically used to find the length of an unknown side and angle of a
triangle.
5. It is the capacity for doing work.
6. It is the rate of doing work. It is the amount of energy consumed per unit
time.
7. It is the unit of work or energy in the International System of Units (SI).
8. It is the unit of power in the International System of Units (SI) which is equal
to one joule of work performed per second (J/s).
9. It is just its weight 𝑚𝑔 near the surface of Earth, acting vertically down.
10. It is energy stored as a result of applying a force to deform an elastic
object.

2
 PRE -ACTIVITY:

A Box Being Pushed

Consider a coordinate system such that we have x as the abscissa and y as
the ordinate. Imagine that a box is being pushed along the x direction. What
happens in the following scenarios? Write your answers in your Science
notebook/Answer Sheet.
• The box is being pushed parallel to the x direction?
• The box is being pushed at an angle of 45 degrees to the x direction?
• The box is being pushed at an angle of 60 degrees to the x direction?
• The box is being pushed at an angle of 90 degrees to the x direction?

II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

a. Scalar Product (the Dot Product)

Did you know that a vector can be multiplied by another vector but may not
be divided by another vector? In Physics and Engineering, two kinds of
products of vectors are widely used. One of these is the scalar multiplication of
two vectors. The result of taking the product of two vectors is a number (a
scalar), as its name indicates. In this lesson, we will use scalar products to define
work and energy relations.

Scalar multiplication of two vectors yields a scalar product. The scalar product
𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐁⃗ of two vectors 𝐀⃗⃗ and 𝐁⃗ is a number defined by the equation,

𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝝋

where 𝝋 is the angle between the vectors. The scalar product is also called the
dot product because of the dot notation that indicates it.

The direction of angle 𝝋 does not matter in the definition of the dot product,
and 𝝋 can be measured from either of the two vectors to the other because
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝝋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 . The dot product is a negative number when
𝟏𝟖𝟎° and is a positive number when 𝟗𝟎°.
Moreover, the dot product of two parallel vectors is 𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑨𝑩. The
scalar product of two orthogonal vectors vanishes: 𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝟗𝟎° .

The scalar product of a vector with itself is the square of its magnitude:

𝐀⃗⃗ 𝟐 𝐴𝐴 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟎° = 𝑨𝟐

3
 Figure 1

The scalar product of two vectors. (a) The angle between the two
vectors. (b) The orthogonal projection 𝑨 of vector 𝑨 onto the direction of
vector 𝑩 . (c) The orthogonal projection 𝑩 of vector 𝑩 onto the direction of
vector 𝑨 .
Sample Problem 1: The Scalar Product

Figure 2

For the vectors shown in Figure 2, find the scalar product of 𝐀⃗⃗ .

Strategy
The magnitudes of vectors 𝐀⃗⃗ and 𝐅 are 𝐴 = 10.0 and 𝐹 = 20.0. Angle 𝜃,
between them, is the difference: 𝜃 = 𝜑−𝛼 = 110°−35° = 75°. Substituting these
values into equation 𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝝋 gives a scalar product.

Solution
A straightforward calculation gives us
𝐀⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝝋 = (𝟏𝟎.𝟎)(𝟐𝟎.𝟎) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟕𝟓° = 𝟓𝟏.𝟕𝟔

b. Work Done by a Constant Force

We define the work W done by this constant force as the product of the
force magnitude in the direction of the displacement F and the displacement
magnitude Δx:

W = F │Δx│ (constant force in direction of straight-line displacement)

4
 Joule (J) is the unit of work or energy in the International System of Units
(SI); it is equal to the work done by a force of one newton acting through one
meter (N.m).

The work done on the body increases if either the force F or the displacement
Δx increases.

Figure 3

Work = W, weight = w Don’t confuse uppercase W (work) with

lowercase w (weight). Though the symbols are similar, work and
Take note
weight are different quantities.

If you attach a string to the box and pull it, as shown in the illustration
below, the force now acts at an angle to the displacement. In this situation,
the work done on the box by the force is the product between the force in the
direction of the displacement and the magnitude of the displacement:

W = F │∆x│= Fcosθ │∆x│or

W = Fcosθ │∆x│

where: F = magnitude of the constant force

│∆x│= magnitude of the displacement of the point of
application of the force
θ = angle between the directions of the force and
displacement vectors

Figure 4

5
 Energy, in physics, is the capacity for doing work. All forms of energy are
associated with motion.

Power is the rate of doing work. It is the amount of energy consumed

per unit time. Watt, is the unit of power in the International
System of Units (SI) equal to one joule of work performed per second (J/s).

