1

Define hard water. How can you remove hardness of

water by permutit process.
Water containing dissolve salt ions like SO4^--, CL^--,
HCO3^-- of calcium (Ca++) and magnesium (Mg++) which
doesn't produce enough lather easily with soap is called hard
water

How to remove hardness of water by permutit process :

This is the modern for removing temporary as well as

permanent hardness of water. Permutit is trade name of
artificially prepares sodium zeolite ie (Na2 Al2 Si2 xH2) . It
simply denoted by NaZ where Z stand for zeolite.

When hard water is pass through sodium zeolite, the calcium

and magnesium ion are exchanged by sodium ion water
becomes soft.

Na2 Z + CaCl 2 —------> CaZ + 2NaCl (aq)

Na2 Z + CaSO4 —-------> CaZ + Na2SO4 (aq)

Na2 Z + Ca(HCO3)2 —------->CaZ + 2NaHCO3 (aq)

Cont……..
 2
The calcium and magnesium zeolite are insoluble in water,
they are ppt which means it they can be filter out and water
becomes soft when all the zeolite is converted into calcium or
magnesium zeolite then no other reaction take place.

In this process sodium ions are generated by adding 10% of

NaCl solution to continue the reaction.

CaZ + 2NaCl —-----> Na2Z + CaCl2

MgZ + 2NaCl —----> Na2Z + MgCl2
 3
Chemical property of Benzene :

● Nitration − Nitration involves the reaction when

benzene is reacted with nitric acid in the presence
of sulphuric acid. The temperature then remains at
55°C and it results in the formation of
nitrobenzene.

● Sulphonation − In sulfonation reactions, benzene

interacts using fuming sulfuric acid to generate
benzene sulfonic acid

● Halogenation − When benzene interacts with

halide within the existence of Lewis acid, aryl
halide is formed. This would be referred to as
halogenation.

Cont….
 4
● Friedel Crafts Acylation reaction − The synthesis
of acyl benzene occurs through the interaction of
benzene and an acyl halide within the context of
Lewis acid. It is referred to as Friedel craft's
acylation reaction.

Physical properties of Benzene

● It is a colourless hydrocarbon that has a liquid
physical nature.
● It has a melting point of 5.5 ∘C as well as a boiling
point of 80.1 ∘C.
● It is water-insoluble while soluble in polar
solutions.
● It does have a sweet smell.
● It has a density of 0.87 g/cm3 or even is lighter
than water.
● It possesses resonance.
● It is a combustible as well as releases sooty flames
when burned.
 5
Why alloys are prepared? Give the reasons.

● To resist Chemical reaction : Alloys differ in their

chemical reactions as compared to pure metals. For
example, iron corrodes in moist air but stainless steel,
which is an alloy of iron and carbon, does not corrode at
all.

● To improve Strength : Alloys have better tensile

strength as compared to pure metals. For example,
duralumin, which is an alloy of aluminium, is very strong
as compared to aluminium.

● To improve Hardness : Alloys have better hardness as

compared to pure metals. For example, carboloy, which
is an alloy of tungsten, copper and cobalt, is very hard
(like diamond) as compared to its constituent metals.

● To improve Colour : Alloys have better appearance and

colour than their constituent metals. For example,
aluminium bronze an alloy of aluminium and copper has
an appearance that resembles gold metal.

● To improve Melting point : Alloys have different

melting points than pure metals. For example, solder an
alloy of lead and tin has a melting point (180oC) which
is lower than the melting point of either metal (Pb -
327.5oC and Sn - 232oC).
 6
Properties of Ammonia

Physical properties

● It is a colourless and pungent smelling gas.

● It is lighter than air.
● It is easily liquefiable gas. It can also be solidified.
Melting point of solid ammonia is -780C and boiling
point of liquid ammonia is -33.40C.
● It is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion.
● It is highly soluble in water as it forms intermolecular
hydrogen bond with water.

Chemical properties of Ammonia

● Basic Properties: Ammonia acts as a weak base in water

solution.

NH3 (g) + H2O (l) → NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

This reaction produces ammonium (NH4+) and hydroxide

(OH-) ions, giving the solution a mildly alkaline character.

● Neutralization: Ammonia can react with acids to form

ammonium salts.

For example, with hydrochloric acid (HCl):

NH3 (g) + HCl (aq) → NH4Cl (aq) (ammonium chloride)

 7
What do you mean by chemical fertilizer? Explain
its type and characteristics of fertilizers.
Chemical fertilizer is a type of fertilizer that is produced by
synthetic chemical processes. It is made up of inorganic
minerals and compounds that are readily soluble in water,
making them easily available to plants.Chemical fertilizers
can be classified into three main types:

Nitrogen fertilizers: Nitrogen fertilizers are a type of

chemical fertilizer which provides the salts of nitrogen for the
proper development and growth of plants. The following
nitrogenous compounds are used as nitrogen fertilizer.

● Urea :
● Ammonium sulphate: (NH4)2 SO4
● Ammonium Nitrate: NH4 NO3
● Calcium Ammonium Nitrate: Ca(NO3)2 NH4 NO3

Phosphorus Fertilizers : Phosphorus fertilizer contains

phosphorus as the main constitution. It is important for the
strong growth of plants. It also associated with complex
energy transformation in plants The following salts are used
for phosphorus fertilizers. It is whitish gray crystalline solid
which is soluble in water.

● Ca H4 (PO)2—----> Mono calcium tetrahydrogen

● COH2 (PO)4—----> Double super phospate
● Ca (H2PO4)2—----> Triple sulphate phospate
Cont…..
 8
Bone ASH : It also consist of Calcium phosphate Ca PO4

Potassium fertilizers: Fertilizer containing potassium as

main constitution is called potassium fertilizer. The following
compounds are used as potassium fertilizer

● KCl —-------> potassium chloride

● K2SO4 —---> potassium sulphate
● KNO3 —----> potassium Nitrate

Functions

● Proper growth of root and stalks of leaves

● Development of flowers
● Resist disease
 9
Characteristics of chemical fertilisers

● Nutrient Content: They provide essential nutrients like

nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), often in
specific ratios indicated on the packaging.

● Solubility: These fertilizers are usually water-soluble,

allowing for quick absorption by plants.

● Cost: They are generally more cost-effective compared

to organic fertilizers, especially for large-scale
agriculture

● Fast Acting: The nutrients in chemical fertilizers are

readily available, leading to rapid plant response and
growth.

Saturated hydrocarbon
Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single covalent bonds
between carbon atoms. They are also called alkanes. Alkanes
have the general formula CnH2n+2, where n is the number of
carbon atoms in the molecule. Examples of saturated
hydrocarbons include methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6),
propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10).
 10

Unsaturated hydrocarbon
Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain at least one carbon-carbon
double or triple bond. They are further divided into alkenes
and alkynes. Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n, and
alkynes have the general formula CnH2n-2. Examples of
unsaturated hydrocarbons include ethylene (C2H4), propylene
(C3H6), and acetylene (C2H2).

