African Locust Bean Seed Processing

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AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN SEED PROCESSING
Prospects, Status and Challenges
First Edition
By
Kayode Joshua SIMONYAN, PhD

Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering,
College of Engineering and Engineering Technology,
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture,
PMB 7267
Umudike-Umuahia.
E-mail: [email protected];
[email protected]
(234) 08053303987
(234) 07036915162
Publisher and Distributors

NAPHTALI PRINTS NIG. LTD
22, Market Street, Somolu
Lagos
© Copyright K.J. Simonyan, 2012
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording and/ or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publishers. This book
may not be lent, resold, hired or otherwise disposed of by way of trade in any form of binding
other than that in which it is published, without the consent of the publishers.
First Published in February 2012 by

Lagos
ISBN 978-978-923-050-5
Printed in Nigeria by
Lagos.
Tel:+234 (0) 803 507 006 0
DEDICATION
to the
VICE CHANCELLORS
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike
Prof Ikenna Onyido (Immediate past)
Prof Hillary Odo Edeoga
AND
University of Ilorin, Ilorin
Prof Is-haq Olarenwaju Oloyede

FOREWORD
Although naturally occurring in the savannah ecology as a wild growing tree, the African
locust bean has remained a veritable source of grain legume or protein supplement for food
enrichment and as a condiment. The cultivation of the plant and the harvesting of its fruit
have not been mechanized but efforts have, of recent, been recorded on mechanized
processing of its fruit and seed, particularly on the physical, rheological and chemical
characteristics of the seed.
Students of agriculture, food science and engineering, particularly agricultural engineering,

are the primary audience for whom the book was prepared. It can also be used as a handbook
or reference material to provide an overview of locust bean fruit and the many uses of its
fruit.
The book provides succinct discussions of available methods of processing of locust bean
fruit, although information on optimum decisions are limiting. It should be pointed out that
the coverage in the book is not sacrosanct since it is the outcome of available research work
in the subject area which were sourced and pooled together to aid the understanding of its
readers. The information should therefore be thoroughly evaluated and analyzed to assist
readers in arriving at the intents and purposes of their application.
This maiden issue, though a comprehensive compilation for students teaching and a must
read reference material on the subject, it would be expected that readers would make
observations on the content with a view to improving future editions.
Prof K. C. Oni
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin. Kwara State.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is deeply indebted to Prof K.C. Oni for his patience and advice while reviewing
the manuscript and for writing the foreword. The author wish to express his appreciation to
the many individuals and organizations whose materials were used in preparing this book.
The cooperation, assistance and kind effort of Prof B.A. Adewumi who gladly supplied his
materials on African locust beans used for the manuscript is gratefully acknowledged.
The immense contribution and assistance provided by various individuals at various levels for
the preparation of the manuscript, especially the Vice Chancellors of Michael Okpara
University of Agriculture, Umudike, Prof Hillary Odo Edeoga for approving and relieving me
off my duty - post and University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Prof Is-haq Olanrewaju Oloyede, for
accepting me, respectively for the one year sabbatical leave, is gratefully acknowledged.
A very special appreciation is extended to Prof J.A. Olorunmaiye, Dean, Faculty of

Engineering and Technology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin; and Prof V.I.O. Ndirika, Dean,
College of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Michael Okpara University of
Agriculture, Umudike for their academic and administrative leaderships.
The kind effort of Prof A.O. Ogunlela Head of Department, Agricultural and Biosystems
Engineering Department, University of Ilorin, Ilorin. Kwara State is thankfully
acknowledged.
I wish to acknowledge the cordial working relationship of my colleagues and friends in the
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin. The
efforts of Dr J.O. Olaoye, Dr A.M. Olaniyan and Engr K.O. Yusuf during the preparation of
the manuscript are gratefully acknowledged.
The understanding, love, encouragements and patience provided by my immediate family

anchored by my beloved wife, Dr. (Mrs) Judith Bosede Simonyan and children is
acknowledged with many thanks.
Finally and most importantly, my depth of gratitude goes to the ALMIGHTY GOD, THE
ALPHA AND OMEGA, for His preservation, protection, favour and mercy. I give Him
praise, glory and honour.
The author would gladly thankfully welcome and receive suggestions and constructive
criticisms which would help improve the text in subsequent editions.
Dr. K.J. Simonyan

February 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication iv
FOREWORD v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF TABLES xi
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Agronomy of African Locust Bean Tree 1
1.2 Harvesting of African Locust Bean Pod 4
1.3 The African Locust Bean Seed 5
1.4 Local Processing and Art of Production of Products from Locust Bean 6
1.5 Primary Crop Processing and Secondary Food Processing for Production of
Locust Bean Products 6
2.0 PROSPECTS OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN 12

2.1 Uses and Importance of African Locust Bean Tree 12
2.2 Prospects of Mechanisation of African Locust Bean Production and

Processing 15
3.0 STATUS OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN SEED PROCESSING 16
3.1 Traditional Food Processing Technologies 16
3.2 Traditional Method of Processing African Locust Bean 18
3.3 Modern Method of Processing African Locust Bean 21
3.4 Nutritional Composition of African Locust Bean 23
4.0 PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN

CONDIMENT 34
4.1 Processing Methods of African Locust Bean Condiment 34
4.2 Preservation Methods of African Locust Bean Condiment 41
4.3 Fermentation of African Locust Bean Condiment 43
4.4 Salting of African Locust Bean Condiment 47

5.0 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN PODS AND
SEEDS 51
6.0 MECHANIZATION OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEANS PROCESSING 60
6.1 Efforts at Mechanising African Locust Bean Processing 60
6.2 Challenges of Mechanization of African Locust Bean Processing 82
6.3 Strategies to Improve the Processing of African Fermented Locust Bean 84
6.4 Problems and Constraints to Agro –Industrialisation. 84
REFERENCES 86
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1 Isolated African Locust Bean Tree 2
Fig 1.2 Fruiting African Locust Bean Tree 3
Fig 1.3 Matured Pods on African Locust Bean Tree 3
Fig 1.4 Distribution of Parkia Clappertoniana in Nigeria and a Parkia Fruit 4
Fig 1.5 Harvested Locust Bean under Storage Condition 7

Fig 1.6 Sun Drying Locust Bean Pod 8
Fig 1.7 Manual Decortication of Locust Bean Pod 8
Fig 1.8 A Traditional Locust Bean Depulpper 9
Fig 1.9 Packaging of Iru (Traditional, Left) and Modern (Cubes Right) 9
Fig 1.10 Processing Procedure for Production of Major African Locust Bean Products 10
Fig 1.11 Flow Chart of Unit Operations Involved in Iru Cube Production 11
Fig 2.1 Constituents of Parkia Clappertoniana fruit 14
Fig 3.1 Flow Chart of Traditional Processing of African Locust Bean Fruits to Food
Condiment 22
Fig 3.2 Flow Chart of Production of African Locust Bean Fruit Pulp Flour 26
Fig 4.1 Proximate Analysis of Salted Parkia Biglobosa for Four Weeks 50
Fig 4.2 Proximate Analysis of Unsalted Parkia Biglobosa for Four Weeks 50
Fig 5.1 Frequency Distribution of some Properties of African Locust Bean Pods 53
Fig 5.2 Frequency Distribution of some Properties of African Locust Bean Seeds 53
Fig 5.3 Relation of African Locust Bean Fruit Moisture Content to Harvest Date 54
Fig 5.4 Torsional Shear Stress – Strain relationship of African Locust Bean Pods 56
Fig 6.1 Sectional view of African Locust Bean Fruit Decorticator 61
Fig 6.2 A Motorised Locust Bean Depulpping Machine 64

Figure 6.3 Depulpping Efficiency against Speed of Depulpping 65
Figure 6.4 Percentage Seed Loss against Depulpping Speed 66
Figure 6.5 Locust Bean Recovery Efficiency against Depulpping Speed 66
Figure 6.6 Effects of Depulpping Speed on Membrane Detachment Efficiency 67
Fig. 6.7 Effects of Soaking Time on Recovery Efficiency 67

Fig. 6.8 Effects of Depulpping Speed on Viability of Depulpped Seed 68
Fig 6.9 Schematic Diagram of the Steamer Unit 69
Fig 6.10 Locust Bean Seed Steamer (Charcoal Fueled) 70
Fig 6.11 Variation of African Locust Bean Moisture Content with Steaming time 74
Fig 6.12 Manually operated Concave type African Locust Bean Dehuller 75
Fig 6.13 Manually Operated Concave Type Dehuller 75
Fig 6.14 Schematic Diagram of the Burr type Dehuller 76
Fig 6.15 A Concentric Cylinder African Locust Bean Dehuller 77
Fig 6.16 Effect of African Locust Bean Moisture Content on Dehuller Efficiency 77
Fig 6.17 Variation of DE with Dehulling Length 78
Fig 6.18 Variation of Dehulling Throughput with Moisture Content of African Locust Bean
79
Fig 6.19 Schematic of African Locust Bean Processing Machine 80
Fig 6.20 Dehulling Efficiency of the Machine at Different Steaming Time 80
Fig 6.21 Hydroclyone for Separating the Hulls from Locust Bean 82
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Objectives and Main Features of some Traditional Food Processing Techniques 16
Table 3.2 Nutritional Composition (%) of Raw and Fermented African Locust Bean 25
Table 3.3 Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Composition of the African Locust Bean Fruit Pulp
28
Table 3.4 Proximate Composition of African Locust Bean 31
Table 3.5 Fibre Composition of African Locust Bean 32
Table 3.6 Anti- nutritional factors in African Locust Bean 32
Table 3.7 Mineral Composition of African Locust Bean 32
Table 3.8 Fatty Acid Composition of African Locust Bean 33
Table 3.9 Free Amino Acid Composition of African Locust Bean 33
Table 4.1 Scale of Ranking for the Determination of Physical Quality 35
Table 4.2 Physical Quality Assessment of the Fermented African Locust Bean Samples 36
Table 4.2 Nutrient Composition of Fermented African Locust Bean Samples 36
Table 4.4 Dehulling Efficiencies of African Locust Bean Samples 37
Table 4.5 Proximate Composition of Raw African Locust Bean and Dawadawa 38
Table 4.6 Proximate Composition of Samples of African Locust Bean Seeds on Dry Weight
Basis 39
Table 4.7 Anti- Nutritional Contents in African Locust Bean Samples 41
Table 4.8 Glucose and Protein Estimation of Samples of Dawadawa 42
Table 4.9 Proximate Composition and pH value of Raw and Fermented African Locust Bean
44
Table 4.10 Tocopherol, Acid and Iodine Values of African Locust Bean during different
stages of Processing to Condiment in Comparison to Seasoning Salts 46
Table 4.11 Some Biochemical Properties of Fermenting African Locust Bean for Iru
Production 47
Table 4.12 Activity of Extracellular Enzymes in Fermenting African Locust Bean Seeds for
Iru Production 48
Table 4.13 Nutritional and Physical Characteristics of Salted Parkia Biglobosa for Four
Weeks 48
Table 4.14 Nutritional and Physical Characteristics of Unsalted Parkia Biglobosa for Four
Weeks 49
Table 5.1 Some Properties of African Locust Bean Pods and Seeds 52
Table 5.2 Regression Constants of Moisture Content Stress Models of African Locust Bean
55
Table 5.3 Size Distribution of African Locust Bean and Kernel at the Moisture Content of
10.25 % (db) 58
Table 5.4 Some Engineering Properties of African Locust Bean Seeds at 10.25% Moisture
Content (db) 59
Table 6.1 Average Mechanical Shelling Efficiencies of African Locust Bean Fruits 61
Table 6.2 Analysis of Variance of Shelling Efficiency of African Locust Bean Pod 62
Table 6.3 Classification of Texture, Odour and Flavour of African Locust Bean 72
Table 6.4 Characteristics Properties of African Locust Bean for various Duration of Steaming
73
CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Agronomy of African Locust Bean Tree
African locust bean tree (Parkia Biglobosa) is a perennial tree which belongs to sub – family
mimosodee and family leguminosae (now fabaceae) (Akande et al., 2010). Locust bean tree
is a leguminous crop peculiar to the tropics. The tree is not normally cultivated but can be
seen in population of two or more in the savannah region of West Africa (Hopkins, 1983). It
is prominent in entire savannah region of West Africa (Yudkin, 1985). It grows in savannah
region of West Africa up to edge of Sahel zone (Campbell-Platt, 1980). Dalziel (1963) and
Keay (1989) reported that locust bean tree extends from Senegal to Sudan and its habitat is in
savannah land as it is characteristic of transition areas from sahelian to Sudanian eco-zones
locally on farmlands. It is common in Nigeria particularly in the Northern and South Western
Nigeria (Odunfa, 1982). Locust bean tree is found throughout the savannah lands of North
Central Nigeria covering Benue, Kaduna, Kwara, Kogi, Nassarawa and Plateau States (Tee et
al., 2009). The tree is common around villages where it is left standing when land is cleared
or sometimes planted (Dalziel, 1937). Figure 1.1 shows isolated locust bean tree. Each locust
bean tree is individually owned, usually by men who hold usufructory rights to the plot in
which the tree is standing. A woman must either buy the locust beans or buy harvesting rights
from tree owner (Waters- Bayer, 1988). The various types of African locust bean tree are
Parkia clappertoniana, Parkia Bicolor, Parkia Filicoidea and Parkia Biglobosa.
A matured African locust bean tree of 20 to 30 years can bear about a ton and above of
harvested fruits. Musa (1991) reported that the tree can start to bear fruits from five to seven
years after planting. The tree is about 7 to 20 metres high and bears pods that occur in large
bunches and vary from 120 to 300 mm in length.
African locust bean tree fruits during the months of December to March of the year. Figure
1.2 presents a fruiting locust bean tree. The fruits are ready for harvest in April and have
many leguminous pods each with a tough pericarp. The matured locust bean fruit ready for
harvest is shown in Fig. 1.3. The pods contain yellow powdery pulp in which seeds are
embedded. The seeds have hard, black testa making them less vulnerable to insects and
rodent infestation (Oladele et al., 1985, Oyewole et al., 1986, Oni, 1990). At maturity the pod
length averages 232 mm ( 173 ≤ L ≥ 290 mm) with a mean diameter of about 15 mm ( 10 ≤
d ≥ 20 mm) (Oni, 1990).
African locust bean tree is source of a natural nutritious condiment which features frequently
in the traditional diet of both rural and urban dwellers in at least seventeen West African
countries including Nigeria (Hopkins and White, 1984). Estimated average consumption of
the condiment per head per day for Nigeria, Togo and Ghana are 10 g, 4 g and 2 g
respectively (Campbell- Platt, 1980).
African continent is one of the continents endowed with richest biodiversity in the world with
an avalanche of many food plants used as herbs, health foods and for therapeutic purposes
(Farombi, 2003). However, lack of technology in processing the plants often resulted in its
total economic, nutritional and therapeutic values not maximally obtained.
Fig 1.1: Isolated African Locust Bean Tree