Sample Problem 2:
A force of 15N is exerted on a box at an angle of θ = 25°. How much work is
done by the force on the box as the box moves along the table a distance of
5.0 m?

STEP 1. Draw the object first at its initial position and second at its final position.
For ease, the object can be represented as a dot or a box. Label the initial and
final positions of the object.

Figure 5

STEP 2. Identify the given values in the problem. In the sample problem, the
values to be identified are the force applied which is represented by Fx we use
the subscript x since the direction of the force is horizontal, next is the value of
the angle θ between the directions of the force and vectors and lastly, the
magnitude of the displacement │∆x│.

Therefore:
Given: Fx = 15N
θ = 25°
│∆x│= 5.0 m

STEP 3. Now that we have identified the given values in the problem, we can
now solve for work. Observe that the problem involves an angle, therefore the
formula that we will be using here is W = Fcosθ │∆x│.

3.a. Supply the given values to the formula W = Fcosθ │∆x│.

Now we will have:
W = (15N) (cos25°) (5.0m)
3.b. Solve for cos25° using your scientific calculator, round off the
result to 2 decimal places. After which the result will be: W = (15N)
6
 (0.91) (5.0m) 3.c. Multiply (15N) (0.91) (5.0m). The result is: W =
68.25 Nm
3.d. Note that (Newton-meter) Nm is equivalent to Joule (J).
Therefore, our final answer is: W = 68.25 J
What if there are several forces doing work on a system? How are we going
to compute the work done?

The total work is found by computing the work done by each force and
adding each individual work together.

Total work is computed by using the formula:

WTotal = F1xΔx1 + F2xΔx2 + F3xΔx3 + . . .

A system is a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items

forming a unified whole. The system can be described as particle when the
system moves thus all the parts undergo equal displacements. The points of
application of the forces are identical when several of these forces do work on
such a particle.

Let the displacement of the point of application of any one of the forces
be Δx. ThenWTotal = F1xΔx + F2xΔx + F3xΔx + . . .

Since the displacements of all forces acting on the system are equal, we will
only use one value for Δx.

The formula will be:

WTotal = (F1x + F2x + F3x + . . .) Δx or

WTotal = Fnet xΔx

For a particle controlled to move along the x axis, the net force has only an x
component. That is, 𝑭⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑭⃗𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒙𝒊̂. Thus, for a particle, the x component of the
net force times the displacement of any part of the object is equal to the total
work done on the object. (Tipler and Mosca 2008)

Sample Problem:

A 4000 kg truck is to be loaded onto a ship by a crane that applies an upward

force of 50 kN on the truck. This force, which is strong enough to overcome the
gravitation force and keep the truck moving upward, is applied over a
distance of 4.0 m. Find:

7
(a) the work done on the truck by the crane; (b)
the work done on the truck by gravity; and (c)
the net work done on the truck.

STEP 1. Draw the object first at

its initial position and second at its
final position. Choose the +y to be
the direction of the displacement.
Since the displacement direction is
upward.

STEP 2. Identify the given values

in the problem. In the sample
problem, we can identify 4 values:
mass(m) of the truck, force (Fapp y)
applied by the crane to the truck,
displacement(∆y) and the
gravitational force(gy) since the
displacement is in upward direction.
Given:
m = 4000 kg Fapp y = 50 kN Figure 6
∆y = 4.0 m gy = -9.8 N/kg

Note: As you may have observed, the unit used for acceleration due to
gravity is N/kg, it is because m/s2 is equivalent to N/kg. To further explain;
𝑚

𝒌𝒈𝑵 𝑘𝑔𝑘𝑔∙ 𝑠2 = 𝒔𝒎𝟐

=

Furthermore, the sign for acceleration due to gravity is negative (-)

because it is directed downward.

STEP 3. After identifying the values. We can now start solving. Let’s first solve for
(a) the work done on the truck by the crane (W app).