Properties and uses of lead

Physical properties
● Lead is a soft bluish-white metal. It is ductile, extremely
malleable, and soft.
● It tarnishes when exposed to moist air and gives a dull
appearance.
● Lead is relatively soft making it easy to cut or shape.
● It is an exceptionally corrosion-resistant metal but
conducts electricity poorly.
 11

Chemical properties

● Reaction with Oxygen

Lead reacts with oxygen to form lead(II) oxide (PbO)
when heated in air.

2Pb + O2 →2Pb +O 2
In the presence of excess oxygen, lead can further
oxidize to lead(IV) oxide (PbO₂).

PbO + O2 → PbO2

● Reaction with Acids

Lead reacts with dilute acids to form lead salts and
hydrogen gas.

With Hydrochloric Acid (HCl):

Pb + 2HCl → PbCl2 + H2

With Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄):

Pb + H2SO4 → PbSO4 + H2

● Reaction with Halogens

Lead reacts with halogens to form lead halides. For
example, with chlorine, lead forms lead(II) chloride.

Pb + Cl2 → PbCl2
 12
Explain oxide of nitrogen NOX and sulphur SO2 & SO3
act as pollutant.

NOX as air pollutant

NOX ie oxides of nitrogen includes N2O, NO, NO2, N2O4 &
N2O5 which are most harmful air pollutants, such pollutants
are emitted from nitric acid industry, ammonia industry, iron
and steel industry and also from combustion of fuels.
Generally nitrogen gas is combined with O2 and form NO
N2 + O2 —-----> 2NO
It again combine with O2 and give NO2
2NO + O2 —------> 2NO2
When NO2 emitted into atmosphere it combines with H2O
and HNO3 is formed
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O —-------> 4HNO3
Again NO2 may decomposed into NO and nascent oxygen by
ultraviolet ray and this nascent oxygen destroys the ozone
layer Ultraviolet ray
NO2—-----------------------> NO + O
O + O3 —-------------------------> 2O2

Oxide of Sulphate as air pollutant

SO2 & SO3 ie oxides of sulphur are acidic oxide and these
oxide are harmful pollutants . The SO2 and SO3 are generally
release due to combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuels.
These are also produces from thermal plant and automobiles .
The SO2 and SO3 produces acid like H2SO3 & H2SO4 which
causes acid rain. These acid causes diseases of throat eye and
laungs
 13
Carbon monoxide (CO) as pollutant
Carbon monoxide is very harmful and poisonous gas. Carbon
dioxide mainly emitted due to incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels. It mainly produces by old vehicles when
concentration of monoxide is above 100 PPM. It shows
harmful effect to human body causing nausea, headache and
giddiness.

When carbon monoxide is inhaled it goes into the laungs and

combines with blood and it form carboxy hemoglobin which
is stable complex, due to formation of carboxy hemoglobin
blood cannot carry oxygen and there will be lack of oxygen in
the body and gradually body cells dies and ultimately it cause
death.
 14
How can you prepare H2S gas in a laboratory
In laboratory H2S gas can be prepared by the action of dil
H2SO4 and ferrous sulphide
FeS + dil H2SO4 —-----> H2S (up) + FeSO4
In the place for of dil H2SO4 we cannot use conc. H2SO4
because it is strong oxidizing agent which oxidizes H2S gas
into sulphur
Conc. H2SO4 ---------> SO2 + H2O + O
H2S + O -----------> H2S + S
---------------------------------------------------
H2S + H2SO4 -------------> SO2 + 2H2O + S

During the preparation of H2S at first we put some sticks of

FeS on woulfes bottle and we fit thistle funnel and delivery
tube. Dil H2SO4 is poured from thistle funnel until it cover
the FeS sticks . After some minutes H2S gas is produced
which collected in gas jar by upward displacement of air.
 15
Analytical use of H2S gas :
H2S gas is very important laboratory reagent which is
used for qualitative analysis of metal cation. It is used
for separation of group II & III B. These metals ion
gives ppt in the form of metal sulphide in different
medium. Group II metal ion gives ppt in acidic medium
and group III B metals ion gives ppt in alkaline
medium.

Uses of H2S gas

● It is used in analytical chemistry for the detection
of cations.
● Hydrogen sulphide is used to prepare metallic
sulphides, many of which are utilised in the paint
industry.
● It is used to separate deuterium oxide, or heavy
water, from normal water via the Girdler sulfide
process.
● In the medical field, cell exposure to small amounts
of hydrogen sulfide gas has been shown to prevent
mitochondrial damage.
 16
Harmful effects of NOX (oxide of nitrogen)

● It cause photochemical smog which cause less

visibility of sky
● It cause irritation on eyes, nose and throat
● It cause problemis laungs including laung cancer.
● It cause corrosive action on metal ceramics and
other structures.

Harmful effects of oxides of sulphur (SO2 & SO3)

● SO2 & SO3 produces acid like H2SO3 and H2SO4

which cause acid rain
● These pollutant cause disease of throat, laung and
eyes
● SO2 is allergic agent
● It cause chlorosis i.e loss of chlorophyll by which
leaves becomes yellow.
 17
what are the oxidising and dehydrating properties of
Sulphuric acid H2SO4

Dehydrating properties of H2SO4

● Oxalic acid is react in the presence of conc. H2SO4 then

carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide is formed

COOH conc. H2SO4

—-----------------------------> CO2 + CO + H2O
COOH

● Formic acid is react in the presence of conc.H2SO4 then

carbon monoxide is formed.
conc. H2SO4
HCOOH —----------------------------> CO + H2O
( formic acid)

Oxydizing properties of H2SO4

● Metal are oxidised to their oxides which then form

sulphite
H2SO2 —--> H2O + SO2 + [O]
Cu —-----> [O] —-----> CuO
CuO + H2SO2 —----->CuSO4 + H2O
—----------------------------------------------------------
Cu + 2H2SO4 —--> CUSO4 + 2H2O +SO2
Cont….
 18
Similarly, some metals like iron, zinc etc react with dilute acid
to liberate hydrogen, hence oxidised.

Fe + H2SO4 —--------> FeSO4 + H2

Zn + H2SO4 —---------> ZnSO4 + H2
 19
What do you mean by allotropic of carbon? Explain
the structure of diamond.
The two or more form of the carbon having Same chemical
properties but different physical properties are called
allotropes of carbon

Structure of diamond

It is a crystalline allotropes of carbon in which each carbon

atom is combined with other four carbon atoms tetrahedrally
having an angle of 109.28° and bond angle of 1.54 A.