Fig 1.2: Fruiting African Locust Bean Tree
Fig 1.3: Matured Pods on African Locust Bean Tree

1.2 Harvesting of the African Locust Bean Pod
Harvesting technique of African locust bean is universally same by use of a light hooked
pole. The farmer climbs up locust bean tree and leans on bigger branches and stretches out
the hooked pole to reach every bunch (Akande et al., 2010).
Mature pods of African locust bean occurred in large bunches. Each pod varies between 12
and 30 cm in length and 12 – 25 mm in breadth (Adewumi, 1997). The pod has tough
pericarp while the seeds have hard testa (Simonyan, 1988). The pod is tough and fibrous,
enclosing a soft, powdery, yellowish pulp in which small seeds are embedded. Each locust
bean tree yields about 25-52 kg of pods from which 6-14 kg of bean may be collected
(Odunfa, 1982). The morphology of the locust bean fruit is given in Fig 1.4.
Fig 1.4: Distribution of Parkia Clappertoniana in Nigeria and a Parkia Fruit

Source: Oni (1990)
1.3 The African Locust Bean Seed
The multipurpose African locust bean tree has seeds with a hard testa and these seeds have
mean weight of about 0.3 g / seed and cotyledons form about 70 % of the weight. These seeds
are borne in pods that may have up to 30 seeds embedded in a yellow pericarp. The colour of
the pods change from pink brown to dark brown as maturity sets in. African locust bean tree
also bears alternate, dark green bi-pinnate leaves and hermaphrodite flowers (Adewumi,
1997).
African locust bean seeds size varies within pod, with those at the centre being largest. The
seeds vary in shape, some are oval and more or less flat and others are nearly spherical. The
seed has a tough dark or brown coat with a hard golden – yellow cotyledon (Adewumi,
1997). The seeds are encased in a tough, elastic and relatively thick coat that has a very low
permeability. The low permeability restricts free and easy movement of water through the
coats. Interface adhesive force binding the coat to the seed is relatively high. This makes dry
hulling of locust bean seed difficult and inefficient. Most of the beans are shattered when
dehulled in a dry condition (Adewumi and Igbeka, 1996).
Locust bean seed is widely used for its remarkable nutritional and dietary value. The seeds
are rich in protein, lipids and vitamin B2 and when fermented are rich in lysine. The fat in the
beans is nutritionally useful (approximately 60 % unsaturated). The fermented locust bean
seeds are commonly used in soups and stews (Owolarafe et al., 2011). It is a culinary
product that can be used to enhance or intensify meatiness in soups, sauces and other
prepared dishes (Ohenhen et al., 2008).
African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) is presently under-exploited tropical legume despite
its promising economic value (Elemo et al., 2011). The high cost of animal protein has
directed interest towards several leguminous seeds. Among the plant species, legumes are
considered as the major sources of dietary protein (Chukwu et al., 2010). They are consumed
worldwide especially in developing and under-developed countries where consumption of
animal protein is limited as a result of economic, social and cultural factors (Esenwah and
Ikenebomeh, 2008). With high contents of protein, legume condiments serves as a tasty
complement to sauces and soups and can even substitute fish or meat (Chukwu et al., 2010).
African locust bean seed is a grain legume which is fermented and added to soups and stews
as condiment to enhance the flavour and nutritional values (Chukwu et al., 2010). Odunfa
(1981) reported that fermented locust bean seed is commonly consumed in Ghana, Nigeria,
Sierra Leone and Togo. It is called „Iru‟ in Yoruba, „dawadawa‟ in Hausa and „ogiri-igala‟ in
Igbo parts of Nigeria. It is referred to as „kinda‟ in Sierrra Leone and „Kpalugu‟ in Ghana.
1.4 Local Processing and Art of Production of Products from Locust Bean
African locust beans can only be eaten after processing to remove toxins and anti-nutrients
(Olaoye, 2010a). Major processing techniques involve harvesting, decorticating, depulpping
and drying to obtain the locust bean seeds that represent the major raw material from this
important crop (Olaoye, 2010a). The local processing methods are shown Figs 1.5 to 1.8.
According to Olaoye (2010a), local production of African locust bean products is mostly
rigorous, time consuming and unhygienic. Traditional dehulling of locust beans is time
consuming, laborious and inefficient. The procedure had witnessed little or no substantial
technological transformation and progress in the manufacturing techniques.
Recent popularity of iru as a condiment has attracted research interest in development of

machinery to handle some of its unit process operations. Traditional iru processing is still
being carried out at a domestic level. However, its popularity as a condiment has resulted in
the current interest in the production of iru cube, a product, which is similar to a stock cube.
Figure 1.9 shows traditional and modern packaging of iru.
1.5 Primary Crop Processing and Secondary Food Processing for Production of Locust
Bean Products
Processes involved in production of Iru condiment which represents one of the major locust
bean products right from the raw substrate are highlighted and shown in flow chart Figs. 1.10
and 1.11. Modern processing techniques are required to improve on the traditional methods
of processing and fermentation of the seeds (Olaoye, 2010a). Good-quality raw materials that
have been efficiently graded and sorted, simple equipment, optimum conditions, and
attractive packaging are the key requirements of a food industry (Olaoye, 2010a).
Appropriate processing conditions need to be developed to subject the African locust bean to
a form that the produce can be stored with a relatively long storage life. These conditions can
also help to eliminate pests and micro-organisms that cause spoilage. Processing stages are
identified as primary crop processing and secondary food processing. It has been observed
that each stage need appropriate machine intervention for effective product development
(Olaoye, 2010a).
Primary crop processing involves drying, decorticating and depulping of locust bean seeds
from the pod. These processes are to enhance seed quality and subject it to a condition that
will improve further food processing. Primary crop processes are to condition the seed into an
intermediate state that will encourage long storage life of the finished crop product (Olaoye,
2010a).
Secondary food processing is to convert locust bean seed from the intermediate finished
product into desired cube which requires fermentation and cubing operations (Olaoye
(2010a).
Fig 1.5: Harvested Locust Bean under Storage Condition

Source: Olaoye (2010a)
Fig 1.6: Sun Drying Locust Bean Pod

Fig 1.7: Manual Decortication of Locust Bean Pod
Fig 1.8: A Traditional Locust Bean Depulpper

Fig 1.9: Packaging of Iru (Traditional, Left) and Modern (Cubes Right)
Olaoye (2010a) gave two major challenges involved in production and processing locust bean
as production bottleneck associated with the crop's seasonality and also traditional processing
procedure with the attendant low quality and quantity of the derived products.
Harvesting
Threshing
Locust Bean Seed and Pulp Chaff
Depulpping Locust Bean

Size Soaking
Pulp
Reduction
Locust Bean Seed

Soaking in Water
Mixing of Extraction by
Biomass & Binder Heat Treatment
Boiling
Drying
Potash
Compaction Dye Tanni Produced
Cooking &
Soaking Sedimentation
Locust Bean
Sheath Removed Briquette Formed
Decanting Process
Decoating
Fermentation Clear Sikomu Drink
Sludge & Fibre

Waste discharged
Dawadawa / Iru
Fig 1.10: Processing Procedure for Production of Major African Locust Bean Products
Locust Bean Raw Material Collection
Drying of Harvested Pod

Primary Crop
Processing Operations
Decortication
Depulpping
Drying
Secondary Food Processing Fermentation

Operations
Cubing
Drying of Fermented iru

Pasting of Fermented iru
Paste
Pulverizing
Cubing / Pelletizing
Mixing with Binder