We will use this equation, W = F │∆x│. We will only use the given values for
force applied by the crane (Fapp y), and the displacement (∆y). Let’s also
consider the direction of the displacement. Take note that the direction of
the displacement is upward, therefore it is in +y axis. So, the final formula here
will be,

Wapp = Fapp y ∆y

8
SOLUTION for (a) the work done on the truck by the crane:

Given:
Fapp y = 50 kN ∆y = 4.0 m

Formula: Wapp = Fapp y ∆y

3.a. Supply the given values to the formula Wapp = Fapp y ∆y, now we will have:

Wapp = (50 kN) (4.0 m)

3.b. Multiply (50 kN) (4.0 m). The result is,

Wapp = 200 kNm

3.c. Note that (Newton-meter) Nm is equivalent to Joule (J). Therefore, our

final answer is:
Wapp = 200 Kj

Step 4. Solve for (b) the work done on the truck by gravity (W g). The given
values we will use here are the mass (m) of the truck, acceleration due to
gravity (gy), and the displacement (∆y).

Take note the Force (F) is equal to mass(m) times acceleration due to gravity
(g). Therefore, the formula Wapp = Fapp y ∆y will become, Wg = mg y ∆y.

SOLUTION for (b) the work done on the truck by gravity (W g):

Given:
m = 4000 kg gy = -9.8 N/kg ∆y = 4.0 m
Formula: Wg = mg y ∆y

4.a. Supply the given values to the formula Wg = mg y ∆y, we will have;
𝑵
𝑾𝒈 = (4000 kg) ( -9.8 )(𝟒. 𝟎𝒎)
𝒌𝒈

4.b. Cancel out the unit kg in 4000 kg and -9.8 N/kg, since they can be divided.
The result will be.
𝑵
𝑾𝒈 = (4000 kg) ( -9.8 )(𝟒. 𝟎𝒎)
𝒌𝒈

𝑾𝒈 = (4000) ( -9.8 𝐍)(𝟒. 𝟎𝒎)

9
4.c. Multiply (4000) (-9.8 N) (4.0 m), the result is;
𝑾𝒈 = -156,800 Nm

4.d. Note that (Newton-meter) Nm is equivalent to Joule (J). Therefore,

𝑾𝒈 = -156,800 J

4.e. Since the value is too big, we will convert it to kJ. To do that,
𝟏𝒌𝑱
𝑾𝒈 = (-156,800 J)( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱

-156,800𝒌𝑱
𝑾𝒈 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

Wg = -156.8 kJ

Step 5. Solve for (c) the net work done on the truck (Wnet). The net work done
on the truck is the sum of the work done by the crane (Wapp y) and the work
done by the acceleration due to gravity (Wg) to the truck.

There are two ways to solve for the net work done on the truck.

A. Using the formula Wnet = Wapp y + Wg

B. Using Eq. (4) WTotal = Fnet x∆x

SOLUTION for (c) the net work done on the truck (Wnet):

A. Using the formula Wnet = Wapp y + Wg

Based on our solution for (a) the work done on the truck by the crane,
Wapp y = 200 kJ and for (b) the work done on the truck by gravity (W g), Wg = -
156.8 kJ. Supply this to the formula Wnet = Wapp y + Wg, we have,
Wnet = 200 kJ + (-156.8 kJ)

Wnet = 43.2 kJ

SOLUTION for (c) the net work done on the truck (Wnet):

B. Using Eq. (4) WTotal = Fnet x∆x

10
 Let’s solve for the for applied on the truck by the acceleration due to
𝑁 gravity. Therefore, 𝐹𝑔 = (4000 𝑘𝑔)
(−9.8 𝑘𝑔 ), 𝐹𝑔 = −39,200 𝑁 or 𝑭⃗𝒈 = −𝟑𝟗.𝟐 𝒌𝑵.

WTotal = {(50kN + (-39.2kN)} (4.0m)

= (10.8kN) (4.0m)
= 43.2 kNm

Wnet = 43.2 kJ

c. Work in Scalar Product Notation

𝒗
𝑭⃗∥
𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝝋

𝑭⃗ 𝑭⃗
𝑭⃗⊥

Figure 7 (𝒃)
(Tipler and Mosca 2008)

(𝒂)

Study the particle moving along the arbitrary curve shown on the
illustration above. The component 𝐅 in Figure (b) is related to the angle 𝝋
between the directions of 𝑭⃗ and 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ by 𝐅 𝑭⃗𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋, so the work dW by
𝑭⃗ for the displacement 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ is

𝒅𝑾 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑭⃗𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗
In scalar-product notation, the work 𝒅𝑾 done by force 𝑭⃗ on a particle
over an infinitesimal displacement 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ is

𝒅𝑾 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑭⃗𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗

Where: 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ = the magnitude of 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐅 = is the component of 𝑭⃗ in the direction of 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗

11
 The work done on a particle as it moves from point 1 to point 2 is

𝟐
𝑾 𝑭⃗ 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟏

(If the force remains constant, the work can be expressed as 𝑾

𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the displacement.)

