CIVAL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

UNIT 4 :
During the 1960’s there was a rang of movements around the world – aimed to achieve
human rights and equality for all – known as Civil rights Movements.
Civil rights – the personal, political, economic and social rights of the individual, upheld by
the law

CHAPTER 10: CASE STUDY : US CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

UNIT 1 :Reasons and origins of the civil rights movement in the USA
1.1 Reasons for the CRM (Civil Rights Movement)
After American civil war – 1861 – 1865 – Segregation/separation between white and black
or coloured Americans became an effective policy of the US – especially in the Southern
states which had been defeated in the war.
Policy was legalised by Jim Crow laws – policy of practice of segregating or discriminating
against black people in the South of the US.
This law discriminated against Black Americans by insisting that they use separate facilities
and services and live separately from whites. - The rights of the state to insist on this was
upheld by the Supreme Court in the Plessy vs Ferguson
Expressed as “separate but equal” – separate facilities included housing, schools, public
transport, public toilets, restaurants and drinking fountains. Separate facilities came to
mean inferior ones for black people.
Black Americans were denied certain civil rights :
- They lost their votes
- They were exploited economically – given only heavy manual labour or unskilled work
- Denied equal employment opportunities
- Poor pay and working conditions
They were sometimes violently attacked by groups like the Ku Klux Klan (KKK).
There were many lynchings (illegal killings) – documented killings of between fifty-nine in
1921 to six or fewer per year in the early 1940s
1909 – National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People(NAACP) founded to
promote black equality.
Used peaceful methods like :
- Legal challenges
- Education through speeches and writings
- Demonstrations
- Lobbying – trying to influence white politicians but without much success

Worl War II – (1939 – 1945) – major influence on many thousands of black servicemen:
- They experienced a larger world where segregation wasn’t the norm
- Many performed specialist roles – some as officers
- They came back to the US wanting to assert their rights and achieve equality for
themselves, their families and their children
1.2 Origins of the CRM
In 1954 – Supreme Court made decision in case of Brown vs the board of Education – struck
down the Plessy vs Ferguson ruling of 1896, declaring that separation of public services was
unconstitutional. Sperate did not mean equal. This meant that separate schools could no
longer be maintained.- ruling marked a new, intensified phase in the CRM as whites resisted
its implementation.
In 1955 – 14 year old clack boy from Chicago, Emmett Till was brutally murdered by two
white men for supposedly “making a pass” at a white woman. He was buried in his
hometown. His casket was left open so that everyone could see the terrible damage that
had been down to him. People from around the world were horrified by the racist murder
and brutality of his killing.
The 2 men were put on trial but were acquitted by an all white jury. in 1956 they admitted
to a journalist that they had committed the murders. According to American law – one
cannot be tried twice for the same offence.
Some see this case as the event that sparked off the activist CRM in the US.

Unit 2: the role, impact and influence of Martin Luther King Junior and the influence of
passive resistance (Gandhi) on Martin Luther King
2.1 The role, impact and influence of Martin Luther King Junior
Martin Luther King
- born 15 January 1929 – Atlanta, Georgia.
- Father was a minister at the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta.
- He followed his father into the ministry
- Studied at Morehouse College, Atlanta and Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester,
Pennyslyvania.
- Later got a doctorate from Boston University
- Became a pastor at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama in 1954
- King was asked to be spokesman for Montgomery Improvement Association(MIA)
when the Montgomery bus boycott started in December 1955
- He electrified his audience in his first speech with his powerful an effective use of
language.
- January 1956 – he was arrested and his home attacked with a stick of dynamite –
damaging the porch and shattering the living room window. Angry, armed black
crowd gathered and confronted white policemen.
- King responded by asking them to not panic, take their weapons home. The problem
cannot be solved with violence. They must meet violence with non-violence.
- It was these actions that led him to become not only a leader of the bus boycott in
Montgomery but also a symbol of resistance to segregation and injustice against
African American throughout the country.
- He displayed great courage, determination, calm, and had an eloquent and inspiring
way with words
- Became a constant inspiration to others to maintain their resistance to segregation
and unfair discrimination.
- February 1957 – Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) formed with King
as its leader
 - Mission – lead non-violent direct action against segregation and achieve full civil
rights for black Americans
- Non-violence became a commitment to a way of life – he was a firm believer in non-
violence.
Led SCLC for 11 years until his assassination in 1968