Drying
Mixing / Pelletizing
Packaging
Packaging
Fig 1.11: Flow Chart of Unit Operations Involved in the Iru Cube Production
CHAPTER 2.0 PROSPECTS OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN
2.1 Uses and Importance of African Locust Bean Tree
High cost of animal protein has directed interest towards several leguminous potential
sources of vegetable protein for human (Esenwah and Ikenebomeh, 2008). Among plant
species, grain legumes are considered as major source of dietary proteins. African locust
bean seeds are rich in protein and are usually fermented to a tasty food condiment called
dawadawa which is used as a flavour intensifier for soups and stews and also adds protein to
protein-poor diets (Ikenebomeh and Kok, 1984; Odunfa, 1986; Dike and Odunfa, 2003).
Locust bean tree plays a vital role in stabilizing the soils in farming areas and cycling
nutrients from deeper soil layers, as well as by providing shade (Campell-Platt, 1980). As a
leguminous plant of sub-family Mimosoideae, it also fixes atmospheric Nitrogen (Cobley and
Steele, 1976).
African locust bean tree has a high nutritional economic, industrial and medicinal value
(Adewumi, 1997). The most important use of African locust bean tree is found in its seed
which is a grain legume. The husks and pods have been reported as good food for livestock
(Douglas, 1996, Obiazoba, 1998). The pod shell traditionally is used to extract a substance
that helps to harden beaten natively made house floors and is an important source of tannin
for leather industry. The yellow powdery pulp is rich in carbohydrate (Oladele et al., 1985)
and rich in oil suitable for the manufacture of soap (Owoyale et al., 1986) and is used in the
production of a native gruel (Kunnu) (Musa, 1991). The presence of fibres in the husk,
together with tannins makes it a good raw material for production of particle board (Owoyale
et al., 1986). The leaves are rich in Nitrogen and used as feed for livestock and manure
(Adewumi, 1997). The bean coat is used with indigo dye to improve the lustre of fabric,
while the tree bark yields red tannin for dying leather. Carbon gum is extracted from the bean
and added to foods and cosmetics as thickeners and emulsifiers (Yudkin, 1985). The dried
pods could be used as fuel.
The embedded yellow pulp of the fruits sometimes called dozim have a high energy value
which is used as sweetener since it contains 60 % sugar (Audu et al., 2004). It is also a water
purifier and is taken for fevers. The fruit is a source of food during drought. The leaves are
edible and sometimes mixed with cereal and are added in lotions for sore eyes burns,
haemorrhoids and toothache. Medicinally, the bark is used as a mouth wash and also
macerated in baths to cure leprosy. It is used for a wide range of ailments such as malaria,
diarrhoea; jaundice (Audu et al., 2004). The tree is a good source of timber though it is
rapidly spoiled by pests (Owolarafe et al., 2011).
When processed the African locust seeds constitute an important condiment that adds taste
and flavour to soup (Oje, 1993). The seeds (karwa- Hausa; ngin- Ham; Iyere- Yoruba) are
traditionally used as food condiment (dawadawa- Hausa; Iru- Yoruba; soumbala in Burkina
faso, Mali, Cotdevoire and Guinea, Ogiri in the Eastern Nigeria). Dehydrated “tempeli” is an
equivalent fermented product in Indonesia (Steinkrans et al., 1965). The seeds contain about
26 % protein and are rich in Calcium (Vickery and Vickery, 1979). It is used as a food
condiment and is a good substitute for meat because it is high in protein, fat, and vitamins
contents (Obizoba and Atu, 1993) and it is rich in tannin and mineral contents (Obizoba and
Atu, 1993, Enujiugha and Ayodele - Oni, 2003).
Nutritionally, African locust beans are important particularly in the third world countries
where the need for protein supplementation is high for both adults and infants. The average
daily per capital intake of dawadawa among some Hausas in Northern Nigeria constitutes 1.4
% of daily calories and 5 % of the protein (Simeon, 1976). The daily per capital intake of
protein from dawadawa is high than from poultry but less than from beef (Ogunbunmi and
Bashir, 1980). Thousands of West African women earn cash income by making daddawa in
low capital small scale enterprises at home and selling it at local market. The condiment
contributes to calorie and protein intake (Simmons, 1976; Umoh and Oke, 1974) and is
generally added to soups as low meat substitute by low- income families in parts of Nigeria
(Odunfa, 1985).
African locust bean is being used as food flavours and additives. It is a raw material for the
production of cubed food flavour such as dawadawa cube which competes favourably with
magi cube (Adewumi, 1997). Throughout the West African savannah, daddawa (a Hausa
word, also dawadawa) or “local magi” is eaten regularly in soups and stews. Daddawa is tasty
and protein –rich seasoning which is used like stock cubes or cheese in European and North
American cooking (Waters-Bayer, 1988).
African locust bean tree serves essentially for economic and ecological purposes (Tee et al.,
2009). Economically, the tree provides income and employment to many household members
and particularly women who are more involved in processing and marketing of locust bean
products. Trading activities are in raw seeds, fermented food condiment, charcoal and
firewood among others provides reasonable income and employment. Ecologically, African
locust bean tree plays a vital role in nutrients recycling and erosion control. The tree acts as
buffer against the effect of strong wind or water runoff that usually causes damage to crops
and soil. Being leguminous plant, it fixes Nitrogen in the soil thereby enriching the soil
nutrients content. It also provides medicinal services and energy supply (Tee et al., 2009).
Figure 2.1 gives the constituents of Parkia Clappertoniana fruit.
All the parts of African locust bean tree are useful (Olaoye, 2010). The pods are used for
production of locust bean gum. This gum is used around the world as a thickening agent and
stabiliser in many food products such as mayonnaise and within textile industry as a print
thickener (Glasson Grain Ltd, 2006). Fermented bean pulp waste contained protein 11.75 %;
ash, 15.86 %; crude fibre, 21.55 %; starch, 32.14 %; dry matter, 93.5 % and moisture, 6.5 %
while unfermented pulp contained protein 10.13 %; ash content, 14.14 %; crude fibre 22.63
%; starch, 28.20 %; dry matter, 92.5 % and moisture, 7.5 %. Unfermented locust pulp waste
exhibited a stronger binding effect than corn starch after 12 weeks storage (Akegbejo-
Samsons et al., 2004).
Fruit (100%)
Husk (39 %) Pulp (31.7 %) Seed (29.3 %)
Meat oil (2.6 %) Sugar (16.9 %) Cellulose (12.2 %) Seed oil (5 %)
Fructose Glucose Sucrose
Fig. 2.1: Constituents of Parkia Clappertoniana Fruit

Source: Owoyale et al., (1986)
Hopkins (1983) observed that beside the direct use in human nutrition, the pods of P.
Clappertoniana are used as food for domestic stock. He gave various potentially toxic
substances present in the fruit as:
i. a crystalline substance , parkine, which is isolated from powdered pods of P.

clappertoniana. Its physiological action when injected into animals is similar to that of
alkaloids mimosine and physostignine.
ii. Analyses of seeds showed that several sulphur containing non- protein free amino acids are
present, including djencolic acid.
iii. lectins found in the seeds of African Parkia agglutinate human and some animal red blood
cells.
However, despite the importance , use of African locust bean seeds like some other legumes
as protein source is limited by the presence of anti- nutritional factors which are a diverse
range of naturally occurring compounds in many tropical plants ( Esenwah and Ikenebomeh,
2008). The anti- nutritional factors cause poor protein digestibility in man and animals and
are capable of precipitating other deleterious effects. Manifestations of toxicity from the
consumption of legumes containing anti- nutritional factors range from severe reduction in
food intake and nutrient availability or utilization, to profound neurological effects and even
death (Osagie, 1998). Esenwah and Ikenebomeh (2008) recommended that to improve
nutritional quality and organoleptic acceptability of leguminous seeds, African locust bean
inclusive, processing techniques must be employed to reduce or destroy the anti nutrients
presents in them. They mentioned some commonly used processing techniques such as
soaking in water, boiling at high temperatures in water, alkaline or acidic solutions,
sprouting, autoclaving, roasting, dehulling, microwave treatment, steam blanching and
fermentation.
2.2 Prospects of Mechanization of African Locust Bean Production and Processing

Hesseltine and Wang (1979) reported that in order to increase the production of iru, it is
necessary to modernise production style and optimise processing conditions as it will
guarantee improved and consistent flavour and increased shelf life
Mechanising the processing of African locust bean into condiment has a great deal of merit
(Simonyan, 1988) as it will:
i. Improve or reduce drudgery associated with processing
ii. Improve the quality and acceptability of iru condiment
iii. Improve Iru condiment preservation for long term use
iv. Enhance rural economy.
Oni (1986) observed that decorticating by hand is labour intensive, grossly inefficient and
time consuming. Hence a simple and relatively inexpensive decorticating machine must be
developed to overcome this labour bottleneck.
CHAPTER 3.0 STATUS OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEANS SEED
PROCESSING
3.1 Traditional Food Processing Technologies
Traditional technologies of food processing and preservation date back thousands of years
and unlike electronics and other high technology industries, they preceded any scientific
understanding of their inherent nature and consequences (Hulse, 1983). Traditional foods and
traditional food processing techniques form part of culture of the people. Traditional food
processing activities constitute a vital body of indigenous knowledge handed down from
parent to child over several generations (Aworh, 2008). According to Aworh (2008) simple,
low cost, traditional food processing techniques are bedrock of small – scale food processing
enterprises and their contributions to the economy are enormous.
Agro-processing plays strategic role of imparting durability, enhancing product

differentiation and generally adding value to agricultural commodities in order to prepare
them for global marketing (Ngoddy, 2007).
The objectives and main features of some of traditional food processing techniques are
presented in the Table 3.1:
Table 3.1: Objectives and Main Features of Some Traditional Food Processing
Techniques
Objectives Main features/ Limitations
Preliminary/Post-
harvest operations
Threshing To detach grain kernels Carried out by trampling on the grain or

from the panicle beating it with sticks. Labour -
intensive, inefficient, low capacity.
Winnowing To separate the chaff Done by throwing the grain into the air.
from the grain Labour - intensive , low capacity,
inefficient
Dehulling To remove the grain from Carried out by pounding the grain in a
its outer protective casing mortar with pestle. Labour - intensive,
low capacity excessive grain breakage
Peeling To separate the peel or Manual peeling with knives or similar

skin from edible pulp objects. Labour – intensive, low
capacity, loss of edible tissue.
Milling
Dry milling To separate the bran and Carried out by pounding in a mortar
germ from endosperm with pestle or grinding with stone.
Laborious, inefficient, limited capacity.
Wet milling To recover mainly starch Carried out by pounding or grinding

in the production of after steeping. Laborious, limited
fermented foods capacity, high protein losses, poor
quality product.
Heat processing
Roasting To impart desirable Peanuts are roasted by stirring in hot

sensory qualities, sand in a flat – bottom frying pot over a
enhance palatability, hot flame. Laborious, limited capacity.
reduce anti-nutritional
factors.
Cooking To contact curd and Loose curd pieces are cooked in a pot
facilitate whey expulsion, over wood fire. Limited capacity.
reduce microbial load,
inactivate vegetable
rennet, impart desirable
sensory qualities.
Parboiling To facilitate milling and Done by steeping paddy rice in cold or

enrich milled rice with warm water followed by steaming in
bags in drums. Limited capacity, poor
B- Vitamins and minerals
quality product.
Blanching To inactivate plant Slices (e.g. yam for elubo production)

enzymes and minimise are heated in hot water in a pot for
oxidative changes various durations. Limited capacity,
leading to deterioration
in sensory and nutritional poor quality product
qualities.
Drying
Thin layer sun drying To reduce moisture Product is spread in a thin layer in the
content and extend shelf open (roadside, rooftop, packed earth
life etc). Labor - intensive, requires
considerable space, moisture too high
for long term stability, poor quality
Smoke drying To impart desirable Meat chunks after boiling are exposed
sensory qualities, reduce to smoke in earthen kiln or drum.
moisture content and Limited capacity , poor quality product
extend shelf life
Fermentation To extend shelf life, Natural fermentation with microbial

inhibit spoilage and flora selection by means of substrate
pathogenic composition and back - slopping.
microorganisms, impart Limited capacity, variable quality.
desirable sensory
qualities, improve
nutritional value or
digestibility
Source: Aworh, (2008)
3.2 Traditional Method of Processing African Locust Bean
Traditional processing of dawadawa starts with harvesting of physiologically matured pods

containing 10-18 seeds encased in a yellow, sweet farinaceous endocarp (Ohenhen et al.,
2008). Decortication of locust bean pod is achieved by hand to obtain seed obtained in the
yellow pulp. The yellow matrix is subsequently washed off and the seeds dried in sun, on a
mat or concrete platform and stored until it is ready for further processing (Simonyan and
Oni, 2001).
Production of fermented African locust bean has remained a traditional family art in homes
with rudimentary utensils (Audu et al., 2004). Adewumi and Olalusi (1995) reported that
processing of locust beans is mainly done locally by women. Methods used vary from one
locality to another depending on the culture of the people, their beliefs, taste and practice of
the fore - parents who were involved in the same vocation. These variations in processing
techniques in turn bring about variations in the quality of Iru (Sadiku, 2010).
To make condiment, Waters - Bayer (1988) gave graphic details that locust beans would be
boiled for at least 24 hours with water being added frequently. Cooked beans – still quite firm
are then mixed with wood ash and pounded and washed several times to remove the seed
coats. The beans are boiled for another 3-4 hours until they become softer, and are then
spread in a large flat basket, covered with leaves and allowed to ferment for two days. On the
third day, the locust bean mass is transferred to a deep bowl and allowed to ferment for
another 24 hours. It is then spread out again in a large flat basket and partially dried in sun for
several hours, before it is pounded with mortar and pestle into a paste and formed by hand
into balls or wafers. After the daddawa has been dried throughout in the sun, it has good
keeping qualities. This entire daddawa production process as observed in North Central
Nigeria requires about six days. Some other variants of daddawa making elsewhere in West
Africa are described by Campbell-Platt (1980).
Processing of locust beans into food condiment involves series of unit operations:
decortication of matured pods, boiling, dehulling, separation of hull from beans and
fermentation into various forms of condiments. These unit operations are still done manually
with women being the key player in locust bean processing. The traditional unit operations
are:
Depulping: Depulpping of locust bean is an essential operation after threshing when

