Atmospheric Remote Sensing Lecs. Dr. Jasim M.

Rajab

3-7 Multispectral Scanning

Many electronic (as opposed to photographic) remote sensors acquire data using
scanning systems, which employ a sensor with a narrow field of view (i.e. IFOV) that
sweeps over the terrain to build up and produce a two-dimensional image of the surface.
Scanning systems can be used on both aircraft and satellite platforms and have essentially
the same operating principles. A scanning system used to collect data over a variety of
different wavelength ranges is called a multispectral scanner (MSS), and is the most
commonly used scanning system. There are two main modes or methods of scanning
employed to acquire multispectral image data - across-track scanning, and along-track
scanning.
Across-track scanners scan the Earth in a series of lines. The lines are oriented
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the sensor platform (i.e. across the swath). Each
line is scanned from one side of the sensor to the other, using a rotating mirror (A). As
the platform moves forward over the Earth, successive scans build up a two-dimensional
image of the Earth´s surface. The incoming reflected or emitted radiation is separated into
several spectral components that are detected independently. The UV, visible, near-
infrared, and thermal radiation are dispersed into their constituent wavelengths. A bank of
internal detectors (B), each sensitive to a specific range of wavelengths, detects and
measures the energy for each spectral band and then, as an electrical signal, they are
converted to digital data and recorded for subsequent computer processing.

The IFOV (C) of the sensor and the altitude of the platform determine the ground
resolution cell viewed (D), and thus the spatial resolution. The angular field of view (E)
is the sweep of the mirror, measured in degrees, used to record a scan line, and determines
the width of the imaged swath (F). Airborne scanners typically sweep large angles
(between 90º and 120º), while satellites, because of their higher altitude need only to sweep
fairly small angles (10- 20º) to cover a broad region. Because the distance from the sensor
to the target increases towards the edges of the swath, the ground resolution cells also
become larger and introduce geometric distortions to the images. Also, the length of time
the IFOV "sees" a ground resolution cell as the rotating mirror scans (called the dwell
time), is generally quite short and influences the design of the spatial, spectral, and
radiometric resolution of the sensor.

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Along-track scanners also use the forward motion of the platform to record successive
scan lines and build up a two-dimensional image, perpendicular to the flight direction.
However, instead of a scanning mirror, they use a linear array of detectors (A) located at
the focal plane of the image (B) formed by lens systems (C), which are "pushed" along in
the flight track direction (i.e. along track). These systems are also referred to as
pushbroom scanners, as the motion of the detector array is analogous to the bristles of a
broom being pushed along a floor. Each individual detector measures the energy for a
single ground resolution cell (D) and thus the size and IFOV of the detectors determines
the spatial resolution of the system. A separate linear array is required to measure each
spectral band or channel. For each scan line, the energy detected by each detector of each
linear array is sampled electronically and digitally recorded.

Along-track scanners with linear arrays have several advantages over across-track
mirror scanners. The array of detectors combined with the pushbroom motion allows each
detector to "see" and measure the energy from each ground resolution cell for a longer
period of time (dwell time). This allows more energy to be detected and improves the
radiometric resolution. The increased dwell time also facilitates smaller IFOVs and
narrower bandwidths for each detector. Thus, finer spatial and spectral resolution can be
achieved without impacting radiometric resolution. Because detectors are usually solid-
state microelectronic devices, they are generally smaller, lighter, require less power, and
are more reliable and last longer because they have no moving parts. On the other hand,
cross-calibrating thousands of detectors to achieve uniform sensitivity across the array is
necessary and complicated.

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3-8 Weather Satellites/Sensors

Weather monitoring and forecasting was one of the first civilian (as opposed to
military) applications of satellite remote sensing, dating back to the first true weather
satellite, TIROS-1 (Television and Infrared Observation Satellite - 1), launched in 1960 by
the United States. Several other weather satellites were launched over the next five years,
in near-polar orbits, providing repetitive coverage of global weather patterns. In 1966,
NASA (the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration) launched the
geostationary Applications Technology Satellite (ATS-1) which provided hemispheric
images of the Earth's surface and cloud cover every half hour. For the first time, the
development and movement of weather systems could be routinely monitored. Today,
several countries operate weather, or meteorological satellites to monitor weather
conditions around the globe. Generally speaking, these satellites use sensors which have
fairly coarse spatial resolution (when compared to systems for observing land) and provide
large areal coverage.
Their temporal resolutions are generally quite high, providing frequent observations of
the Earth's surface, atmospheric moisture, and cloud cover, which allows for near-
continuous monitoring of global weather conditions, and hence - forecasting. Here we
review a few of the representative satellites/sensors used for meteorological applications.