When several forces 𝑭⃗ 𝒊̂ act on a particle whose displacement is 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗

, the total work done on it is

𝒅𝑾𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑭⃗ 𝟏 𝒅𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗

Sample Problem:

You push a box up a ramp using a constant horizontal 150-N force 𝑭⃗ . For
each distance 5.00 m along the ramp, the box gains 3.00 m of height. Find the
work done by 𝑭⃗ for each 5.00 m the box moves along the ramp (a)by directly
computing the scalar product from the components of 𝑭⃗ and 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where
𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the displacement, (b) by multiplying the product of the magnitudes of
𝑭⃗ and 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ by 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋, where 𝝋 is the angle between the direction of 𝑭⃗ and
the direction of 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ , (c)by finding 𝐅 (the component 𝑭⃗ in the direction of 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗
) and multiplying it by 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ (the magnitude of 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ ), and (d)by finding 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ (the
component 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the direction of 𝑭⃗ )and multiplying it by the magnitude of
the force.

Draw a sketch of the box in its initial and final positions. Place coordinate axes
on the sketch with the x axis horizontal. Express the force and displacement
vectors in component form and take the scalar product. Then find the
component of the force in the direction of the displacement, and vice versa.

12
 y

𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗
3.00
𝑭⃗ 𝝋
x

4.00 m is obtained by using Pythagorean

4.00 Theorem (𝑐 2 = ξ 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ), where c=5.00 m and
Figure 8 b=3.00 m.
Pythagorean Theorem explains the relation between the sides of a right-
angled triangle. It is basically used to find the length of an unknown side and
angle of a triangle.

Note: There are four (4) solutions to this problem. Study each solution.

First Solution
Express 𝑭⃗ (read as “force vector”) and 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ (read as “displacement vector”)
in component form and take the scalar product.
Note, 𝒊̂ (read as “i-hat”) is a unit vector pointing the +x direction and the unit
vector 𝒋̂ pointing the +y direction. (http://www.cbphysics.org/ n.d.)

SOLUTION:
𝑭⃗ = (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒊̂ +𝟎𝒋̂) 𝐍
𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝟒.𝟎𝟎𝒊̂ +𝟑.𝟎𝟎𝒋̂) 𝐦

Supply these values to the formula 𝑾 (This formula

is the formula for total work).
𝑾 (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐍)(𝟒.𝟎𝟎𝐦)+𝟎(𝟑.𝟎𝟎𝐦)

𝑾 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝑱

Second Solution
Calculate 𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋, where 𝝋 is the angle between the directions of the two
vectors as shown. Equate this expression with the Part-(a) result and solve for
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋. Then solve for the work:

SOLUTION:

𝑭⃗ 𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋 and 𝑭⃗ 𝒚

So, 𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋 = 𝑭⃗𝒙∆𝒙 + 𝑭⃗𝒚∆𝒚. To solve for 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋, we will rearrange the
formula. Therefore

13
 𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋 = 𝑭⃗𝒙∆𝒙 + 𝑭⃗𝒚∆𝒚 (Divide both sides with 𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗)

𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋 𝑭⃗𝒙∆𝒙 + 𝑭⃗𝒚∆𝒚

=
𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑭⃗𝒙∆𝒙 + 𝑭⃗𝒚∆𝒚
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 =
𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗

Supply the needed values to the formula.

(𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵)(𝟒.𝟎𝟎 𝒎) + 𝟎
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 =
(𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵)(𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎)

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 = 𝟎.𝟖𝟎𝟎

Now that we have the value for 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋, we can now solve for work using
the formula, 𝑾 = 𝑭⃗𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋. Supplying the given to the formula we have,

𝑾 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵)(𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎)𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟎

𝑾 = 𝟒.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝑱

Third Solution

Find 𝐅 and multiply it by 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗. To find 𝐅 , we will use the formula 𝐅 𝑭⃗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋. Supply
the given values to the formula, we will have,

(𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵) .𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝐅 .𝟎 𝑵

We will use the result 𝐅 .𝟎 𝑵 to solve for work by multiplying it by 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗

= 𝟓.𝟎𝟎𝒎 by using the formula 𝑾 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑾 = (𝟖𝟎.𝟎 𝑵)(𝟓.𝟎𝟎 𝒎)
𝑾 = 𝟒.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝑱

Fourth Solution
Multiply 𝑭⃗ and 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the component of 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the direction of 𝑭⃗ . We
will use the formula 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝋 for solving for 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑾 . To solve for the
work done.

𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ .𝟎𝟎 𝒎)𝟎.𝟖𝟎𝟎

𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ .𝟎𝟎 𝒎

14
 To solve for the work done,
𝑾
𝑾 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵) . 𝟎𝟎 𝒎)

The four different calculations give the same result for work which is 𝑾 =
𝟒.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝑱.

d. Work Done by a Varying Force, Straight-Line Motion

There are various situations in which a body moves along a curved path and
is acted on by a force that varies in magnitude, direction, or both. We need to
be able to compute the work done by the force in these more general cases.
The work–energy theorem holds true even when varying forces are considered
and when the body’s path is not straight.

Let’s consider straight-line motion along the x-axis with a force whose
xcomponent 𝑭⃗𝒙 may change as the body moves. (A real-life example is driving
a car along a straight road with stop signs, so the driver must alternately step
on the gas and apply the brakes.) Supposing a particle moves along the x-axis
from point 𝒙𝟏 to 𝒙𝟐 (Figure 9). Figure 10 is a graph of the x-component of force
as a function of the particle’s coordinate x. To find the work done by this force,
we divide the total displacement into small segments ∆𝒙𝒂,∆𝒙𝒃, and so on (Figure
11). We approximate the work done by the force during segment ∆𝒙𝒂 as the
average x-component of force 𝑭⃗𝒂𝒙 in that segment multiplied by the x-
displacement ∆𝒙𝒂. We do this for each segment and then add the results for all
the segments. The work done by the force in the total displacement from 𝒙𝟏 to
𝒙𝟐 is approximately

𝑾 = 𝑭⃗𝒂𝒙∆𝒙𝒂 + 𝑭⃗𝒃𝒙∆𝒙𝒃 +∙ ∙ ∙

15
Figure 9. Particle moving from 𝑥1 to 𝑥2 in response
to a changing force in the x-direction

Figure 10.

Figure 11.

e. Gravitational potential energy near Earth’s surface

The system of interest consists of our planet, Earth, and one or more particles
near its surface (or bodies small enough to be considered as particles,
compared to Earth). The gravitational force on each particle (or body) is just
its weight 𝒎𝒈 near the surface of Earth, acting vertically down. According to
Newton’s third law, each particle exerts a force on Earth of equal magnitude
but in the opposite direction. Newton’s second law tells us that the magnitude
of the acceleration produced by each of these forces on Earth is mg divided
by Earth’s mass. Since the ratio of the mass of any ordinary object to the mass
of Earth is vanishingly small, the motion of Earth can be completely neglected.
Therefore, we consider this system to be a group of single-particle systems,
subject to the uniform gravitational force of Earth.

The work done on a body by Earth’s uniform gravitational force, near its
surface, depended on the mass of the body, the acceleration due to gravity,
and the difference in height the body traversed. This work is the negative of
the difference in the gravitational potential energy, so that difference is

∆𝑼𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗 = −𝑾𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗,𝑨𝑩 = 𝒎𝒈(𝒚𝐁⃗ −𝒚𝐀⃗⃗)

You can see from this that the gravitational potential energy function, near
Earth’s surface, is
𝑼 (𝒚) = 𝒎𝒈𝒚 + 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕

16
f. Elastic potential energy
Elastic potential energy is energy stored as a result of applying a force to
deform an elastic object.
In Work, we saw that the work done by a perfectly elastic spring, in one
dimension, depends only on the spring constant and the squares of the
displacements from the unstretched position. This work involves only the
properties of a Hooke’s law interaction and not the properties of real springs
and whatever objects are attached to them. Therefore, we can define the
difference of elastic potential energy for a spring force as the negative of the
work done by the spring force in this equation before we consider systems that
embody this type of force. Thus,
1
∆𝑼 = −𝑾𝑨𝑩 = 𝒌(𝒙𝟐𝑩 −𝒙𝟐𝑨) 2
where the object travels from point A to point B. The potential energy function
corresponding to this difference is