processing locust bean seeds to its various derivatives and products (Olaoye, 2010b). African
locust bean pod contains small beans and sweet edible pulp. The pod chaff can be used as
animal feed while the pulp is a source of chocolate substitute. Locally woven basket or
perforated calabash is used to depulp locust bean traditionally. Threshed locust beans are
placed in the basket and submerged in a gentle flowing river, stream or pond. Mixture of
seed and pulp is stirred with hands to push out slurry through pore space. The basket is
vigorously agitated within a fixed location in a flowing water medium. Pulp is filtered into
the water and seeds retained inside basket or calabash. This operation is labour intensive and
time consuming. Traditional method of depulpping locust bean seeds requires large volume
of water. Ease of depulpping operation is a function of availability of running stream.
Harvesting time and processing period correspond to the off season of relative abundant
supply of required water. Therefore, a depulpping machine that will reduce high dependency
on large volume of water is desirable. The locust bean seed must first be depulpped before
the product can be subjected to further processing.
Boiling: African locust bean seed is encased in a hard, tough, relatively thick coat with semi-
permeable characteristics. During the boiling process, soluble constituents of the seed coat
dissolve and migrate into the seed (Adewumi and Igbeka, 1993). The boiling process is aimed
at creating good dehulling characteristics which is achieved by weakening of bond between
testa and cotyledons (Adewumi and Igbeka 1993).
Steaming: Steaming African locust bean seed is done to soften hard outer coat for dehulling.
Traditionally, steaming is achieved by boiling the threshed seeds in an earthenware pot or big
metallic drums overnight (about 24 hours) (Adewumi and Olalusi, 1995).
Dehulling: Dehulling is either done dry or wet. The interface adhesive strength that binds
coat to the locust bean seed is higher than in other legumes. Hence dry dehulling is not
considered an option in traditional dehulling of locust bean (Adewumi and Igbeka, 1993).
Traditionally, locust bean seed is dehulled by mashing boiled seeds with bare feet near
riverside or using pestle in a mortar (Oyeyiola, 1988; Adewumi and Olalusi, 1995). If a
mortar is used some clean sand may be added to ease removal of hull.
Separation: Separation in locust bean processing, is removal of hull from edible cotyledon.
Separation process is carried out locally using principle of buoyancy or by using a screen.
Traditional separation of locust bean hulls is achieved using a locally fabricated calabash
with perforations called “Ajere”. The local producers randomly drill arbitrary sizes of holes
on the calabash (Adewumi and Olalusi, 1995).
Fermentation: Fermentation process involved boiling clean cotyledon for about 30 minutes.
Water is drained and cotyledons are spread into a calabash having the inside rubbed with
wood ash or laid with leaves. The calabash is covered with jute bag and left in a warm place
for 72 hours for fermentation (Oyeyiola, 1988). Locust bean seed balls are covered with
additional banana leaves or placed in raffia mats and allowed to ferment for 2-3 days covered
with jute bags (Okafor, 1987). Alternatively, dehulled seeds, after boiling, are spread hot on
wide calabash trays in layers of about 10 cm deep, wrapped with jute bags and allowed to
ferment for about 36 hours. Fermented product is salted, molded into various shapes and
dried (Odunfa, 1985). The main microorganisms involved in dawadawa fermentation are
Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis. The most important biochemical change that
occurs during fermentation is extensive hydrolysis of proteins in African locust bean (Aworh,
2008). Other biochemical changes that occur during dawadawa fermentation include
hydrolysis of indigestible oligosaccharides present in African locust bean, notably stachyose
and raffinose, to simple sugars by α- and β – galactosidases, synthesis of B- vitamins
(thiamine and riboflavin) and reduction of anti-nutritional factors (oxalate and phytate) and
vitamin C (Eka, 1980; Odunfa, 1985, Aworh, 2008). Fermented products remain of interest
since they do not require refrigeration during distribution and storage (Achi, 2005).
3.3 Modern Method of Processing African Locust Bean
The application of various, evolving technological processes have resulted in modern

methods of processing African locust bean (Audu et al., 2004; Adewumi et al., 1999) such
as:
Boiling: Boiling units such as steamers and pressurized vessel are employed in order to
enhance good dehulling characteristics and high quality of final product. The use of gas and
charcoal as fuel has also been embraced since this provides clean operation and sustained
heat input during boiling. When pressure pot is used to carry out the boiling, it will make
locust bean ready for dehulling in 30 to 50 minutes between temperature range of 1210 C and
151 0 C (Oyewole and Odunfa, 1990). Adewumi and Igbeka (1993) reported that when locust
bean seed is allowed to cool for 5 minutes after boiling, it poses a dual advantage of both
increasing the dehulling characteristics of dehulled surface and upon condensation, the water
that migrated into the seed during the boiling process settles between the cotyledon and the
testa thereby weakening the bond.
Dehulling: An important mechanical property required for dehulling is shear strength