As there is strong covalent bond, it is considered as hardiest

substance. It is considered to be the purest form of carbon. As
there is no free electrons available, it is bad conductor of heat
and electricity.
 20
Structure of Graphite:

In graphite each carbon atom is bonded with other three

carbon atoms by a covalent bond forming an angle of 120°
having bond length of 1.42A. The slippery and soft nature of
graphite is due to the presence of weak Vander wall force of
attraction which is acting between the different layer of
carbon hexagonally. There is a presence of one electron from
each carbon atom and which are free to move , which makes it
good conductor of heat and electricity
 21
What do you mean by alloys ? Differentiate between metal
and non metal.
Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals, or of a metal and a
non-metal. Alloys are often stronger, harder, and more
resistant to corrosion than pure metals. They can also have
other desirable properties, such as a lower melting point or a
higher electrical conductivity.

Base Metal Non metal

State All metals are found in Non metals are found in
solid except Hg(l) solid, liquid and gas
Hardness They are hard in nature They are soft in nature
but Ci, Na, K are soft except diamond
Ductility (Ability to form wire) They are not ductile
Metals are ductile
Mellable (Ability to form sheet) They are not malleable
Metals are mellable
Conductiv They are good They are bad conductor
ity conductor of heat and of electricity
electricity
Alloy Metals can form alloy They cannot form alloy
formation except C, S, P, Si
Solubility Metals are insoluble in They are soluble in
any solvent except by some solutions without
chemical reaction chemical reaction.
 22
Uses of Benzene

1. Production of plastics and synthetic fibers: Benzene is

a key starting material for creating various plastics and
synthetic fibers, such as nylon and polyester.

2. Manufacture of detergents, rubber, and dyes: Benzene

is used in the production of detergents, rubber products,
and a variety of dyes used in textiles, paints, and other
industries.

3. Solvent: Due to its ability to dissolve many substances,

benzene was historically used as a solvent in paints,
adhesives, and other products.

4. Intermediate in chemical production: Benzene is an

essential intermediate in the production of many other
chemicals, including pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and
explosives.
 23
Write the bleaching properties of chlorine.

Reaction with water: When chlorine gas is dissolved in

water, it reacts to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
hypochlorous acid (HOCl).
Cl₂ + H₂O → HCl + HOCl

Formation of nascent oxygen: Hypochlorous acid is unstable

and readily decomposes to form nascent oxygen ([O]). This is
a highly reactive form of oxygen.
HOCl → HCl + [O]

Oxidation of colored matter: Nascent oxygen is a strong

oxidizing agent. It oxidizes the colored matter present in
substances, converting them into colorless compounds.
Colored matter + [O] → Colorless matter

Functional group
Functional group is an atom or radical which determines the
characteristics of homologous series as well as that of
homologous.Each class of the compounds possess a similar
chemical properties which is because of the presence of
particular group of atoms like -COOH , -CHO etc.
 24
Bleaching action
The process of removal of colour from coloured matter is
called bleaching. In the presence of moisture, chlorine
bleaches vegetable colouring matter by oxidation them into
colourless matter.
oxidation
Cl2 + H2O —----------------------------->2HCL + [O]
vegetable colouring oxidised
colourless
[matter] [matter]

Aqua - regia
A mixture containing one part of conc. HNO3 and three part
of conc. HCL is called aqua regia [kingly water] . It is able to
dissolve nobel metal like gold, platinum, etc because nascent
chlorine is generated

HNO3 + 3HCL —-----> NOCL + 2H2O + 2 [C]

Au + 3 [Cl] —---------> AuCl3
Pt + 4 [Cl] —----------> PtCl4
 25
Explain the chemical properties of sodium. What are the
uses of aluminium.

Chemical property of Sodium

1. Reactivity with water : Sodium vigorously reacts with

water to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)-------->2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

2. Reactivity with oxygen : Sodium reacts with oxygen to

form sodium oxide (Na2O)

4Na(s) + O2(g) —------> 2Na2O(s)

3. Reactivity with halogens : Sodium reacts vigorously

with halogens ( fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine) to
form sodium halides.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) —-------> 2NaCl (s)

4. Reactivity with acids : Sodium reacts with acids to

produce hydrogen gas and the corresponding to sodium
salt.

2Na(s) + 2HCl (aq) —---------> 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)

 26
What do you mean by hard water? How can you remove
hardness of water? Explain any two types
Water containing dissolve salt iron like SO4 -, CL-, HCO3 of
calcium (Ca ++) and magnesium (Mg ++) which doesn't
produce enough lather easily with soap is called hard water .

It can be removed by following process :

1. By application of heat
The hardness of water is eliminated by heating the water
sample due to which the soluble bicarbonate of calcium
and magnesium change into respective insoluble calcium
and magnesium carbonate

Mg(HCO3)2 —---∆—--> MgCO3(down) + CO2 + H2O

Ca(HCO3)2 —--∆—--> CaCO3 (down) + CO2 + H2O

2. By reacting with calcium hydroxide

In this process the hard water is treated with lime water
due to which soluble bicarbonate change into insoluble
carbohydrates.

Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO)3 —-----> CaCO3(down) + H2O

Ca(OH)2 + Mg(HCO)3 —------> MgCO3(down) + H2O

 27
How to prepare metallic sulphate
Metal sulfates can be prepared by the reaction of a metal,
metal oxide, or metal hydroxide with sulfuric acid. The
general procedure is as follows:

Dissolve the metal, metal oxide, or metal hydroxide in dilute

sulfuric acid. Common examples include:
- Iron + H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2
- CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O
- Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + 2H2O

The specific conditions, such as temperature, concentration of

reactants, and reaction time, can be adjusted to optimize the
yield and purity of the desired metal sulfate. The metal sulfate
produced can then be used for various applications, such as in
fertilizers, water treatment, pigments, and other chemical
processes.
 28
Chemical property of copper

● Action of chlorine : Chlorine attacks copper forming

cupric chlorine
Cu + Cl2 —---------> CuCl2
● Displacement reaction : Copper displaced less electro
positive metal like Ag , Pt , Au from their water soluble
salt
Cu + 2AgNo3 —-------> 2Ag + Cu (No3)2

● Action of water : water at ordinary temperature has no

reaction on copper but high temperature reaction takes
place
Cu + H2O —---------> CuO + H2
(steam)

Physical properties of copper

● High electrical conductivity

● High ductility
● Good heat conductivity
● Corrosion resistance
● Antimicrobial properties/biofouling resistance
● Non-magnetic
 29
Chemical Properties of methane

● Combustion of methane : Methane burns in air (O2) to

produce carbon dioxide and water vapour with liberation
of heat energy. ∆
CH4 + 2O2 —-----> CO2 + 2H2O + energy

● Pyrolysis : The decomposition of compound by the

action of heat in the absence of air is called pyrolysis.
The pyrolysis of alkenes is known as cracking for eg
500°C
CH3 CH2 CH3 —-------> CH2 = CHCH3 + H2
500°C
CH3 CH2 CH3 —--------> CH2 = CH2 + CH4

● Action of CH4 with steam : When a mixture of methane

gas and steam is passed over heated nickel at about
800°C a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is
obtained.
800°C
CH4 + H2O —------->CO + 3H2
Ni

● Nitration : This involves the replacement of hydrogen

atom of an alkane with NO2 group. At room temperature
alkane do not reach with nitric acid.
450° - 500°C
CH4 + HNO3 —----------> CH3 NO2 + H2O
 30
Physical properties of Methane

● It is colourless and odourless.