GOES
The GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite) System is the follow-
up to the ATS series. They were designed by NASA for the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to provide the United States National Weather
Service with frequent, small-scale imaging of the Earth's surface and cloud cover. The
GOES series of satellites have been used extensively by meteorologists for weather
monitoring and forecasting for over 20 years. These satellites are part of a global network
of meteorological satellites spaced at approximately 70° longitude intervals around the
Earth in order to provide near-global coverage.

Figure (53): Hurricane Fran

Two GOES satellites, placed in geostationary orbits 36000 km above the equator,
each view approximately one-third of the Earth. One is situated at 75°W longitude and
monitors North and South America and most of the Atlantic Ocean. The other is situated at

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135°W longitude and monitors North America and the Pacific Ocean basin. Together they
cover from 20°W to 165°E longitude. This GOES image covers a portion of the
southeastern United States, and the adjacent ocean areas where many severe storms
originate and develop. Image below (figure 4) shows Hurricane Fran approaching the
southeastern United States and the Bahamas in September of 1996.
Two generations of GOES satellites have been launched, each measuring emitted and
reflected radiation from which atmospheric temperature, winds, moisture, and cloud cover
can be derived. The first generation of satellites consisted of GOES-1 (launched 1975)
through GOES-7 (launched 1992). Due to their design, these satellites were capable of
viewing the Earth only a small percentage of the time (approximately five per cent). The
second generation of satellites began with GOES-8 (launched 1994) and has numerous
technological improvements over the first series. They provide near-continuous
observation of the Earth allowing more frequent imaging (as often as every 15 minutes).
This increase in temporal resolution coupled with improvements in the spatial and
radiometric resolution of the sensors provides timelier information and improved data
quality for forecasting meteorological conditions.
GOES-8 and the other second generation GOES satellites have separate imaging and
sounding instruments. The imager has five channels sensing visible and infrared reflected
and emitted solar radiation. The infrared capability allows for day and night imaging.
Sensor pointing and scan selection capability enable imaging of an entire hemisphere, or
small-scale imaging of selected areas. The latter allows meteorologists to monitor specific
weather trouble spots to assist in improved short-term forecasting. The imager data are 10-
bit radiometric resolution, and can be transmitted directly to local user terminals on the
Earth's surface. The accompanying table describes the individual bands, their spatial
resolution, and their meteorological applications.
GOES Bands

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Atmospheric Remote Sensing Lecs. Dr. Jasim M. Rajab

The 19 channel sounder measures emitted radiation in 18 thermal infrared bands and
reflected radiation in one visible band. These data have a spatial resolution of 8 km and 13-
bit radiometric resolution. Sounder data are used for surface and cloud-top temperatures,
multilevel moisture profiling in the atmosphere, and ozone distribution analysis.
NOAA AVHRR
NOAA is also responsible for another series of satellites which are useful for
meteorological, as well as other, applications. These satellites, in sun-synchronous,
nearpolar orbits (830-870 km above the Earth), are part of the Advanced TIROS series
(originally dating back to1960) and provide complementary information to the
geostationary meteorological satellites (such as GOES). Two satellites, each providing
global coverage, work together to ensure that data for any region of the Earth is no more
than six hours old. One satellite crosses the equator in the early morning from north-
tosouth while the other crosses in the afternoon. The primary sensor on board the NOAA
satellites, used for both meteorology and small-scale Earth observation and reconnaissance,
is the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). The AVHRR sensor
detects radiation in the visible, near and mid infrared, and thermal infrared portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum, over a swath width of 3000 km. The accompanying table,
outlines the AVHRR bands, their wavelengths and spatial resolution (at swath nadir), and
general applications of each.
NOAA AVHRR Bands

AVHRR data can be acquired and formatted in four operational modes, differing in
resolution and method of transmission. Data can be transmitted directly to the ground and
viewed as data are collected, or recorded on board the satellite for later transmission and
processing. The accompanying table describes the various data formats and their
characteristics.
AVHRR Data Formats