2.2 The influence of passive resistance (Gandhi) on Martin Luther King

He realised early that violence was not the way for black people to achieve their civil rights
They were a small minority – it was suicidal to take up arms against vast white majority
He adopted a philosophy of non-violence – he would not carry arms nor allow his drivers or
bodyguards to do so.
Studied writings of American philosopher, Reinhold Niebuhr – who argued that force was
needed to defeat injustice
However – King believed even passive resistance and civil disobedience involved the use of
a kind of force.
King believed Niebur’s thinking was too negative.
He believed in the power of love to transform society for the better
1959 – King visited Gandhi’s birth place in India.
Became a firm believer in the power of mass non-violence direct action that is passive
resistance and civil disobedience
Believed that if Black people were prepared to suffer and not strike back, they would
eventually get their oppressors to see the error of their ways and change – reconciliation
would be achieved through the power of love. Oppressors would have no reason to be
violent.
Believed in reconciliation with white people and ultimate integration with them in common
society.
What did mass non violent achieve ?
- Helped promote black unity and confidence
- Attracted much publicity for the cause and built up considerable pressure on the
federal courts to respond to legal issues raised by the protests.
- He was able to bring about significant political and social change in the US

Unit 3 : Forms of protest through civil disobedience : Montgomery bus boycott, sit-ins,
marches including to Lincoln memorial, Birmingham campaign and Selma-Montgomery
marches
3.1 Montgomery bus boycott, 1955 – 1956
Public transport was segregated – whites sat in front and blacks at the back. Black people
had to stand up from the middle seats for a white person if the us was full. Whites and
blacks were not allowed to sit next to each other in the same row.
1 Decembe 1955 – Rosa Parks – a black seamstress – refused to give up her seat for a white
man. She was arrested and charged.
A one day boycott was decided upon for the 5 December – it was successful – it was
decided to continue the boycott.
Boycott was organised by Martin Luther King – MIA
King and about a hundred leaders were charged in terms of an old anti-boycott law – this
just united the black people even more.
King spent 2 weeks in jail.
Boycott continued for 11 months – people either walking to work or using carpools which
MIA organised. Sometimes white women gave lifts to black women – often they needed
these black women a domestic workers and child-minders.
June 1956 – Alabama federal district court ruled the bus segregation unconstitutional and
therefore illegal.
November 1956 – US Supreme Court upheld Alabama decision - The boycotters won.
New city ordinance allowed black people to sit where they pleased on buses.
Boycott officially ended 20 December 1956 after 381 days.
Success of boycott launched martin Luther King as one of the CRM national leaders.
Freedom Rides of 1961 – blacks and whites ignored the segregation practices while they
travelled on inter-state bused – KKK attacked the riders violently (they would set fire to the
bused and prevent people from leaving)– police provided little or no protection.
September 1961 – Attorney general, Robert F Kennedy got the inter-state travel to be
officially desegregated.

3.2 Sit-ins, 1960

Many facilities like lunch counters were segregated. Blacks would be served take away but
not allowed to sit and eat.
Young black people staged first sit in – February 1960 – Woolworths in Greensboro, North
Carolina - Four black students sat down and refused to move until they were served, which
they were not. They stayed until closing time. Sit-in continued everyday with more students
joining and soon it spread to other stores and other towns across the South.
Nashville students were trained in non-violence and ignored insults and other bad
behaviour by white people.
After 2 weeks, the demonstrators were attacked by some whites and were arrested. They
were sentenced for a month in prison. The sit-in’s continued.
Nashville civil right activists launched boycott of white-owned downtown businesses –
spread to other cities and was well supported by black people.
Prominent black lawyer house was bombed – 4000 black people marched through the
town. Mayor, Ben West, was faced with public pressure and came out publicly support the
principle of desegregated facilities – lunch counters were soon desegregated.
Other protests at segregated facilities – read-ins at libraries, wade-ins at public pools, play-
ins at parks and kneel-ins at churches.