(Mohsenin, 1970). Both dry and wet dehulling involves shearing of surfaces with dehulling
medium (Adewumi and Igbeka 1996). Though some impact load is associated with dry
dehulling when using mortar and pestle, the major strength responsible for dehulling is shear
strength (Singh and Sokhansanj, 1984). Impact load on seed should not exceed shock load
and compression load, otherwise the seed would be crushed and the efficiency of dehulling
would be reduced (Reichert, 1987). In lieu of impact loading and rubbing action on the wall
of mortal carried out traditionally on boiled seeds, dehullers are used to achieve the same
purpose with rubbing action (force) against the wall of dehulling chamber. Audu et al.,
(2004) reported that the guiding principles are very much the same as that of traditional
process which is abrasion. This is usually accomplished with a rotating auger made of mild
steel having a clearance of 6.5 mm between the auger coil and the abrasive wall of the
dehulling chamber. This is to allow shear force act on seeds whose average thickness is about
8 mm, thereby obtaining dehulled seeds. Dehulling process seeks to impact the seeds with a
shear force for separation to occur.
Locust bean
pods
Depodding
Removal of yellowish
pulp
Locust bean seeds
Pre- dehulling Cleaning
Drying Boiling
Winnowing Dehulling
Washing
Re-cooking
Fermentation
Food condiment
Fig 3.1: Flow Chart for Traditional Processing of African Locust Bean Fruits to Food
Condiment
Source: Akande et al., (2010)
Dry dehulling is carried out in some areas but this, though done with the mortar and pestle
giving an impact, also seeks to provide the major required shear force. The impact force
should be ensured not to exceed the compressive force on the seed otherwise; it may lead to
crushing of the seeds to be dehulled (Owolarafe et al., 2011).
Separation: Separation of hulls from edible seeds has constituted a challenge due to the
sticky nature of seeds with testa. Hydrocyclone separation has been used in separating locust
bean from the hull but only 37 % efficiency was recorded (Adewumi et al., 1999).
Centrifugation is a process used to separate a mixture of substances with different densities.
The centrifugal force is created by rotating spindle carrying vanes which helps create
turbulence in water. The turbulence in separating chamber during operation aids in detaching
coats that are loosely attached to the seed (Owolarafe et al., 2011). The result of this is that
heavier cotyledons are thrown down. Separation is based on the principle of floatation.
According to Archimedes principle, the lighter testa displaces its own weight in the flowing
water runoff thereby achieving separation (Owolarafe et al., 2011). Dehulled seed naturally
sinks in water while the coat floats.
Boiling, steaming, dehulling and separation are still being handled by separate devices and
these induce a lot of handling challenges. Hence longer processing time is recorded. The need
for technological intervention that can handle these three operations as a component will go a
long way to facilitate the seamless process (Adewumi and Igbeka, 1996).
3.4 Nutritional Composition of African locust bean
Alabi et al., (2005) reported that African locust bean is rich in lipid, protein, carbohydrate,
soluble sugars and ascorbic acid. The cotyledon according to them is very nutritious, has less
fibre and ash contents. The oil content is suitable for consumption since it contains very low
acid and iodine contents. Locust bean oil has high saponification value and hence would be
useful in the soap industry (Sadiku, 2010). African locust bean has essential acids and
vitamins and serves as a protein supplement in the diet of poor families (Diawara et al.,
2000). Dawadawa is used in soups, sauces and stews to enhance or impart meatiness
(Klanjear et al., 2002).
African locust beans (Parkia biglobosa) are fermented to produce condiments. Fermented
locust bean is a well known condiment with characteristic ammoniacal smell and flavour
which enhances taste of traditional soup and sauces especially those used as accompaniments
to starchy foods (Odebunmi et al., 2010). Locust bean condiment is known to contribute to
calorie and protein intake. (Odunfa, 1985, Umoh and Oke, 1974, Potter and Hothkiss, 1995).
It is generally added to soups as low cost meat substitute by low income families (Odebunmi
et al., 2010). The flavouring properties of dawadawa are most likely to be due to its amino
acid content, in particular glutamate, which contributed to flavour enhancement as well as
peptides and aroma volatile constituents (Ohenhen et al., 2008). Volatiles evolve as a result
of the effect of heat on amino acid and fatty acid constituents of dawadawa (Owen et al.,
1997).
Odebunmi et al., (2010) published that the nutritional components of fermented locust beans
(except ash) are significantly higher than those of the raw beans. Their result showed that
about 79 % increase was observed in the moisture content from 8.67 % in raw to 41.85 % in
fermented, while fat and protein content increased by about 45 % and 40 % respectively.
High protein content of fermented locust beans (35.73%) is similar to those reported by Alabi
et al., (2005) 34.02 %; Okpala (1990) 31.6 %; Obizoba (1998) 34.3 % and Omafuvbe et al.,
(2004) 37.2 % for the fermented locust bean seeds. Omafuvbe et al., (2004) reported that the
protein content increased as fermentation period increased. Odebunmi et al., (2010)
confirmed that nutrient enrichment occurs as fermentation takes place in African locust beans
(Table 3.2).
Gernah et al., (2007) reported that the yellow dry powdery fruit pulp called „dorowa‟ in
Hausa of African locust bean is sweet to taste, which indicates presence of natural sugars and
thus a potential energy source. The yellow colour indicates presence of phyto- nutrients,
possibly carotenoids, which are important precursors of retinol (vitamin A). It has a sour taste
which indicates presence of ascorbic acid (vitamin C). The flow chart for production of
African locust bean fruit pulp flour is shown in Figure 3.2. Uwaegbute (1996) reported that
the powdery fruit pulp contains more carbohydrate than the seeds, the carbohydrates being
primarily reducing sugars (19 %), non reducing sugars (9 %) and other complex
carbohydrates (36 %). Literatures revealed that fruit pulp is used in rural Africa during
emergencies, when stores are empty, which is an indication of its edibility and non-toxicity
(Owoyele et al., 1987; Akoma et al., 2001). Locust bean fruit pulp is used also as an
ingredient in the preparation of various stews, soups and sauces for the consumption of
cereals, pressed into cakes and preserved for later use or used in the preparation of some
indigenous foods (Akoma et al., 2002, Muller, 1988).
Table 3.2: Nutritional Composition of Raw and Fermented African Locust Beans
Constituents Raw African locust beans Fermented African locust beans
(Parkia biglobosa)
(Parkia biglobosa)
(%)
(%)
Moisture 8.67  0.70c 41.85  0.19d
Dry Matter 91.33  0.70c 58.15  0.19d
Crude fat 19.30  1.32c 35.27  0.94d
Crude Protein 21.38  0.53b 35.73  0.54c
Ash 5.01  0.25c 3.21  0.37d
Crude Fibre 3.97  0.31c 5.2  0.23d
Values are means  standard deviations of triplicate determinations. Values in the same
column sharing the same letters are not significantly different at the 5 % level.
Source: Extracted from Odebunmi et al., (2010)
Gernah et al., (2007) determined the nutritional and anti nutritional composition of African
locust bean (Parkia Biglobosa) fruit pulp (Table 3.3). Carbohydrate content of African locust
bean pulp was found to be 67.30 %. This is higher than seeds (49.49 %) as reported by
Fetuga et al., (1974); and is in agreement with the findings of Uwaegbute (1996) that fruit
pulp contains more carbohydrates than seeds. With this content of carbohydrate, African
locust bean fruit pulp is a potential good source of energy given the recommended daily
energy intake (Muller, 1988). Though proteins and fats also provide energy, carbohydrates
are much cheaper and more easily digested and absorbed (Fox and Cameron, 1989).
African Locust Bean
Pods
Deseeding
Pulping
Drying 600C for 9 Hours
Milling
Sieving
African Locust Bean Fruit Pulp Flour
Fig 3.2: The Flow Chart of Production of African Locust Bean Fruit Pulp Flour
Source: Gernah et al., (2007)
Crude fibre of African locust bean fruit pulp was found to be 11.75 % (Gernah et al., 2007).
Though the crude fibre does not contribute nutrients or energy, it is a source of dietary fibre
which is essential for good bowel movement and helps in preventing obesity, diabetes, and
cancer of the colon and other ailments of gastro - intestinal tract of man (Gernah et al., 2007).
According to Gernah et al.,( 2007) though the crude fibre obtained for fruit pulp is less than
that of seeds (18.00 %) as reported by Uwaegbute (1996) , it is much higher than for most
food legumes, which range from 2.10 % in groundnuts to 7.60 % in kidney beans
(Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). This makes African locust beans fruit pulp a potential good
source of dietary fibre (Gernah et al., 2007).
Crude fat of African locust bean fruit pulp was found to be 1.80 %. Stein (1982) reported fat
content of 0.50 % for Mediterranean locust bean (Ceratonia siliqua) fruit pulp. This low fat
content is an indication that African locust bean fruit pulp can store for long period at right
temperature and moisture content without spoilage by rancidity which is characteristic of
most legumes.
African locust bean fruit pulp ash content of 4.18 % is within the range for most legumes of
2.00 % in peas and 5.00 % in soya beans (Gernah et al., 2007). This figure is much higher
than the 1.00 % obtained for the fruit pulp of the Mediterranean species by Stein (1982)
which indicate that the African locust bean fruit pulp is a potential good source of minerals
required by the body (Gernah et al., 2007).
Table 3.3 shows some chemical properties of African locust bean fruit pulp. Sugar content
was found to be 9.0 Brix. Gernah et al ., (2007) reported that apart from imparting sweetness,
sugar acts as a preservative when present in high concentration by making water unavailable
to micro organisms. It is also a ready source of energy since it is more easily digested and
absorbed than other complex carbohydrates.
Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) of 5.22 suggests that African locust bean fruit pulp is
slightly acidic food material. This implies enzymic and microbiological activities would be
inhibited to some extent thereby having a positive influence on protein stability (Gernah et
al., 2007).
Total carotenoids of African locust bean fruit pulp amounted to 49,175 fag / 100 g. This value
is much higher than that obtained for some commonly consumed foods like yellow maize
(200 ug /100g); plantain (800 fag / 100g; cabbage (2000 jug /100g); mango (3000 ng /100g)
and carrots (12000 u£ /100g) as reported by Muller (1988). Carotenes are usually converted
to retinol (Vitamin A) in the small intestine and its colour also makes it more attractive to the
eye (Gernah et al., 2007). The value of carotenoids indicates that African locust bean fruit
pulp is a potential source of vitamin A given that the recommended daily intake is 750 ug/
100g per 65 kg adult human (Muller, 1988).
Table 3.3: Nutritional and Anti-Nutritional Composition of the African Locust Bean
Fruit Pulp
Parameter Composition
Nutritional Properties
Moisture Content (%) 8.41
Crude Protein (%) 6.56
Crude fat (%) 1.80
Crude fibre (%) 11.75
Ash (%) 4.18
Carbohydrate (%) 67.30
Sugar content (0Brix) 9.00
Hydrogen ion conc (pH) 5.22
Total carotenoids (fag/100g) 49,175.00
Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 191.20
Anti-nutritional factors/toxins
Phytic acid (mg/100g) 60.00
Crude saponins ( mg/100g) 17.80
Tannins (mg/100g) 18.00
Total phenols (mg/100g) 204.60
HCN (mg/100g) 17.30
Values are means of duplicate determinations
(Source: Gernah et al., 2007)
Vitamin C content of African locust bean fruit pulp was found to be 191.20 mg/100g, which
is quite high (Gernah et al., 2007). This is in agreement with the values of 200 mg/100 g
reported by Muller (1988) for locust bean yellow pulp, which is higher than most regularly
consumed foodstuff as reported by Gaman and Sherrington (1999); and adequate when
compared to the recommended daily intake of 30 mg /65 kg body weight adult human (Olson
and Hodges, 1987). Vitamin C according to Gernah et al., (2007) is very useful in collagen
synthesis, facilitates iron absorption and participates in biosynthesis of glucocorticoids.
Results of anti-nutritional factors / toxins are presented in Table 3.3. Phytic acid content of
African locust bean fruit pulp was found to be 60.00 mg /100g. Though the smallest toxic
dose of phytates in man is not known, it is reported that high doses are required for any
appreciable effect in man (Aremu, 1989; Gernah et al., 2007). McCance and Widdowson
(1935) found no apparent effect in human subjects fed 2.00 g of phytate except that as much
as 50 % of dietary phytate phosphorous was rendered unavailable to the body being excreted
unchanged. The result is consistent with the findings of Nkama and Gbenyi (2001).
African locust bean fruit pulp saponin content was found to be 17.80 mg/100 g which could
be a contributory factor to foaming characteristic of fruit pulp (Gernah et al., 2007). Gernah
et al .,(2007) published that this is much lower than in other every day foodstuffs like lima
beans (24.50 mg/100g) and millet (19.47 mg /100g) as reported by Osagie (1998) and is
therefore considered safe. Although saponins have been shown to be highly toxic under
experimental conditions, acute poisoning is relatively rare, both in man and animals
(Tannenbaum, 1979).
Tannin content of African locust bean fruit pulp was found to be 81.00 mg /100 g (Gernah et
al .,2007) which is much lower than some every day consumed legumes like lima beans
(140.00 mg /100g) and pigeon pea (100 mg /100g) as reported by Osagie (1998). Total
phenols were also found to be 204. 60 mg /100 g, which is lower than 12,160.00 mg/100 g for
lima beans as reported by Osagie (1998) and therefore considered to be safe and acceptable
(Gernah et al ., 2007).
African locust bean fruit pulp hydrocyanic acid (HCN) content was found to be 17.30
mg/100g which is far below the lethal dose for man of 50-60 mg /kg body weight /day as
reported by Balagopalan et al .,(1988). Gernah et al 2007) concluded that African locust bean
fruit pulp is a potentially good source of food which can compete favourably with most
cereals and legumes. The chemical composition indicates that it is good source of macro and
micro – nutrients. The bright yellow colour and high sugar content imparts sensory appeals to
the African locust bean pulp. All anti- nutritional factors and toxins analysed are found to be
present in acceptable and safe levels.
Elemo et al., (2011) evaluated the nutritional and anti-nutritional composition of African
locust bean with the aim of providing data that will guide effective utilization. Raw seeds of
African locust bean were depulped, dehulled, dehydrated and defatted as described by
Ikenebomeh and Kok (1984). The seeds were soaked in tap water for twelve hours to soften
adhering pulpy materials. The pulp was removed by rubbing seeds between the palms and
washing them with water. Depulped cleaned seeds were dried at room temperature for twenty
four hours and dehulled to free the cotyledon from dark brown testa by hydrating, boiling,
cooling, draining and rubbing of seed between the palms and washing with water. Dehulled
seeds were oven dried at 70 0C for twenty four hours (Nordeide et al., 1996) to a constant
weight, cooled and grounded to fine powder using blender. Fat was extracted using soxhlet
method and the resulting defatted locust bean powder was oven dried, cooled and stored in an
airtight polythene bags in a dessicator until they were analysed. Chemical analyses were
carried out using standard methods. Crude protein, fats, ash, lipid profile, elemental analysis
and total carbohydrate content of the sample were estimated by standard methods (Pearson,
1970, AOAC 1990). Soluble sugars and free amino acids in defatted samples were extracted
with 80 % ethanol (v/v) following the method of Odibo et al (1990). Free amino acids
content in the samples was determined using the method of Spackman et al (1958) while
reducing sugar was estimated by colorimetric method (Somogy, 1945) using glucose as a
standard. Total starch was estimated using diastate hydrolysis method as modified by Fasidi
(1975), the quantity of hydrolysed starch was determined by using phenol-I sulphuric acid
method of Gilles et al., (1956). The dry matter, moisture content and crude fibre contents
were determined by Alabi et al., (2005). Trpsin inhibitor activity of samples was determined
by the method of Kekede et al., (1974). Phytic acid was determined by an indirect
calorimetric method of Wheeler and Ferrel (1971). Anti-nutritional factors, mineral analysis,
fatty acid composition and free amino acid composition were also determined.
The results obtained showed African locust bean to be a good source of potassium and
phosphorous (Elemo et al., 2011). A high unsaturated – saturated fatty acids ratio was
observed with linoleic acid having the highest level. African locust bean has appreciable
quantity of sulphur- containing amino acids unlike most other legumes and they
recommended it as ideal for fortification applications with various food formulations (Elemo
et al., 2011).
Proximate composition and fibre content of African locust beans are presented in Tables 3.4
and 3.5 respectively. Elemo et al., (2011) reported that the protein, fat and carbohydrate
contents corresponded with that of other workers who reported nutritional adequacy of
African locust bean seeds with a proximate composition of 30.0 % protein, 15.0 % fat, 4.0 %
crude fibre, 2.0 % ash and 49.0% carbohydrate (Fetuga et al., 1974; Campbell- Platt, 1980,
Eka, 1980, Odunfa, 1986; Oke and Umoh, 1987). Reducing sugar levels has been reported
to decrease with processing (Omafuvbe et al., 2004). The effect of processing on the levels of
anti- nutritional factors of P. biglobosa is shown in the Table 3.6. Result for trypsin inhibitor
in African locust bean was 19.4 mg /100g while that for phytic acid (163 mg /100 g) was
comparable with the observations of Esenwah and Ikenebomeh (2008) (150 mg /100g)
(Elemo et al., 2011). Reduction of the anti-nutrient during processing of African locust beans
is therefore of great importance for safety of product (Elemo et al., 2011). Mineral content of
African locust bean is presented in Table 3.7. Potassium was present at a high level (1101.5
mg /100g while magnesium was 280.2 mg /100g, calcium was 222.2 mg /100g and
phosphorus was 170 mg /100g.
Fatty acid analysis of African locust bean is presented in Table 3.8. The observed fatty acids
were present in low amount ranging from 7.7 mg /100g for arachidic acid (20.0) to 90.4 mg
/100g for linoleic acid (Elemo et al., 2011) indicating the ratio of unsaturated fatty acid to
saturated fatty acids was high. Table 3.9 gave the amino acid composition of the African
locust bean. The amino acids were observed to be present in fair amounts. The results
obtained by Elemo et al., (2011) were lower than those reported in literature, Hassan and
Umar (2005) gave the composition ranges from 1.46 g /100g for threonine to 14.89 g /100g
for glutamic acid for African locust bean. The result however compared favourably with that
of Ega et al., (1988) in terms of distribution, except for tryptophan which was not detected in
their sample. Parkia biglobosa showed fair amounts of methionine and cystine (Table 3.9) as
given by Elemo et al., (2011).
Table 3.4: Proximate Composition of African Locust Bean (P. biglobosa)