● It is a flammable gas, and it has no taste.
● Its boiling point is 111.6 K, and its melting point is
90.694 K.\( CH_4 \) is a very stable chemical compound.
● Mixtures of 5 to 10% methane in the air are explosive.
● It is insoluble or slightly soluble in water and completely
soluble in ethanol, ethyl ether, benzene, toluene,
methanol, diethyl ether, etc.
● It is a non-poisonous gas. It has a tetrahedral molecular
geometry, and the molecule is symmetrical.
 31
What do you mean by homogeneous series? Explain its
characteristics
A series obtained by placing the member of organic
compounds of same same functional group from lower to
higher is called homogeneous series and this phenomenon is
known as homology for example:
methanol : CH 3 -OH
Ethanol : CH 3 - CH 2 - OH
Propanol : CH 3 - CH 2 - CH 2 - OH
Butanol : CH 3 - CH 2 - CH2 -CH 2 - OH
Pentanol : CH 3 - CH 2 - CH 2 - CH 2 - CH 2 - OH

Characteristics of homologous series

● All the members of homologous series contain the same

functional group
● The subsequent member of homologous series is
different by -CH2 unit.
● Melting and boiling point in homologous series increase
gradually from lower to higher member .
● The member of homologous series has almost similar
chemical properties.
● The first member of homologous series is somewhat
different from other members in chemical properties.
 32
How can you prepare chlorine gas by applying heat in the
laboratory?
Chlorine is prepared in the laboratory by chemical oxidation
of the respective halide or hydrogen chloride acid by using
strong oxidising agent like MnO2.

MnO2 + 2HCL —----> MnCl + H2O + [O]

2HCL + O —-----> Cl2 + H2O
—-------------------------------------------------------
MnO2 + 4HCL —------> MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl
(S) (aq) (aq) ( l ) ( g)

For the preparation of CL2 gas by this process apparatus are

fitted as shown in above diagram. At first MnO2 is kept in
conical flask and the conc.HCL is added from dropping
funnel. By the reaction in the presence of heat CL2 gas
produced which is connected in gass jar passing through water
and conc.H2SO4. The reaction occurs as :
MnO2 + 4HCL —-----> MnCL2 + 2H2O + CL2
The water and conc.H2SO4 absorbs the impurities from CL2.
 33
What are the properties of calcium? Mention the uses of
zinc.

Properties of Calcium ( Ca )

Chemical properties

● Reaction with water : Calcium reacts with cold water

quite readily liberating hydrogen and forming hydroxide.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) —-----> Ca(OH) + H2 (g)
(aq)
● Reaction with Oxygen : Calcium react with oxygen to
form calcium oxide
2Ca(s) + O2 (g) —--------> 2CaO (s)

● Reaction with Nitrogen : Calcium reacts with Nitrogen

at high temperature to form calcium nitrate
3Ca (s) + N2 (g) —---------> Ca2N2(s)

● Reaction with hydrogen : Calcium combined with

hydrogen to form calcium hydrite
Ca(s) + H2(g) —---------> CaH2(s)

● Reaction with halogens: Calcium reacts with F2 , Cl2 ,

Br and I2 to form CaF2, CaCl2, CaBr2 and Cal2
respectively.
Ca(s) + H2(g) —----------> CaH2(S)

…….
 34

Physical properties of calcium

● It has silvery - white metallic colour

● It is solid at room temperature
● It can be shaped or hammered into thin sheets
● It is relatively soft metal
● It has crystalline cubic structure
 35

What is meant by nitrogen fixation? Describe the nitrogen

cycle with flow sheet diagram.

Conversion of free Atmospheric nitrogen into biologically

acceptable form or nitrogenous is known as nitrogen fixation.

The series of complex reaction by which nitrogen is slowly

but continuously recycled in the atmosphere is called nitrogen
cycle. It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation,
nitrification, denitrification, decay and putrefaction.

Nitrogen gas exists in both organic and inorganic forms.

Organic nitrogen exists in living organisms, and they get
passed through the food chain by the consumption of other
living organisms
Cont…
 36
Atmosphere is the resovoir of free nitrogen. The conversion of
atmospheric nitrogen into useful nitrogenous compound is
known as fixation of nitrogen which occurs by:

lightening Discharge :
When the nitrogen and oxygen molecule collide in the
atmosphere in the presence of lightening bolt , molecule NO
is formed which reacts with O2 and water to form HNO3

N2 + O2 —----------------------> 2NO + heat

2NO + O2 -----------------------> 2NO2
4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 —-----------> 4HNO3

By symbiotic Bacteria :
The class of plants called leguments has molecule in their root
within which there live some bacteria that absorbe nitrogen
molecule directly from the air and convert them into NH3
 37
What are the general Characteristics of coinage metal?
What do you mean by plumbosolvency.

Characteristics of coinage metals:

● They occurs in native as well as in combined state

● They are hard malleable, ductile and possess high
melting points
● They are good conductor of heat and electricity
● They have tendency to form complex salts as tetra amine
copper sulphate [Cu(NH3)4] SO4 etc
● General electronic configuration of these metal is (n-1)
d^10 n^-1

Plumbosolvency :
The process in which lead undergoes reaction with water
containing oxygen to from sparingly soluble (polumbus
hydroxide) and this solvent action of water on lead is called
plumbosloveny. For example:

2Pb + O2 + H20 -----------> 2Pb (OH)2

( Plumbous hydroxide)
 38
What do you mean by saturated hydrocarbon? Explain
the properties of methane.

Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that contain only

single bonds between carbon atoms. They are the simplest and
least reactive type of hydrocarbon. The general formula for
saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2, where n is the number of
carbon atoms in the molecule.

Properties of methane:

i) Combustion of methane : Methane burns in air (O2) to

produce carbon dioxide and water vapour with liberation of
heat energy. ∆
CH4 + 2O2 —-----> CO2 + 2H2O + energy

ii) Pyrolysis : The decomposition of compound by the action

of heat in the absence of air is called pyrolysis. The pyrolysis
of alkenes is known as cracking for eg
500°C
CH3 CH2 CH3 —-------> CH2 = CHCH3 + H2
500°C
CH3 CH2 CH3 —--------> CH2 = CH2 + CH4

iii) Action of CH4 with steam : When a mixture of methane

gas and steam is passed over heated nickel at about 800°C a
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is obtained.
800°C
CH4 + H2O —------->CO + 3H2 Ni Cont….
 39
iv) Nitration : This involves the replacement of hydrogen
atom of an alkane with NO2 group. At room temperature
alkane do not reach with nitric acid.
450° - 500°C
CH4 + HNO3 —------------------> CH3 NO2 + H2O

How does vital force theory decline? What do you mean

by homologous series? Explain its characterises.