𝑼(𝒙) = 𝟏 𝟐+ 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕
𝒌𝒙
𝟐
If the spring force is the only force acting, it is simplest to take the zero of
potential energy at 𝑥 = 0, when the spring is at its unstretched length. Then, the
constant in the previous equation is zero. (Other choices may be more
convenient if other forces are acting.)

g. Conservative Forces

A conservative force is one for which work done by or against it depends only
on the starting and ending points of a motion and not on the path taken.

The work done by a conservative force always has four properties:

1. It can be expressed as the difference between the initial and final values of
a potential-energy function.
2. It is reversible.
3. It is independent of the path of the body and depends only on the starting
and ending points.
4. When the starting and ending points are the same, the total work is zero.

h. Potential Energy Diagrams and Stability

You can get a good deal of useful information about the dynamical behavior
of a mechanical system just by interpreting a graph of its potential energy as a
function of position, called a potential energy diagram.
This is most easily accomplished for a one-dimensional system, whose potential
energy can be plotted in one two-dimensional graph—for example, U(x) versus
x—on a piece of paper or a computer program. For systems whose motion is
17
in more than one dimension, the motion needs to be studied in three-
dimensional space. We will simplify our procedure for onedimensional motion
only.

First, let’s look at an object, freely falling vertically, near the surface of Earth, in
the absence of air resistance. The mechanical energy of the object is
conserved, 𝐸 = 𝐾+𝑈, and the potential energy, with respect to zero at ground
level, is 𝑼 (𝒚) = 𝒎𝒈𝒚, which is a straight line through the origin with slope 𝒎𝒈.

Figure 12. The potential energy graph for an object in vertical free
fall, with various quantities indicated.

The line at energy E represents the constant mechanical energy of the object,
whereas the kinetic and potential energies, 𝑲𝑨 and 𝑼𝑨, are indicated at a
particular height 𝒚𝑨. You can see how the total energy is divided between
kinetic and potential energy as the object’s height changes. Since kinetic
energy can never be negative, there is a maximum potential energy and a
maximum height, which an object with the given total energy cannot exceed:
𝐾 = 𝐸 −𝑈 ≥ 0
𝑈≤𝐸

Quartic and Quadratic Potential Energy Diagram

The potential energy for a particle undergoing one-dimensional motion
along the x-axis is 𝑼(𝒙) = 𝟐(𝒙𝟒 −𝒙𝟐), where 𝑼 is in joules and 𝒙 is in meters. The
particle is not subject to any non-conservative forces and its mechanical
energy is constant at 𝑬 = −𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝑱. (a) Is the motion of the particle confined to
any regions on the x-axis, and if so, what are they? (b) Are there any equilibrium
points, and if so, where are they and are they stable or unstable?

Strategy
First, we need to graph the potential energy as a function of x. The
function is zero at the origin, becomes negative as x increases in the positive or
negative directions (𝒙𝟐 is larger than 𝒙𝟒 for 𝒙 < 𝟏), and then becomes positive
at sufficiently large |𝑥|. Your graph should look like a double potential well, with
the zeros determined by solving the equation 𝑼 (𝒙) = 𝟎, and the extremes
determined by examining the first and second derivatives of 𝑼 (𝒙), as shown in
Figure 13.

18
 Figure 13. The potential energy graph for a one-dimensional, quartic and
quadratic potential energy, with various quantities indicated.

You can find the values of (a) the allowed regions along the x-axis, for the
given value of the mechanical energy, from the condition that the kinetic
energy can’t be negative, and (b) the equilibrium points and their stability from
the properties of the force (stable for a relative minimum and unstable for a
relative maximum of potential energy).

You can just eyeball the graph to reach qualitative answers to the questions
in this example. That, after all, is the value of potential energy diagrams. You
can see that there are two allowed regions for the motion (𝐸 > 𝑈) and three
equilibrium points (slope 𝒅𝑼/𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎), of which the central one is unstable
(𝒅𝟐𝑼/𝒅𝒙𝟐 < 𝟎), and the other two are stable 𝒅𝟐𝑼/𝒅𝒙𝟐 > 𝟎.