Chemical Component Composition (%)
Protein 27.9
Starch 0.39
Dry matter 88.79
Ash 4.24
Fat 15.48
Carbohydrate 41.10
Moisture 11.21
Total reducing sugar 1.07
Glucose 0.09
Source: Elemo et al., (2011).
Table 3.5: Fibre Composition of African Locust Bean (P. biglobosa)
Fibre component Composition (%)
Crude fibre 11.23
Natural detergent fibre 28.34
Acid detergent fibre 19.6
Hemicellulose 8.8
Source: Elemo et al., (2011)
Table 3.6: Anti-Nutritional Factors in African Locust Bean (P. biglobosa)

Anti nutritional factor Composition ( mg/100g)
Trypsin inhibitor 19.4
Phytic acid 163.0
Table 3.7: Mineral Composition of African Locust Bean (P. biglobosa)

Mineral Symbol Composition(mg/100g)
Sodium Na 29.0
Potassium K 1101.5
Magnesium Mg 280.2
Calcium Ca 222.2
Manganese Mn 5.3
Zinc Zn 3.8
Iron Fe 9.3
Phosphorous P 170.0
Table 3.8: Fatty Acid Composition of African Locust Bean (P. Biglobosa)
Fatty acid Composition( mg/100g)
Palmitic acid(16.00) ND
Palmiloleic acid(16.1) 19.8
Strearic acid (18.0) 18.6
Oleic acid(18.1) 25.6
Linoleic acid (18.2) 90.4
Arachidic acid(20.0) 7.6
ND – Not Detected
Table 3.9: Free Amino Acid Composition of African Locust Bean (P. biglobosa)
Amino acid Composition Amino acid chemical Amino acid(g/100g)
(mg/100g) score (reference protein: egg-
white)
Lysine 475.0 10.24 4.64
Histidine 143.7 8.52 1.69
Arginine 312.5 6.87 4.54
Aspartic 762.5 12.53 6.09
Threonine 231.3 6.77 3.41
Serine 331.3 5.45 6.07
Glutamic acid 1325.0 12.21 10.89
Proline 925.0 31.68 2.92
Glycine 393.8 13.63 2.89
Alanine 356.3 6.49 5.49
Cystine 100.0 5.32 1.88
Valine 568.8 9.45 6.02
Methionine 62.5 2.09 3.01
Isoleucine 200.0 4.00 5.00
Leucine 506.3 7.44 6.80
Tyrosine 381.3 11.87 3.21
Phenylalanine 431.5 8.75 4.94
Tryptophan 30.0 2.54 1.18
CHAPTER 4 PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION METHODS OF
AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN CONDIMENT
4.1 Processing Methods of African Locust Bean Condiment
African locust bean processing methods vary from one locality to another depending on the
culture of the people, their beliefs, taste and practice of fore parents who were involved in
same vocation. These variations in processing techniques in turn bring about variations in
quality of Iru (Sadiku, 2010). Five common indigenous methods of processing locust bean
into fermented type in south western Nigeria viz: Ajibode, Saki, Improved, Steam and
Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN) methods using the same variety of Parkia
(Parkia biglobosa) seeds were examined by Sadiku (2010) in the laboratory. There was a
control method with no addition of chemical substances (Sadiku, 2010). Parkia pods used
for the study were obtained from same source to ascertain uniformity in handling of locust
bean seeds after harvesting. The pods were shelled manually by splitting them open with bare
hands to collect seeds coated with yellow pulp. The steps involved in the methods are as
follows:
i. Ajibode method: This is one of the traditional methods. The yellow pulp is removed
by soaking the pulp - coated seeds for 30 minutes in water and washed after. The
washed seeds are dried in sun for 6 hours, soaked again in water for 10 minutes
and later pounded in mortar with little coarse sand. Washing after pounding is
done via a sieve that is almost completely immersed in water. Dehulling which is
the next stage is removal of the testa from cotyledon. This is done by soaking the
seeds in water for 10-12 hours, followed by cooking which is done for 8 hours
with addition of wood ash and pounding in mortar with little coarse sand to
facilitate effective dehulling. Washing follows dehulling to recover the milk
coloured cotyledons. With the addition of potash (K2CO3), the clean cotyledons
are further parboiled for 30 minutes, packed and kept in a warm cupboard for
fermentation.
ii. Saki method: Same process in Ajibode method is employed except for addition of
wood ash during cooking. Parboiling is done for 35 minutes with addition of
potash.
iii. FRIN method: This method is also very similar to Ajibode method except that pre-
hulling cooking is done for 6 hours; parboiling of cotyledons is done for 45
minutes, while potash and common salt (NaCl) are added during parboiling.
iv. Improved method: This method differs from Ajibode method because there is 8-10
minutes pre-cooking of seeds before pulp removal. De-pulped seeds are soaked in
water for 72 – 96 hours, washed and cooked for 3 hours without wood ash before
dehulling. Parboiling of cotyledons takes 30 minutes before being fermented. In
this method, some seeds are collected after 15 minutes of parboiling (before the
addition of potash) for fermentation as the non- marshy type.
v. Steam method: This method came about in finding an alternative to cooking in water.
In involves steaming the seeds for four and half hours immediately after pod
shelling i.e. seeds coated with the pulp. In the laboratory, a steamer is improvised
using cooking pot and metal sieve. Water level in the pot does not reach the base
of the sieve. Seeds are poured in the sieve and steamed with the pot covered. This
method ensures no direct cooking of seeds in water. The steamed seeds are
dehulled by pounding in a rough- surfaced mortar without any addition of coarse
sand. Parboiling follows for 30 minutes without addition of potash. The clean
beans or cotyledons are fermented for 72 hours.
vi. Control method: The same procedure as in the Saki method is employed except that
no chemical substance or preservative is added during processing.
According to Sadiku (2010) all the six methods were carried out in the laboratory under
hygienic conditions, using plastic bowls and buckets, cooking pots , coarse sand, hygrometer,
thermometer, clean water, electric / kerosene stoves, sieve, weighing balance, measuring
cylinders, beakers, small wooden mortar and pestle. Fermentation was done at an average
ambient temperature of 28oC and 86 % relative humidity. Coarse sand used for pulp removal
and dehulling was thoroughly washed and dried before use. The products were assessed on
the basis of their physical and nutritive qualities by ranking and laboratory analysis
respectively. Parameters used in assessing the physical qualities include: palatability (taste
and mouth feel), colour, texture and aroma as shown in the Table 4.1 and 4.2 respectively:
Table 4.1: Scale of Ranking for the Determination of Physical Quality

Taste Sweet (1) Sour (2) Bitter (3)
Mouth feel Very coarse (1) Coarse (2) Smooth (3)
Colour Creamy brown (1) Dark brown (2) Greyish brown (3)
Texture Slightly marshy (1) Marshy (2) Very marshy (3)
Aroma Very mild (1) Mild (2) Strong (3)
Source: Sadiku (2010)
Table 4.2: Physical Quality Assessment of the Fermented African Locust Bean Samples
Samples
Parameters Control Saki Ajibode FRIN Improved Steam
NP P
Taste 3 2 2 1 2 2 2
Mouth feel 3 1 2 2 2 1 2
Colour 3 2 3 2 2 2 1
Texture 3 2 2 2 1 2 1
Aroma 3 3 3 3 2 3 1
NP – No potash added during parboiling P – Potash added during parboiling
Table 4.3 shows important composition of fermented African locust bean samples. Sadiku
(2010) reported that the pH values are relatively neutral for all samples which can be used as
one of the criteria to confirm the samples are safe for consumption (they are neither acidic
nor alkaline in nature). He also found out that addition of chemical substances or food
additives affect nutritive quality of Iru. He recommended best form of iru as the one produced
without chemical substances or food additives or preservatives with drying used as
preservation.
Table 4.3: Nutrient Composition of Fermented African Locust Bean Samples

Nutrient (g/100g) Methods
Control Ajibode FRIN Improved
Protein 49.92 42.38 43.58 62.58
Sugar 7.58 7.49 7.52 6.33
Fat 5.68 5.72 5.60 5.88
Vitamin B(IU) 0.003 0.0001 - 0.0001
Potassium (K) 0.355 0.1986 0.1641 0.2301
Magnesium(Mg) 0.444 0.5475 0.4078 0.2908
Calcium(Ca) 0.3655 0.3446 0.3202 0.3742
Nitrogen(N) 7.99 6.78 6.97 8.41
Phosphorous(P) 0.992 1.156 0.9548 1.270
pH (no Unit) 6.98 6.90 6.84 6.93
Table 4.4: Dehulling Efficiencies of the African Locust Bean Samples
Sample Dehulling Efficiency
1st trial 2nd trial 3rd trial 4th trial 5th trial Mean
Control 89 93 88 91 89 90
Ajibade 93 91 94 90 92 92
FRIN 91 87 85 91 91 89
Improved 96 94 92 95 93 94
Steam 89 86 89 85 86 87
Fermentation slightly deepens the brown colour which explains the creamy brown colour of
steamed sample after fermentation (Sadiku, 2010). The duration of fermentation affects the
texture of final product (Omafuvbe et al., 2004).
According to Sadiku (2010) cooking African locust bean seeds in water affects the aroma.
The water remaining after cooking the seeds gives an offensive odour which is from the testa
and absorbed by cotyledon. The offensive odour is very mild in steam method compared to
other methods, implying that there was little or no absorption by the cotyledon from the testa
when seeds were steamed for dehulling. The duration of cooking in water (Pre- dehulling
cooking and parboiling) also influences the texture of seeds The amount of water absorbed
by cotyledons during cooking primarily determines how marshy product will be while
bacterial (Bacillus and Staphylococcus) activities during fermentation enhance it (Sadiku,
2010).
Sadiku (2010) affirmed that soaking and cooking of locust bean seeds in water over a long
period of time promotes high dehulling efficiency because water is able to permeate the hard
testa over time to soften it (Table 4.4). He confirmed that steam method as most efficient if
steaming is extended beyond four and half hour. He concluded that steaming produces
relatively better physical qualities than any of the other methods in terms of aroma, colour,
taste and texture. He therefore recommended the steam method to replace direct cooking or
soaking of seeds in water. The method according to him is very fast and will encourage large
production of iru.
Chukwu et al., (2010) studied the effect of hydrothermal treatments and subsequent
fermentation on proximate compositions of locust bean. According to them locust bean seed
has high protein content which is essentially thermo – labile. Hence knowledge of effect of
hydrothermal treatments on proximate composition and subsequent fermentation process is
needed by processors and consumers to ensure food quality and stability as this will increase
the economic value and enhance organoleptic properties of dawadawa. The response of
nutritional compositions to hydrothermal processes is also needed in design of processing and
heating equipment in an attempt to mechanise some of the unit operations involved in
conversion of raw locust bean into dawadawa (Chukwu et al., 2010). The proximate
composition of raw African locust bean and dawadawa is given in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Proximate Composition of Raw African Locust Bean and Dawadawa
Nutritional Parameter Raw Locust Bean Dawadawa
Moisture content (%) 7.01  0.01a 37.1  0.20 b
Crude fibre (%) 4.70  0.20 c 2.00  0.10 d
Lipids (%) 9.57  0.03e 21.17  0.03 f
Crude protein (%) 28.00  2.00g 38.50  1.50 h
Ash (%) 2.00  0.20i 1.80  0.20 i
Carbohydrate (%) 55  b0.73 j 36.53  0.53k
Values are means of four replicate determination (Mean  SD), SD = standard Deviation,
* Different letters in the same row indicate significant differences, ** the same letter in same
row indicates no significant differences.
Source: Chukwu et al., (2010)
Esenwah and Ikenebomeh (2008) studied the processing effects on nutritional and anti
nutritional contents of African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) seed. African locust bean
seeds with thin layers of pulp material were processed by soaking in water for 12 hours,
washed to depulp the seeds and boiled in water for 8 hours to dehull the seeds. Dehulled
seeds were boiled again for 30 min to produce processed substrate which were fermented for
72 hours. Mechanically dehulled bean seeds were obtained from depulped bean seeds with a
pair of pliers. Proximate compositions of samples were determined for crude protein, ether
extract, ash and total carbohydrate content. The presence and levels of trypsin inhibitors,
tannin and phytic acid were determined. Proximate composition of African locust bean
seeds samples during processing and effect of processing and fermentation on the levels of
some anti- nutritional factors are presented in Tables 4.6 and 4.7 respectively.
Table 4.6: Proximate Compositions of Samples of African Locust Bean Seeds on Dry
Weight Basis.
Parameter Samples
MDB PS FB 24 FB 48 FB 72 P-value
Ash ( g/kg) 47.5± 3.6b 37.3±2.7 a* 34.5±1.0a 33.1±2.1a 33.0±3.0a P<0.001
a a b b b
Crude protein 270.1±12.3 275.3±12.5 315.7±4.7 319.2±14.5 328.1±4.0 P<0.001
(N x 6.25 g/kg)
Ether extract 198±11.0a 262.4±11.5b 265.1±7.7b 281.5±8.1b 347.3±14.5c P<0.001
(g/kg)
Total 484.2a 425.0b 384.7b 366.2b 291.6c P<0.05
carbohydrate**
(g/kg)
Note:*same letters indicate mean values that are not significant different on the same row
** Total carbohydrate was by difference. Results are expressed as mean± standard deviation
of four determinations; MDB = Mechanically Dehulled Bean seeds; PS = Processed
Substrate; FB 24 = Fermenting Bean seeds at 24 hours; FB 48 = Fermenting Bean seeds at 48
hours. FB 72 = Fermented Bean seeds at 72 hours.
Source: Esenwah and Ikenebomeh (2008)
Ash content of samples decreased significantly (P < 0.001) from 47.5± 3.6 g / kg in
mechanically dehulled bean seeds to 37.3 ± 2.7 g / kg in processed substrate following
soaking and boiling. Loss in ash was attributed to leaching of soluble inorganic salts into
processing water during the soaking of sample for 12 hours followed by boiling for 8 hours
(Esenwah and Ikenebomeh, 2008).
Total carbohydrate content of samples also decreased significantly ( P < 0.05) by soaking and
boiling from 484.2 g / kg in mechanically dehulled beans seeds to 425.0 g / kg in processed
substrate which was further decreased significantly (P < 0.05) by fermentation at 72 hours
fermentation period to 291.6 g / kg. The loss in carbohydrate during soaking and boiling has
been attributed to leaching of soluble carbohydrates like sugars into soaking and cooking
water, while loss in carbohydrate during fermentation was as a result of utilization of some of
sugar by fermenting organisms for growth and metabolic activities ( Esenwah and
Ikenebomeh, 2008).
Crude protein content of African locust bean seeds increased significantly (P < 0.001) by
fermentation from 275.3 ± 12.5 g / kg in the processed substrate to 328.1± 4.0 g / kg in
fermented product at 72 hours (Esenwah and Ikenebomeh, 2008). The increase in protein
content obtained in this study during fermentation agreed with other reports on African locust
bean seeds (Ikenebomeh 1986; Omafuvbe et al 2004). However, higher values were reported
by Omafuvbe et al., (2004). The difference in levels of protein content obtained in both
studies was attributable to differences in cultivars of P. biglobosa studied and experimental
procedures used (Esenwah and Ikenebomeh, 2008).
Ether extract of samples also increased significantly (P < 0.001) by soaking and boiling
which was further increased by fermentation at 72 hours. Soaking and boiling of samples led
to cleavage of protein – lipid or carbohydrate – lipid linkages thereby, facilitating easy
extraction of oil by extracting solvent (Esenwah and Ikenebomeh, 2008). Esenwah and
Ikenebomeh (2008) opined that increases recorded in crude protein and ether extract may be
due to reduction in carbohydrate content and may be regarded as apparent increase in both
protein and fat contents to complement the decrease in carbohydrate. The carbohydrate might
have been used by microorganisms for metabolic energy causing a decrease.
Results of effect of processing and fermentation on levels of some anti-nutritional factors of