Wholer, a German chemist made an accidental discovery of

urea (organic compounds) decomposing ammonium chloride
and potassium cyanate. Which proves that vital force was not
required to prepare organic compounds .

NH4 CL + KCNO —-----∆—----> NH4CHO + KCL

NH4 CNO —rearrengement—-> NH2 CONH2 (urea)
 40
Homologous series:
A series obtained by placing the member of organic
compound of same functional group from lower to higher is
called homologous series

Characteristics of homologous series

● All the members of homologous series contain the same

functional group
● The subsequent member of homologous series is
different by -CH2 unit.
● Melting and boiling point in homologous series increase
gradually from lower to higher member .
● The member of homologous series has almost similar
chemical properties.
● The first member of homologous series is somewhat
different from other members in chemical properties.
 41
Difference between Aromatic and Aliphatic compound

Aromatic Compound Aliphatic Compound

They are highly unsaturated In alipatic compound in
compound but addition alkenes and alkyene addition
reaction does not occurs reaction occurs easily
easily
They contain high % of They contain low % of
carbon than in alipatic carbon than automatic
compound compound
They buns with shooty flame They burn with non shooty
or smooky flame flame or smoke less flame
They have planner in Mostly they have non
structure planner in structure
Hydroxy compound are Hydroxy compound are
called phenol called alcohol
They undergo nitration, Nitration, sulphonation does
sulphonation easily not occurs easily
 42
What do you mean by markonikov's rule and peroxide
effect? Explain with examples.
 43
Polythene
Polythene is the simplest and most commonly used
hydrocarbon thermoplastic and has following structure.

-[CH2 - CH2]- n
where 𝑛 represents the number of repeating units in the
polymer chain.The IUPAC name of polyethylene is polythene.
Polythene is for two kindly namely

1. Low density polythene (LDP)

Low density polythene is
obtained by polymerization of ethylene under high
temperature (350 - 570K ) and pressure (1000-2000
atmosphere) in the presence of traces of O2 or peroxide
as initiator.
Traces of O2

CH2 = CH2 —---------------------------- > LDP

Peroxide at 350-370k

2. High density Polythene (HDP)

High density Polythene is
obtained by polymerization of ethene under low pressure ( 6 -
7 atm ) and temperature (333K - 343K ) in the presence of
Ziegler natta catalyst.

CH2 = CH2 —-------------------------------> (HDP)

Ziegler natta at 6 - 7 atm
and temperature (333K - 443 K )
 44
What do you mean by Amalagam ? Why alloys are
prepared and also explain the types of alloys.
Homogeneous mixture of metal with mercury is called
Amalagam. ie : alloy with mercury
For example
● Sodium Amalagam : Na + Hg
● Potassium Amalagam : K + Hg
● Zinc Amalagam : Zn + Hg

Alloys are prepared because they have some superior

properties than its components.

Explain types of Alloys

I) Ferrous alloy : The alloy which contains iron as one of the

constitution is called ferrous alloy . For example: steel &
stainless steel.

II) Non ferrous alloy: The alloy which does not contain iron
as one of the it's constitution called non ferrous alloy for
example: brass and bronze.
 45
Properties and uses of iron

Physical properties
● Silvery-gray color with a luster
● Malleable: Can be hammered into thin sheets without
breaking.
● Ductile: Can be drawn into thin wires.
● Relatively soft and strong
● Good conductor of heat and electricity
● Magnetic: Attracted to magnets (ferromagnetic) at room
temperature. Loses magnetism at high temperatures
(Curie point).

Chemical property of Iron

● Reaction with Oxygen

When iron reacts with oxygen in the air, it forms iron
oxides. This is commonly observed as rusting when iron
is exposed to moisture and air.

4𝐹𝑒 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝐹𝑒2𝑂3

This reaction forms iron(III) oxide, which is commonly
known as rust.
 46
● Reaction with Water (Steam)
Iron reacts with steam to form iron(II,III) oxide and
hydrogen gas.
3𝐹𝑒 + 4𝐻2𝑂 → 𝐹𝑒3𝑂4 + 4 𝐻2

Iron(II,III) oxide is also known as magnetite

● Reaction with Acids

Iron reacts with dilute acids, such as hydrochloric acid
(HCl), to produce iron(II) chloride and hydrogen gas.

𝐹𝑒 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2

● Reaction with Halogens

When iron reacts with chlorine, it forms iron(III)
chloride.
2𝐹𝑒 + 3𝐶𝑙2 → 2𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3

● Corrosion (Rusting)
Rusting is a specific type of corrosion that involves the
formation of hydrated iron(III) oxide.

4𝐹𝑒 + 3𝑂2 + 6𝐻2𝑂 → 4𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3

 47
What do you mean by hardness of water? How can you
remove the hardness of water.
Water containing dissolve salt iron like SO4 - , CL -, HCO3-,
of calcium (Ca++ ) and magnesium (Mg++) which doesn't
produce enough lather easily with soap is called hard water.

It can be removed by following process:

1. By the application of heat:

The hardness of water is eliminated by heating the
water sample due to which the soluble bicarbonate
of calcium and magnesium change into respective
insoluble carbonate of Ca & Mg.

2. By reacting with calcium hydroxide:

In this process the hard water is treated with lime
water due to which soluble bicarbonate change into
insoluble carbonate.

Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO)3 —-> CaCO3 (down) + H2O

Ca(OH)2 + Mg(HCO)3 —-> MgCO3(down) + H2O

 48
Define acid rain. Explain oxides of carbon as pollutants.
The rain containing acidic compound is called as acid rain.
Generally acid rain contain some minirals acids like H2SO3 ,
H2SO4 , HNO3 and H2CO3. Those acids are produce when
acidic oxide like SO2, SO3, NO2 and CO2 reacts with
moisture of atmosphere and those acids mixed with rain water

i) Carbon dioxide (CO2) as pollutant:

Carbon dioxide is one of the main pollutant with regards
to air pollution. It is primarily pollutant which means it
emitted into the environment directly by human and
natural source. It is a green house gas which is the main
reason responsible for rising temperature and global
warming.

ii) Carbon monoxide (CO) as pollutant:

Carbon monoxide is another primarily pollutant which is
extremely dangerous to the environment and also to
human directly. It is odourless, colourless and testless gas
which is very toxic and potentially lethal gas .

They accumulate unhealthy level of ozone and

particulate matter (PM).This in turn cause further air
pollution
 49
What do you mean by vital force theory? Why is it failed
now.

Vital force theory -

● It is assumed that organic compounds are only formed in
living cells and there is no known method to prepare
them in laboratories.
● It was believed that they produced some vital force on
nature so it is called vital force theory.

Reason It was discarded

Because Friedrich Wohler showed that it was
possible to obtain an organic compound (urea) in
the laboratory.

NH4 CNO --------------->CO (NH2)2 (urea).