Solution
a. To find the allowed regions for x, we use the condition

𝑲 = 𝑬−𝑼 = −𝟏 −𝟐(𝒙𝟒 −𝒙𝟐) ≥ 𝟎

𝟒

If we complete the square in 𝒙𝟐, this condition simplifies to

, which we can solve to obtain

This represents two allowed regions, 𝑥𝑝 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑅 and −𝑥𝑅 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ −𝑥𝑝, where

𝑥𝑝 = 0.38 and 𝑥𝑅 = 0.92 (in meters).

b. To find the equilibrium points, we solve the equation

19
 𝑑𝑈⁄𝑑𝑥 = 8𝑥3 −4𝑥 = 0

and find 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = ±𝑥𝑄, where 𝑥𝑄 = 1⁄ξ2 = 0.707 (meters). The second
derivative
𝑑2𝑈⁄𝑑𝑥2 = 24𝑥2 −4

is negative at 𝑥 = 0, so that position is a relative maximum and the

equilibrium there is unstable. The second derivative is positive at 𝑥 = ±𝑥𝑄,
so these positions are relative minima and represent stab equilibria.

Significance
The particle in this example can oscillate in the allowed region about
either of the two stable equilibrium points we found, but it does not have
enough energy to escape from whichever potential well it happens to initially
be in. The conservation of mechanical energy and the relations between
kinetic energy and speed, and potential energy and force, enable you to
deduce much information about the qualitative behavior of the motion of a
particle, as well as some quantitative information, from a graph of its potential
energy.

PERFORMANCE TASK

Directions: Problem Solving. Write your solution on your notebook. Remember

to follow the steps in solving problem.

1. A constant force 𝑭⃗ = (𝟒.𝟎𝟎𝒊̂+𝟓.𝟎𝟎 𝒋̂)𝑵 is applied to a particle that undergoes

a displacement 𝓵⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝟑.𝟎𝟎𝒊̂ − 𝟔.𝟎𝟎 𝒋̂)𝒎. (a) the work done by the force, and
(b) the component of the force in the direction of the displacement.

Written Work:
Directions: Answer what is asked. Write your answer in your notebook.

1. Compare and contrast gravitational potential energy and elastic

potential energy.

POST-TEST

A. Directions: Write true if the statement is correct and false if not.

1. Elastic potential energy is energy released as a result of applying a force

to deform an elastic object.
2. Conservative force is reversible.

20
 3. Conservative force is dependent of the path of the body and depends
only on the starting and ending points.
4. According to Newton’s third law, each particle exerts a force on Earth
of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction.
5. The work done on the body increases if either the force F or the
displacement Δx increases.

B. Directions: Solve the given problem. Show your solution.

1. You joined a “dogsled” race during your winter break. To start, you
pulled the sled (total mass of 85 kg) with a force of 195N at 45° above
the horizontal. Find the work done on the sled after it moves at a distance
of 7m.
REFERENCES
n.d. http://www.cbphysics.org/.
http://www.cbphysics.org/downloadsI/UnitVectors.pdf.

n.d. https://a1384-240719.cluster8.canvas-
usercontent.com/courses/1384~1159/files/1384~240719/course%20files/
apb 11o/resources/guides/G07-2.work_as_area.htm.
n.d. https://byjus.com/maths/pythagoras-theorem/.
n.d. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/power/.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. n.d. https://www.britannica.com/.

https://www.britannica.com/science/work-physics.

Ling, Samuel J., Jeff Sanny Loyola, and William Moebs. 2016. University Physics.
Vol. 1. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/details/books/university-
physicsvolume-1 in your citation.

n.d. Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, s.v. Accessed September 6, 2020.

https://www.merriam-

Paul Peter Urone, Roger Hinrichs. 2012. June 21.

https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/1-introduction-
toscience-and-the-realm-of-physics-physical-quantities-and-units.

Tipler, Paul A., and Gene Mosca. 2008. PHYSICS FOR SCIENCTISTS AND
ENGINEERS, with Modern Physics. 6th. New York: Susan Finnemore
Brennan.

Young, Hugh D., and Roger A. Freedman. 2012. Sears and Zemansky's
university physics : with modern physics. -- 13th ed. 13th. Edited by
Nancy Whilton. Jim Smith.

21