African locust bean are given in Table 4.7. Soaking, boiling and fermentation resulted in
decreased levels of anti nutritional factors. Trypsin Inhibitor Activity (TIA) level reduced
significantly (P < 0.001) from 2.9 ± 0.08 mg /g in mechanically dehulled bean to 0.32 ± 0.05
mg /g in fermented product at 72 hours fermentation period. This represents 89 % reduction
in TIA content of African locust bean (Table 4.7). The loss in TIA content during processing
has been attributed to leaching during soaking, heat treatment during boiling and also by
action of micro-organisms during fermentation (Esenwah and Ikenebomeh, 2008). Addy et
al., (1995) reported 9 - 42 % reduction in trypsin inhibitor activity values in African locust
bean (Parkia filicoidea) by processing treatments of acid, alkali and fermentation used in
their study. The reason for differences in results obtained in this work and those reported by
others according to Esenwah and Ikenebomeh (2008) is unknown but they suggested the
differences in analytical methods and cultivars.
Tannin content reduced significantly (P < 0.001) from 40.0 ± 3.0 mg/g in mechanically
dehulled bean to 16.1 ± 3.8 mg / g in fermented product at 72 hours representing 59.8 %
reduction in tannin content of samples (Table 4.7). Loss of tannin may be due to its solubility
in water and its sensitivity to heat during boiling (Esenwah and Ikenebomeh, 2008). Phytic
acid content of African locust bean samples also reduced significantly (P < 0.001) from 2.4 ±
0.3 mg/g in mechanically dehulled bean to 0.9 ± 0.3 mg/g in the fermented bean at 72 hours;
representing 62.5 % reduction (Esenwah and Ikenebomeh , 2008).
Table 4.7: Anti- Nutritional Contents in African Locust Bean Samples

Parameter Sample
MDB PS FB 24 FB 48 FB 72 p-value
TIA( mg/g) 2.9±0.08c* 1.1 ± 0.27b 0.73 ± 0.55 ± 0.32 ± P<0.001
(62.1%) 0.09a 0.18a 0.05a
(74.8%) (81.0%) (89.0%)
c b b a
Tannin 40.0±3.0 25.1 ± 4.8 23.2 ± 6.8 18.3 ± 2.7 16.1 ± 3.8a P<0.001
(mg/g) (37.3%) (42.0%) (54.3%) (59.8%)
Phytic acid 2.4±0.3d 1.5 ± 0.2c 1.3 ± 0.1b 1.2 ± 0.1b 0.9 ± 0.03a P<0.001
(mg/g) (37.5%) (45.8%) (50.0%) (62.5%)
Note: Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation of four determinations. *same
letters indicate mean values that are not significantly different on same row; ** values in
parentheses refer to percentage reduction in levels of anti-nutritional factors; TIA = Trypsin
Inhibitor Activity; MDB = Mechanically Dehulled Beans seeds; PS = Processed Substrate;
FB 24 = Fermenting Bean seeds at 24 hours; FB 48 = Fermenting Bean seeds at 48 hours; FB
72 = Fermented Bean seeds at 72 hours.
Source: Esenwah and Ikenebomeh (2008).
Esenwah and Ikenebomeh (2008) reported that various processing methods affect nutritional
value of African locust bean. Higher crude protein and ether extract obtained for processed
African locust bean are improvement on its nutritional quality. In addition, trypsin inhibition
activity, tannin and phytic acid were significantly reduced by various processing methods.
Knowing the health implications of these anti- nutritional factors to man and livestock, the
reduction in levels of anti - nutritional factors during processing of African locust bean is
vital for safety of product. Soaking and boiling significantly improved the value of product;
however, fermentation achieved better quality that will enhance utilization of product.
Therefore, fermentation of African locust bean for 72 hours will add value to its nutritional
quality.
4.2 Preservation Methods of African Locust Bean Condiment
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or greatly slow down
spoilage in terms of loss of quantity, quality, edibility or nutritive value. This is culturally
dependent, as what qualifies as food for humans in one culture may not qualify in another
culture (Ademola et al., 2011). According to them (Ademola, et al., 2011), preservation
usually involves preventing growth of bacteria, fungi, and other micro-organisms as well as
retarding oxidation of fats which cause rancidity. It also includes processes to inhibit natural
ageing and discolouration that can occur during food preparation such as enzymatic browning
reaction. Some preservation methods require food material to be sealed after treatment to
prevent recontamination with microbes; others such as drying allow food to be stored without
special containment for long period (Wikipedia, 2010).
The preservation of dawadawa in West Africa according to Ohenhen et al., (2008) is done
mostly by sun drying or oven drying. Sun drying is carried out by spreading in an open air
using a minimum temperature of 29 oC and the optimum temperature of 60 o C with humidity
below 60 %. Oven drying combined the factors of heat, low humidity and air current. It is
carried out using a temperature of 60 oC with oven door left propped open about 5.1 – 15 cm
(Reynolds and Pauline, 1993).
Ohenhen et al., (2008) compared preservation of dawadawa using sun drying and oven
drying with fresh dawadawa for bacterial load, moisture content and nutritional content. The
nutritional content of dawadawa was assessed based on its protein and glucose value (Table
4.8).
Table 4.8: Glucose and Protein Estimation of Three Samples of Dawadawa

Dawadawa Glucose Protein value pH Titratable
value(mg/dl) (g/l) acidity
Sundried 43.75 51.18 6.4 0.70
Fresh 41.67 51.21 8.1 Basic
Oven dried 45.83 52.94 6.5 2.25
Source: Ohenhen et al., (2008)
Results obtained shows that sun drying and oven drying reduced the microbial activity and
microbial load of organisms involved with dawadawa. Staphylococcus (sp) was specifically
eliminated after drying (Ohenhen et al., 2008). This however was in conformity with
Wachukwu et al., (2003).
Sun drying and oven drying takes time when compared to that of other preservation methods
such as heat and use of chemicals. Sun drying also leads to exposure of food condiment to
hazard such as entry of organisms present in air (Ohenhen et al., 2008). They further stated
that muslin cloth is used to cover trays during drying in order to reduce contamination. When
dawadawa is not dried properly before it is brought under shelter, it can also reabsorb
moisture. That is the reason why proper drying of dawadawa is required before preservation
in order to prevent spoilage and also helps to reduce both micro - organism and enzymes
(Ohenhen et al., 2008). Drying according to Ohenhen et al., (2008) also concentrates soluble
ingredients in foods and this high concentrates prevents growth of bacteria, yeasts and mould.
Dried dawadawa will deteriorate rapidly if allowed to become moist (Reynolds and Pauline,
1993).
4.3 Fermentation of African Locust Bean Condiment