Functional group
A functional group is a specific group of atoms within a
molecule that is responsible for its characteristic chemical
reactions. Functional groups have unique properties that are
largely independent of the rest of the molecule they are
attached to. This means that molecules with the same
functional group will often have similar chemical properties,
even if the rest of their structures are quite different
 50
Types of polymers

i) Natural polymer:
The polymer obtained from natural source are said to be
natural polymer. They are further divided into two parts .

1. Plant polymer : These are obtained from plants for eg :

cotton and lynen

2. Animal polymer : These are derived from animal

sources for eg : wool are obtained from sheep and silk
are obtained from silk worm.

ii) Synthetic polymer :

These are the man made polymers. These polymers are
artificially prepared by polymerization of monomers and
co-polymerization on two or more monomers. For example:
Nylon, terylene, fiber etc

iii) Semi-synthetic Polymers: These are derived from

naturally existing polymers but undergo chemical
modifications to enhance their properties. Examples include
cellulose acetate and rayon.
 51
Define acid rain. Explain the chemical fertilizer in detail.
The rain containing acidic compound is called as acid rain.
Generally acid rain contain some minirals acids like H2SO3 ,
H2SO4 , HNO3 and H2CO3. Those acids are produce when
acidic oxide like SO2, SO3, NO2 and CO2 reacts with
moisture of atmosphere and those acids mixed with rain water

Chemical fertilizer :
Chemical fertilizers are the artificial fertilizer manufacture in
industries. They are prepared from water soluble salts. They
provide enough neutrients for the proper development of
crops. Various example of chemical fertilizers are sulphate,
ammonium phosphate, potassium sulphate etc. They provide
various types of neutrients like nitrogen, potassium etc. On
the basics of neutrients chemical fertilizers are divided into
three types

Nitrogen fertilizers:
Nitrogen fertilizers are the types of chemical fertilizer which
provides the salts of nitrogen for the proper development and
growth of plants
Examples:
● Urea: Co(NH2)2
● Ammonium nitrate: NH4 NO3
● Ammonium sulphate: (NH4)2 SO4

Cont……
 52
Phosphorus fertilizers :
Phosphorus fertilizer contains phosphorus as the main
constitution. It is important for the strong growth of plants. It
is also associated with complex energy transformation in
plants
Examples:
● Ammonium phosphate: (NH4)3 PO4
● Calcium super phospate: Ca(H2PO4)2
● Triple super phospate: 3Ca(H2PO2)2CaSO4

Potassium fertilizer :
Fertilizer containing potassium is called potassium fertilizer
or potas fertilizer.
Examples:
● Potassium chloride: KCL
● Potassium nitrate: KNO3
● Potassium sulphate: K2SO4
● Potassium carbonate: KCO3

Function
● Property growth of root and stalks of leaves
● Development of flowers
● Resist disease
 53
What do you mean by bleaching action of chlorine? What
are affect of oxides of carbon on environment and human.
The bleaching action of chlorine is the process by which
chlorine removes color from materials. It does this by
oxidizing the colored compounds in the material, converting
them into colorless compounds.

Effects of oxides of carbon on the environment:

Carbon Monoxide (CO):

● Environmental Impact: CO is a significant air

pollutant, primarily emitted from vehicle exhausts and
industrial processes. It contributes to the formation of
ground-level ozone and particulate matter, which are
harmful to both human health and the environment.

● Human Health Impact: CO is highly toxic to humans

and animals when inhaled in large quantities. It binds
with hemoglobin in the bloodstream, reducing its ability
to transport oxygen, which can lead to symptoms ranging
from headaches and dizziness to unconsciousness and
death.

Cont…….
 54
Carbon Dioxide (CO2):

● Environmental Impact: CO2 is a greenhouse gas,

which contributes to global warming and climate change
by trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere. Increased
levels of CO2 lead to higher temperatures, altering
ecosystems, and contributing to sea level rise.

● Human Health Impact: Direct exposure to CO2 in

typical environmental concentrations (indoor or outdoor)
does not pose acute health risks. However, indirectly,
climate change driven by CO2 emissions can impact
human health through increased heat-related illnesses,
changes in disease patterns, and food and water
insecurity.
 55

What happen when

Steam is passed over red hot iron

When steam is passed over red hot iron, H2 and Fe3O4 are
formed. The reaction is as follows:
3Fe + 4H2O —---------> Fe3O4 + 4H2↑
This reaction only proceeds if iron is red hot, as iron is not
that reactive at ordinary from (room temperature).

Sodium is heated with ammonia

Sodium reacts with ammonia gas to form sodamide and

hydrogen gas.
2Na + 2NH3 —----------> 2NaNH2 + H2
This is an example of a redox reaction. Sodamide is also
referred to as sodium amide and sodium azanide.

Alloys
An alloy is a substance that is made by combining two or
more elements, at least one of which is a metal. Alloys are
often made by melting the elements together and then cooling
them to form a solid solution. However, there are other ways
to make alloys, such as powder metallurgy and ion
implantation.Alloys are used in a wide variety of applications
because they have properties that are different from the pure
metals that they are made of. For example, alloys can be
stronger, harder, more ductile and more corrosion-resistant.
 56
what happen when chlorine reacts with hydrogen and
ammonia

With hydrogen
When the equal volume of Hydrogen (H2) and Chlorine (Cl2)
gases react together to form Hydrogen Chloride
(HCL)gas.The chemical equation is as follows:
H2 + Cl2 —--------> 2HCl

● This reaction takes place easily in sunlight.

● At room temperature Hydrogen Chloride is a colorless
gas and forms Hydrochloric acid when dissolved in
water.

With Ammonia
Ammonia and chlorine gas reacts in two ways according to
the amount of reactants (ammonia and chlorine).

i) Excess ammonia with less chlorine reaction

Ammonia react with chlorine to produce nitrogen and
ammonium chloride
8NH3 + 3CL2 —--------> N2 + 6NH4Cl

ii) Less ammonia with excess chlorine reaction

Ammonia reacts with chlorine and produce nitrogen
trichloride (NCL3 ) and hydrogen
2NH3 + 3Cl2 —--------> 2NCl3 + 6HCl
In this reaction, chlorine is reduced and oxidized. So this
is a disproportionation reaction.
 57
How can you prepare HCL gas in laboratory? What
happen when HCL reacts with Ammonia and AgNo3.
In laboratory HCL gas can be prepared by heating a mixture
of Conc. H2SO4 and common salt (NaCl). The reaction is
occur as follows :
∆
NaCl + Conc. H2SO4 -----------> NaHSO4 + HCL

The apparatus are fitted as shown in figure at first powdered

NaCl is kept inside of round buttom flask and conc. H2SO4 is
added from thistle funnel and heat is given. After heating
HCL gas is produced which is collected in gas jar by upward
displacement of air.
Cont…
 58
HCL is highly soluble in water therefore aquos HCL can be
prepared by dissolving HCL gas in water. To prepare aquos
solution, we should use anti suction device which prevent to
flow water to HCL generating flask and avoid explosion
 59
What happen when HCL reacts with Ammonia and
AgNo3.