3.3 The march on Washington (Lincoln Memorial), August 1963

Time had come to pressure the federal government for change.
Martin Luther King and other CRM leaders Organised a massive march on Washington DC
28 August 1963 – 250 000 black and white people marched from Washington Monument to
the Lincoln Memorial to appeal for jobs, civil rights and equality for all.
Bob Dylan and Joan Baez and other singers sang at the march and Martin Luther King gave
his most famous speech – I have a dream.
3.4 Birmingham Campaign – 1963
Was a very racist and segregationist southern city. The commissioner for public safety, Bull
Connor, was prepared to use violence to keep segregation in place.
Martin Luther king and SCLC leaders lead civil disobedience campaign in the city.
Aimed at local white businesses – had sit-ins and marches – to desegregate facilities and
improve job opportunities for blacks.
Martin Luther King and hundreds were arrested and jailed. While in jail, he wrote his “letter
from Birmingham Jail” in response to a letter to the press signed by 8 respected white
ministers that criticised the demonstrations.

May 1963 – Children’s crusade – black students campaigned – hundreds were arrested.
Bull Conor turned police dogs and high-pressure hose on the demonstrators. This shocked
the world. Street fighting broke out between blacks and white and a wave of bombings on
black targets.

11 Jun e1963 – Presient John F Kennedy addresses nation proposing new Civil Rights Bill to
put to Congress aimed at ending segregation in southern schools, discrimination in job
opportunities and black disenfranchisement.

Birmingham success brought blacks onto the streets – 50 cities introduced desegregation
measures – CRM became a mass movement led by Martin luther King Jnr

3.5 freedom summer – 1964

Northern blacks and white travelled south to encourage blacks to register to vote.
Focussed in Mississippi – boycott of white-owned businesses in Jackson
June 1964 – Freedom Summer – by CORE(Congress of Racial Equality) – campaign of
Freedom schools and voters registration.
Centres were set up to teach black history. On 21 June, volunteers - 2 whites from the North
were shot and 1 black from the south was severely beaten and shot. They were buried
separately as Mississippi law segregated blacks and whites even in cemeteries.

3.6 Selma-Montgomery marches

Black people in Selma, Alabama, tried unsuccessfully to register as voters – prevented by
force.
They marched in February 1965 in neighbouring Marion – attacked by state troopers.
Jimmy Lee Jackson was shot at point blank range and died 8 days later while trying to
protect his mother.
They had a symbolic march in protest from Selma to Montgomery – nearly 90km away.
March was banned by the governor but 600 marchers still marched on 7 march 1965.
They were stopped on the bridge on the outskirts on Selma by state troopers - they were
beaten and charged down on horses. – scenes were shown across US – hundreds of people
showed sympathy towards the balcks.
2nd march planned – 9 march was banned by federal judge. More than 2000 people
marched on the same bridge where attacks had happened. They knelt and prayed when
confronted by the state troopers – led by Martin Luther King – and then was led back to
Selma.
One of the marchers, James Reed, was attacked that night and died 2 days later – caused
national outcry.
July 1964 – Civil rights act was signed into law by President Lyndon B Johnson – was illegal
to discriminate on basis on racial, ethnic, national, religious and gender identity.
15 March 1965 – President Johnson announced his intention to introduce a wide range
Voting Rights Bill – quoted a most famous CRM song which publicly identified him with its
cause.
16 March 1965 – federal judge proposed Selma-Montgomery march legal.
21 March 1965 – 25 000 marchers took 5 days to march from Selma to Montgomery –
including famous singer Joan Baez and Martin Luther King.
6 August 1965 – Voting Rights Act – signed by President Johnson – after passed by congress
– thousands of Black people across the South were now able to securely register as voters