HCL reacts with Ammonia

reacts with Hydrogen chloride it results in the formation of
salt i.e. Ammonium chloride The chemical reaction can be
depicted as:
HCL + NH3 —----->NH4Cl (s)
It is a type of combination reaction because ammonia
combines with Hydrogen chloride to form a single product i.e.
Ammonium chloride

HCL reacts with AgNO3 ( silver nitrate)

Silver nitrate solution reacts with hydrochloric acid and it
gives a thick curdy white precipitate of silver chloride.

AgNO3 + HCl → AgCl + HNO3

The white precipitate is insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in

ammonium hydroxide solution and forms a complex salt
called diamine silver(I) chloride.

AgCl + 2NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2] + Cl− +2H2O

 60

Properties of Alkaline earth metal

Chemical properties

● Reaction with oxygen

Alkaline earth metals readily react with oxygen to form
metal oxides.
2Mg(s) + O₂(g) → 2MgO(s)

● Reaction with Water

The reactivity of alkaline earth metals with water
increases down the group. Calcium, Strontium, and
Barium: React vigorously with cold water.
Ca(s) + 2H₂O(l) → Ca(OH)₂(aq) + H₂(g)

● Reaction with Acids

Alkaline earth metals react vigorously with dilute acids
to liberate hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl₂(aq) + H₂(g)

● Reaction with Hydrogen

Alkaline earth metals react with hydrogen at high
temperatures to form hydrides.
Ca(s) + H₂(g) → CaH₂(s)

● Reaction with Halogens

Alkaline earth metals react vigorously with halogens to
form metal halides.
Ca(s) + Cl₂(g) → CaCl₂(s)
 61
Physical properties of alkaline earth metal

● Appearance: Silvery-white, lustrous metals.

● Hardness: Softer than alkali metals but harder than

lead.

● Density: Low densities compared to other metals.

● Melting and Boiling Points: Lower than most metals,

but higher than alkali metals.

● Conductivity: Good conductors of heat and electricity.

● Ductility and Malleability: Can be drawn into wires

and hammered into sheets, but to a lesser extent than
alkali metals.
 62

Use of Diamond
● It is used to make jwellery
● It is used to cut glass
● It is used to make bours
● It is used for grinding and polishing the hard material

Use of graphite
● It is used as lubricants in high speed machine
● It is used as electrode in electrical devices
● It is used to make lead pencil
● It is Used as moderator in nuclear plant
● It is used to make crucible

Use of Zinc
● Zinc is used in the preparation of alloys such as brass and
German silver
● It is used as cathode in dry cells
● It's compound are used in the manufacture of plants
● It is used for the galvanization of iron

Uses of Rubber
● It is used to make protective gear such as gloves, boot ,
earthing mat etc
● It is used to make erasers for remove pencil marks
● It is used to make tyres of vehicles for providing grip and
flexibility
● It is used to make insulation of wire for safety
 63

Rubber :
Elasto Polymers are popularly known as rubber which is very
important polymer for different purposes for example :
balloons, shoe sole, hose etc are made from elastopolymer or
rubber.

1. Natural rubber: Monomers of natural rubber is isoprene

( 2 - methyl -1, 3 - butadiene,)

CH3
CH2 = C - CH = CH2

Natural rubber have a high molecular mass linear polymer of

isoprene. Which is found in latex of rubber plant
CH3 CH3
CH2 = C - CH = CH2 —-------> CH2 - C = CH - CH2
POLYMERIZATION

2. Synthetic rubber: Synthetic rubber is prepared by the

polymerization of butadiene and shy Rene in the
presence of Na metal .

(Butadiene) Na
(CH2 = CH - CH = CH2)2 + CH = CH2 —->[ -CH2 -CH =
CH -CH2 - CH - CH2]
 64

Polymerization
Polymerization is the process by which converted into
polymer, for the polymerization certain conditions pressure,
temperature and catalyst must be maintan and sometimes
same initiator compound may be added.

Alkaline earth metal:

The metal of group II A of the period table are called alkaline
earth metals . All the alkaline earth metal have two electrons
in the valance shell. They have strong tendency to loose the
electrons and thus show strong electro positive character.
Examples of alkaline earth metals are : Be , Mg , Ca , Ba and
Ra .

Characteristics of alkali metal

● They are strongly reducing agents as they give electrons
very easily
● They are soft as compared with other metal
● They have low melting point
● These metal vigorously react with water oxygen and
chlorine
● They are highly electro positive in their respective period
● They possess +1 oxidation state
 65

Alipatic Compound:
The compound derived from animal fat are called alipatic
compounds. The alipatic Compound are non cyclic. These
compound do not follow huckels rule. They obtained from fat.
They do not have sweet smell. They May be saturated or
unsaturated.
Examples: CH4, C2H4, C2H2 etc

Aromatic Compound:
The compound which give as sweet smell are known as
aromatic compound. The aromatic compound are cyclic. They
obtained from coals, petroleum etc. They follow huckels rule
with alternate single and double bond. They have sweet odour.
They are almost unsaturated and contain atleast one Benzene
ring
Examples: Benzene, phenol, nitrobenzene, etc.
 66

What are the effects of acid rain?

Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain is very harmful to agriculture, plants, and animals. It
washes away all nutrients which are required for the growth
and survival of plants.

● It causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.

● When acid rain falls down and flows into the rivers and
ponds it affects the aquatic ecosystem. It alters the
chemical composition of the water, to a form which is
actually harmful to the aquatic ecosystem to survive and
causes water pollution.

● Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes, which

further results in leaching of heavy metals such as iron,
lead and copper into drinking water.

● It damages the buildings and monuments made up of

stones and metals.
 67
Describe the manufacture process of nitric acid with it
principle and well labled diagram

Principle

● Ammonia is oxidised to nitric oxide of air at 800°C over

the catalyst platinum gauge or a rhodium platinum alloy.
∆
4NH3 + 5O2 —------> 4NO + 6H2O + heat.
Pt/Rh
● Nitric oxide formed is cooled and allowed to come into
contact with air and it gets oxidised to nitrogen dioxide
2NO + O2 —--------> 2NO2
● Nitric acid is obtained when nitrogen dioxide is dissolve
in water in presence of Air
4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 —--------> 4HNO3
 68
Working
The mixture of ammonia and air is passed to converter which
contains platinum gauge at 800°C and here NH3 is oxidised to
nitric oxide. This nitric oxide is passed to oxidation chamber
through cooler, where it oxidized to nitrogen dioxide. The
nitrogen dioxide from oxidation tower are pass through
absorption tower which is packed with acid proof stone of
quartz. The nitrogen dioxide comes into contact with water
and air get dissolve to form nitric acid which is collected at
the foot of the tower in the reciver.
 69
How sulphuric acid is manufacture by contact process.
(with diagram)