Unit 4 : School Desegration - Little rock , Arkansas

In 1954 – case of Brown vs school board US supreme court ruled that schools and
universities facilities must be desegregated – many whites in the South resisted this.
September 1957 – 9 black students were enrolled at the all white Central High School in
Little Rock. The Governor prevented the students entry into the school using the national
Guard.
Day 1 – Elizabeth Eckford, was confronted by the angry white crowd who had gathered to
prevent the students from entering the school. A white women, Grace Lorch, helped her to
the bus stop and onto the bus so she could get home safely – cries of “hang her” had been
heard.
(She did not know that some ministers were arranged to get the students safely into the
school as she was not contacted as she had no telephone. She was not aware that the
governor has arranged the guard to keep them out. She took a bus to school and tried to
enter but the guards kept her out.)
The Governor had defied federal law by preventing the students from entering the school –
President Eisenhower sent state trooper to protect the students on their way to, from and
at the school.
One trooper assigned to one student. The students still subjected to verbal and physical
abuse – troopers could not enter toilets, changing rooms, cafeteria and classrooms.
Minniejean Brown – reacted to provocation by dropping her dish of chilli and spilling some
over 2 white boys who were interfering with her – she was suspended and later expelled.
May 1958 – Ernest Green – succeeded in becoming the first black student to graduate from
Central high School.
September 1958 – the Governor closed all Little Rocks schools to prevent desegregation -
wanted to make them private, segregated schools. He lost after a lengthy federal court case
in August 1959. Schools were reopened after a year.

Unit 5 : Short term and Long term gains

Read page 195
BLACK POWER MOVEMENT
UNIT 1 : REASONS FOR MOVEMENT

Black power movement grew as many were not happy with the achievements of the CRM.
While CRM gained achievement in Civil rights Act and Voting Rights Act, the economic
situation had not improved a lot for most African Americans.
Many blacks:
- lived in crowded ghettos under poor conditions
- Many were unemployed or paid low wages
- Lack of better job opportunities
- There was poverty and crime in ghettos
- Little to no protection from police – they were guilty of brutality at the expense of the
people living there
- Black people were subjected to a lot of discrimination and open racial abuse and
violence
Many people in the cities did not agree with the non-violence resistance and felt it was
not adequate. They began to look for more aggressive ways of resistance.
June 1966 – James Meredith went on a solitary march against Fear to protest against
racism – he was shot. Other students forn the Students Non-Vilioent Co-ordingatin
Committee (SNCC) led by Stokely Carmichael took up his march and were arrested. It
was upon Stokely’s release that he announced that he was arrested 27 time and was not
going to jail anymore. He said that they would stop saying Freedom as nothing happened
and from now on they would say Black Power. He popularised the saying

1.1 What was Black Power?

They believed in :
- Black self pride and self esteem – Black is Beautiful was a popular slogan
- Promotion of black interests
- Black self help
- Self confidence against racial oppression
- The fostering of a distinctive black culture
- Self sufficient black economy
It was not a formal organisation. Different followers had different emphises/ideas.
Malcolm X believed in black separation and self determination/independence rather than
integrating with whites. This was sometimes referred to as “black nationalism”

Unit 2 : Black Panther Party

Founded by Huey newton and Bobby Seale in Oaklands, California – 1966
Aim – protect black people from police brutality
Advantage : they took advantage of old California laws that allowed you to carry a loaded
gun in public as long as it was displayed and not pointed at anyone
They were revolutionary socialists – some of their 10 point programme demands were
reasonable but others were highly debatable/outrageous :
Point 3 – compensations for slavery
Point 6 – black men to be exempt from military service – They believed that they should not
be forced to fight in a military that did not protect them
Point 7 – black people must form armed groups for self-defence against police brutality and
oppression.
Point 8 – release of all imprisoned black – because they did not receive a fair and neutral
trial.

Black Panthers were originally willing to accept help from white allies but this changed from
1966 after Stokely Carmichael became the Honrary Prime Minister of the movement –
adopted black nationalism and used sharply anti-white rhetoric.
After his removal in 1967 – party moved towards a revolutionary internationalist movement
with strong socialist leanings.
BBP was involved in a arrange of criminal activities- drug dealing, prostitution, extortion –
forcing money out of people in order to raise funds, involved in violent confrontations with
the police – about 50 people died both police and panthers and many were injured.
Huey Newton was convicted of murdering a policeman in 1967 – served 3 years in prison
before conviction was set aside on appeal. Years later he boasted of the killings.

BPP – also operated survival programmes. They provided services to poor black
communities like :
- Free medical clinics
- Lessons on self-defence
- First aid
- Drug and alcohol rehabilitation
- Classes on politics and economics
- Free breakfast for Children Programme – this became famous

There was a split in BBP – reformist and revolutionary wings were formed
Internal disputes and rising legal costs caused BPP to fall apart.
By 1980 – there were only 27 members left
At the height of the party – they came under the unwanted attention of the FBI for “self
defense”. J Edgar Hoover once called them “ the greatest threat to the internal security of
the country”
BBP uniform – light blue shirts, black pants, black leather jackets, black beret and dark
sunglasses, with a loaded firearm publicly displayed.

Unit 3 : Roles of Stokely Carmichael and Malcolm X

3.1 Stokely Carmichael
Born in Trinidad in 1941
11 years – emigrated to Harlem, New York City to join his parents
1961 – took part in Freedom rides and spent 49 days n jail in Mississippi
1996 – he became chairman of SNCC – directed the group in the Black Power direction and
had whites excluded in 1967
Believed whites, including those fromt eh North, were the heart of the problem
Believed non-violence was a strategy rather than a principle – meaning that it could be
abandoned if it did not work and in his opinion it was not working.
1967 – he was expelled from SNCC for not consulting with the members before making
policy pronouncements.
He joined Black Panther after leaving – became Honorary Prime Minister
When Martin Luther King Jnr was assassinated – he said that “Black people know they have
to get guns”
He came under survailience of the FBI
Edgar Hoover described him as a saviour among black leaders who could unify and electrify
the black nationalist movement AND a real threat to the internal security of the US
1969 – he went to live in Guinea in West Africa and changed his name to Kwame Ture –
became a socialist Pan-Africanist – believed in uniting all Africans
He rejected the Black Panthers for willing to work with the whites
Died 1998 in Guinea – age 57 – prostate cancer – believed FBI responsible for his illness
He will always be associated for his public call and commitment to Black Power

3.2 Malcolm X
Born Malcolm Little – Omaha, Nebraska – 1925
6yrs – father killed by a streetcar(tram)
1 of his uncles was lynched by whites
13yrs old – mother sent to asylum for nervous breakdown
He and his 6 siblings were sent to different foster homes
18yrs – mo
ved to Harlem – became involved in a series of criminal activities.
1946 – was arrested, charged and found guilty of theft – imprisoned for 8-10 years
He read a lot in prison and his family members introduced him to the Nation of Islam, a sect
led by Elijah Muhammed.
1952 – was released from prison – joined the nation of Islam and became one of its
ministers – proved successful in spreading message and gaining new recruits
He was a gifted public speaker (orator)
Islam nation believed blacks were superior to whites and whites were devils
Believed blacks must separate from whites completely and form their own state in the US
until they could return to Africa
He believed blacks should use whatever means necessary in defence against whites and
their fight for freedom and equality.
November 1963 - In his speech – “Message to the Grassroots” - he committed himself to
clack nationalism and black revolution / negro revolution. He criticised CRM and
He believed in negro revolution and not peaceful revolution – he did not agree with Martin
Luther Kings approach of non-violence
March 1964 – he broke off with the nation of Islam – other leaders were jealous of his
success and Malcolm was critical of Elijah Muhammads affairs with the young secretaries of
the movement.
He became a Sunni(orthodox Muslim) and went n Hajj. – had a profound effect on his
attitude towards race and colour. He slept, prayed, ate with white Muslims there that
changed his attitude – he felt that whites could change if they accepted the Oneness of
God. He toned down his powerful language directed at the CRM and whites when he went
back to the US
He faced threats from the Nation of Islam
– house burned down
- a week later he was shot to death while addressing a gathering - 3 men from the
nation of islam were convicted for his murder
His legacy :
- raising self-confidence and self-esteem of black people
- encouraging them to stand up to white authorities and persecutors in pursuit of
freedom, justice and equality “by whatever means necessary”

read page 208 – unit 4 – short term and long term gains
read age 210 – chapter 12 - conclusion