The principal involves in contact process for the manufacture

of Sulphuric acid is commonly known as king of chemicals
are listed below

1. At first Sulphur is burnt in air to produce Sulphur

dioxide, Sulphur dioxide may also be prepared by
roasting iron pyrites or Sulphur ores.
S8 + 8O2 —------> 8SO2
4FES2 + 11O2 —-------> 2FE2O3 + 8SO2

2. Sulphur dioxide is then catalycally oxidised to Sulphur

trioxide by the oxygen of air at a temperature of 450°C in
the presence of platinum asbestor or divandium
pentaoxide (V2O5) as catalyst under pressure 2-3 atm.
This reaction is reversible and exothermic in nature

2SO2 + O2 <====> 2SO3 + 196 KJ

3. The Sulphur trioxide thus produced is absorbed in conc.

H2SO4 (about 94%) to form oleum which is also called
pyrosulphuric acid
SO3 + H2SO4 —--------- > H2 S2 O7

4. Oleum is then diluted with the required amount of water

to get conc. H2SO4
H2 S2 O7—---------> 2H2SO4 Cont………
70
 71
Physical properties of Sulphuric Acid

● It is colourless, dense oily liquid

● It has a density of 1.84 g/cubic cm at 298k
● It freezes at 283K and boils at 611K
● It is highly corresive and produce serve burn on the skin

Chemical properties

● Acidic property : Sulphuric Acid ionises in aqueous

solution in two steps

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) —----> H3O(aq) + HSO4(aq)

HSO4(aq) + H2O(l) —------> H3O(aq) + SO4(aq)

● Reaction with metal and non metal (oxidizing

property) : Metal and non metal both are oxidised by
hot concentrated sulphuric acid which itself get reduced
to SO2
Cu + 2H2SO4 —--------->CuSO4 + SO2+ 2H2O
 72
Describe the manufacture process of ammonia by Habers
process
● Haber - Bosch process or just haber process is basically
one of the most efficient and successful industrial
procedures to be adopted for the production of ammonia

● The process converts atmospheric nitrogen N2 to

ammonia NH3 by a reaction with hydrogen H2 using
iron metal catalyst under high temperature and pressure.
 73
Working
Nitrogen gas does not combined with hydrogen under
ordinary condition but when a mixture of nitrogen and
hydrogen in the ratio of 1:3 by volume is heated to about
450°C under a pressure of 200 - 500 atmospheric pressure in
the presence of finely divided iron as catalyst and some
molybdenum as promoter, ammonia is obtained.

N2 + 3H2 <—------> 2NH3 + 98.6 KJ mol-¹

(g) (g) (g)
 74
How can you prepare chlorine gas without applying heat
in laboratory?
In laboratory chlorine gas can be produce by the action of
conc. HCL and strong oxiding agent potassium permanent
KMnO4 without using heat.

For the preperation of chlorine gas by this process apparatus

are fitted as shown in above diagram. At first KMnO4 crystal
is kept in conical flask and then conc. HCL is added from
dropping funnel. By the reaction CL2 gas produced which is
connected in gas jar passing through water and conc. H2SO4.
The reaction occurs as .

2KMnO4 + 16HCL —---> 2KCL + 2MnCL2 + 8H2 +

5HCL

The water and conc.H2SO4 absorbs the impurities present in

the gas .
 75

How can you prepare ammonia gas in laboratory?

In laboratory ammonia gas can be prepared by the action of
ammonium salt with strong alkali, generally it prepared by
heating mixture of ammonium chloride NH4CL and shaked
lime Ca(OH)2 in the ratio of 1:3.
2NH4 CL + Ca(OH)2 —-----> CaCL2 + NH3(up) + 2H2O

To prepare ammonia gas in laboratory mixture of ammonium

chloride and calcium hydroxide is taken in a hard glass test
tube. The delivery tube coming from hard glass tube is joined
into lime tower and above the lime tower a gas jar is kept
inverted. A gentle heat is supplied then after the reaction
 76
ammonia gas is produce which is collected in the gas jar by
downward displacement of air
Iron rod is immersed into copper sulphate solution.

When iron rod is immersed into copper sulphate solution

following reaction take place
Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) —-------> FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Note : This reaction shows iron is more reactive than

copper because it displaces copper from the copper
sulphate solution.

● steam is passed over red hot iron

When steam is passed over red hot iron water is

decomposed to given hydrogen gas.
3FE + 4H2O —-------> F3O4 + 4H2

● Sodium is heated with ammonia

Sodium reacts with ammonia to form sodamite

∆
2Na + 2NH3 —-------> 2NaNH2 + H2

● Ammonium is passed on concentrated hydrochloric

acid

Ammonia gas is passed on concentrated HCL then

ammonium chloride is formed.
 77
NH3 (g) + HCL —-------> NH4CL

● Concentrated HCL and conc. HNO is mixed in 3 / 1

ratio

The mixture of conc. HCl and HNO3 made in 3 : 1 ratio

is called aqua-regia. The reaction is given below.
3HCL + HNO3 —-------> NOCL + 2H2O + 2[CL]

● Ammonia gas is passed over chlorine

Ammonia is passed over excess of chlorine then NCl3
and HCL is formed

NH3 + 3CL2 —--------> NCL3 + 3HCL

(excess) (nitrogen tetracholride)

● Calcium metal is allowed to reach with water

molecule
Calcium metal is react with water molecule to form
Ca(OH)2 and H2 gas

Ca(s) + 2H2O —------> Ca(OH) 2 + H2 (up)

● Benzene is treated with (methyl chloride) helpful

chemical presence of anhydrous ALCL3 and ether
When Benzene is treated with methyl chloride in the
presence of anhydrous ALCL3 methyl Benzene is
formed.
 78

ALCL3
B + CH3 - CL —-------------> B /CH3 + HCL
either (Toluene)

● Zinc is treated with caustic soda solution

When zinc is boiled with caustic soda solution hydrogen

gas is evolved along with formation of sodium zincnate
Zn + 2NaOH —-----∆—-----> Na2ZnO2 + H2 (up)
sodium zincnate

● Benzene is treated with conc. Sulphuric acid

When Benzene is heated with conc. H2SO4 Benzene

sulphonic acid is formed

B + H2SO4 —--60-70°C—-> B /SO3H + H2O

● Sodium is burnt in the atmosphere of carbon dioxide

When sodium is burnt in atmosphere of CO2 formation

of sodium carbonate takes place.
4Na + 2CO2 + O2 —--------> 2Na2CO3

● Acetylene gas is treated with ammonical silver nitrate

solution.
 79
When acetylene gas is passed into ammonical solution of
silver nitrate, a white precipitate of silver acetyte is
obtained.

NO3 + 3NH4OH —------> [Ag(NH3)2]OH + 2H2O + NH4NO3

H-C=C-H + 2[Ag(NH3)2OH —--> AgC = CAg + 2H2O + 4NH3