Fermentation is one of the oldest methods of food preservation known to man (Omafuvbe et
al., 2004). Whitaker (1978) reported that the commencement of fermentation is caused by
fermenting microbes which hydrolyse available carbohydrate to acid before embarking on
extensive proteolysis. According to Olaoye (2010a), fermentation is a process in which
certain bacteria or fungi are allowed to grow in a food to improve its flavour and / or
digestibility. As these micro-organisms absorb and process nutrients and excrete waste
products they affect the flavor, nutritional value, texture, and storage life of the food. The
organisms break down proteins, convert starches to simple sugars, and can increase or make
various vitamins and minerals more available. In other words, these organisms are feeding on
and digesting the food. Because the process of breaking foods down into their constituent
parts has already begun, fermented foods can be easier for people to digest than the same
food before fermentation. For example, seeds of African locust bean are inedible before
fermentation and processing to make iru, a flavourful condiment (Olaoye, 2010a).
Fermentation lengthens storage life of foods because the presence of fermenting organisms
prevents other spoiling organisms from becoming established. Often this is because
fermentation changes pH of food, for example making it so acid that only Lactobacilli spp.
bacteria will survive. Fermentation can also reduce or eliminate some anti-nutrients such as
phytates and oligosaccharides. Traditional fermentation processes at cottage level use simple
operations and equipment. Fermentation may be carried out on a solid substrate or under
submerged conditions. Traditionally, iru is made by boiling dried locust beans for about 24
hours. With addition of ash the seed coats are removed. Seeds are then boiled again for about
two hours. While seeds are still very hot they are drained, transferred to a basket and covered
with leaves. This helps to retain heat and create a humid atmosphere. The locust beans are
allowed to ferment for two to three days, after which time the leaves are removed and seeds
are crushed to a paste (Olaoye, 2010a).
Production of locust bean condiments is largely on a traditional small-scale household basis

under highly variable conditions (Odunfa, 1985). In addition fermentation is usually carried
out in a moist solid state, involving contact with appropriate inocula of assorted
microorganisms and is accomplished by the natural temperatures of the tropics. The desired
state of fermentation of condiments is indicated by formation of mucilage and overtones of
ammonia produced as a result of breakdown of amino acids during fermentation (Omafuvbe,
1998). The characteristic ammoniacal smell and flavour of condiments enhance taste of
traditional soups and sauces (Omafuvbe et al., 2004). Omafuvbe et al., (2004) determined
proximate composition and pH value of raw and fermented African locust bean (Parkia
biglobosa). The result is presented in Table 4.9:
Table 4.9: Proximate Composition and pH Value of Raw and Fermented African Locust
Bean (Parkia Biglobosa)
Sample Moisture* Ash (%) Crude Ether Crude CHO pH
(%) Fiber (%) Extract Protein (%)
(%) (%)
Raw 8.6  0.6 5.4  0.3 11.7  0.2 17.7  0.2 31.0  0.7 35.0  0.5 6.2
Boiled 12 h 51.9  0.7 3.2  0.3 4.6  0.1 20.9  0.3 31.4  0.2 42.0  0.4 6.3
and dehulled
Boiled 6 h 56.7  0.7 2.8  0.0 4.4  0.9 28.4  0.1 31.1  0.9 33.3  0.5 6.4
Fermentation
Period (h)
24 55  0.8 3.6  0.1 5.7  0.1 32.6  0.7 31.7  0.4 25.1  1.1 8.3
48 55.5  0.4 3.5  0.1 5.4  0.1 35.2  0.1 31.3  0.2 21.0  0.4 8.4
72 52.0  5.0 3.6  0.1 4.0  0.1 37.2  0.2 32.9  0.1 16.3  0.8 8.4
 Moisture content was determined on the fresh materials
Source: Extracted from Omafuvbe et al., (2004)
Omafuvbe et al., (2004) reported that moisture content of raw African locust bean was 8.6 %
and there was an increase in moisture content of processed African locust bean which ranged
between 51.9 and 56.7 % as a result of boiling in water and soaking. The ash content of raw
African locust bean seeds was 5.4 %. The values are in agreement favourable with 5.1 %
earlier reported by Eka (1980). According to Omafuvbe et al., (2004) boiling, soaking in
water and dehulling of African locust beans led to a loss of 41% ash. This implies about 41%
of total mineral content of African locust bean reside in seed hull and or leached during
processing. Boiling and dehulling African locust bean seed reduced its crude fibre by 61%
but fermentation increased crude fibre by 30 % during the first 48 hours and then reduced the
amount by same level (30 %) during the last 24 hours (Omafuvbe et al., 2004). At the end of
boiling process, the boiled water of African locust bean was more viscous than it was at
beginning of the process, indicating presence of mucilaginous materials in the boiled water.
This explains in part the reduction of crude fibre content on boiling.
Ether extract of raw African locust bean seed increased with boiling and fermentation
(Omafuvbe et al., 2004). Fermentation increased the crude protein of African locust bean
seed. The increase in ether extract and crude protein with fermentation period was due to the
reduction in the contents of ash, crude fibre and carbohydrate (Omafuvbe et al., 2004).
According to Nout (1985) amongst various factors working against traditional fermented
foods is lack of durability (shelf life). Ademola et al., (2011) recommended that fermentation
has to be controlled / stopped after sometime to prevent further microbial growth which can
lead to spoilage.
Tocopherol is a fat soluble vitamin with antioxidant property which makes it indispensable
for maintenance of cell integrity and prevents oxidation of lipid in vivo (Stephen et al., 1996;
Losonczy et al., 1996). The total tocopherol content of raw and processed African locust bean
products is presented in Table 4.10. Boiling and dehulling reduced total tocopherol of
African locust bean by 15 %. Fermentation for 24 hours reduced tocopherol by 5 % while
subsequent fermentation period had no effect on this vitamin (Omafuvbe et al., 2004). Fifty
grams of African locust bean condiment will provide more than the Recommended Dietary
Allowance (RDA) of 10 and 8 mg α - tocopherol for adult men and women respectively
(FNB, 1979). The seasoning salts cannot be regarded as source of this essential vitamin
(Omafuvbe et al., 2004).
Heat treatment during fermentation period of African locust bean increased the acid value
(Omafuvbe et al., 2004). Iodine value reduced with heat treatment. There was a high
negative correlation between acid and iodine values (r = -0.98, P < 0.05) for African locust
bean while a high positive correlation was observed between the total tocopherol level and
iodine value (r = 0.85, P < 0.05) (Omafuvbe et al., 2004).
Table 4.10: Tocopherol, Acid and Iodine Values of African Locust Bean during
Different Stages of Processing to Condiment in Comparison to Seasoning Salts
Sample Total tocopherol Acid value Iodine value
(mg/100g)
Raw 21.6  0.0 1.06 148.4
Boiled (12 h) and dehulled 18.3  0.1 1.23 142.8
Scaled and boiled (6h) 18.2  0.1 1.40 137.3
Fermentation period (h)
24 17.2  0.0 1.46 134.5
48 17.1  0.0 1.57 131.7
72 17.2  0.1 1.63 125.2
Seasoning salts
Knoor cube 1.7  0.0 ND ND
Royco cube 1.3  0.0 ND ND
Doyin cube 0.6  0.0 ND ND
ND- Not determined
Source: Extracted from Omafuvbe et al., (2004).
Fermentation resulted in substantial decrease in total sugar and free amino acid level due to
removal of hulls that contain high level of sugar and amino acids ( Omafuvbe et al., 2004)
(Table 4.11). Reducing sugar level decreased during the processing stages but increased
with fermentation of African locust bean. According to Omafuvbe et al., (2004) increased
level of reducing sugar is a reflection of activities of α- amylase and sucrose in fermenting
seeds. Table 4.12 shows that alpha amylase increased with fermentation while sucrase
increases, reached its peak at 48th hour of fermentation and then dropped. They opined that
fluctuation in level of sugar with fermentation is related to its utilization by fermenting
microorganisms for their metabolic activities.
Total free amino acids of fermented African locust bean increased with fermentation (Table
4.11). The rapid increase in total free amino acids is a reflection of increased protease activity
observed in fermenting seeds (Omafuvbe et al., 2004).
Table 4.11: Some Biochemical Properties of Fermenting African Locust Bean for Iru
Production
Sample Total soluble sugar Reducing sugar Free amino acids
Mg glucose g-1 Mg glycine g-1 dry
dry wt wt
Raw undehulled seeds 57.0  0.6 11.8  0.2 47.8  0.4
Cooked dehulled seeds* 10.9  0.3 6.0  0.3 22.9  0.3
Cooked dehulled seeds** 9.3  0.2 3.3  0.2 12.9  0.2
24 h fermentation 7.5  0.3 4.5  0.2 23.5  0.2
48 h fermentation 8.1  0.2 7.6  0.3 49  0.4
72 h fermentation 9.0  0.4 8.2  0.5 55.6  4.2
96 h fermentation 9.9  0.3 8.8  0.4 61.6  4.2
NA- Samples not available * Raw African locust bean was cooked for 12 hours and
left in the boil water for another 12 hours. ** African locust bean seed was dehulled
and cooked again for 6 hours before fermentation
Source: Extracted from Omafuvbe et al., (2004).
4.4 Salting of African Locust Bean Condiment

Salting is the preservation of food with dry salt (Ademola et al., 2011). It is related to picking
(preparing food with brine). It is one of the oldest methods of preserving food and is used
because most bacteria, fungi and other potentially pathogenic organisms cannot survive in a
highly salty environment, due to the hypertonic nature of salt (Ademola et al., 2011). Salt
draws moisture from preserved food through a process of osmosis. Any living cell in such
environment will become dehydrated through osmosis and die or become temporarily
inactivated (Wikipedia, 2010).
Sodium chloride (common salt) is probably the oldest known antimicrobial agent (Ademola
et al., 2011). Antimicrobials are most often used with other preservation techniques such as
refrigeration, in order to inhibit growth of spoilage and pathogenic micro-organisms.
Chemical food preservatives are substances which under certain conditions, either delay
growth of microorganisms without necessarily destroying them or prevent deterioration of
quality during manufacture and distribution. The former group includes some natural food
constituents which, when added to foods, retard or prevent the growth of microorganism
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010).
Table 4.12: Activity of Extracellular Enzymes in Fermenting African Locust Bean Seeds
for Iru Production
Processing steps -Amylase Sucrase Protease
Enzyme activities expressed as unit ml-1
Raw undehulled seeds ND*** ND ND
Cooked dehulled seeds* ND ND ND
Cooked dehulled seeds 0.28  0.03 0.00 0.00
12 h fermentation 0.30  0.02 0.47  0.03 0.23  0.01
48 h fermentation 0.66  0.05 0.81  0.09 0.31  0.02
72 h fermentation ND ND ND
96h fermentation 3.0  0.1 0.45  0.04 0.51  0.04
 Raw African locust bean was cooked for 12 hours and left in the boil water for
another 12 hours. ** African locust bean seed was dehulled and cooked again for 6
hours before fermentation, ND not determined NA samples not available.
Source: Omafuvbe et al., (2004)
Ademola et al., (2011) studied the effect of salt on nutritive value and proximate composition
of processed locust beans seed (Parkia biglobosa). The salted and unsalted processed locust
beans were subjected to organoleptic and proximate analyses at one week interval for four
consecutive weeks. The results are presented in Tables 4.13 and 4.14 and figures 4.1 and 4.2.
Table 4.13: Nutritional and Physical Characteristics of Salted Parkia Biglobosa for Four
Weeks
Period Moisture, Ash Crude CHO Crude Aroma Taste
% (%) fiber (%) (%) protein
(%)
Week 1 56.4  0.8 2.90  0.2 4.5  0.8 33.2  0.4 32.7  0.1 Pleasant Fresh
Values are mean  SD (n = 5)
Source: Ademola et al., (2011)
Table 4.14: Nutritional and Physical Characteristics of Unsalted Parkia Biglobosa for
Four Weeks
Period Moisture Ash Crude CHO Crude Aroma Taste
(%) (%) Fibre (%) Protein
(%) (%)
Week 1 55.1  0.4 2.9  0.1 4.5  0.2 33.2  0.4 32.7  0.4 Pleasant Fairly
fresh
Week 2 55.4  0.1 3.5  0.2 4.4  0.2 26.0  1.0 32.5  1.0 Pungent Decay
Week 3 56.1  0.2 3.5  0.1 4.3  0.1 21.8  0.3 32.1  0.5 Offensive Decay
Week 4 58.2  0.3 3.6  0.1 4.3 16.1  0.4 32.0  0.3 Offensive Decay
 0.1
Values are mean  SD (n = 5)
Results from Tables 4.13 and 4.14 shows that moisture content of salted iru decreases by 7.98
% while that of unsalted continued to increase by 4.86 % throughout the duration of
experiment. This is a convenient evidence to show that presence of salt helps remove water
through osmosis discourage microbial growth and prevent the spoilage of locust bean
(Ademola et al., 2011). This is in consonance with the report of Wikipedia (2010). According
to Ademola et al., (2011) the results also showed that salting was able to preserve the
physical characteristics of the processed locust bean seed. This is evident since salted seeds
still maintained the aroma and taste after four weeks while unsalted seeds deteriorated fast.
As early as the first week unsalted seeds started giving obnoxious smell and irritating
appearance. Hence, salting is probably a way out of part of problem of lack of durability
(shelf life) of fermented foods ( Nout ,1985).
The ash content increased in unsalted sample by 21.4 % showing evidence of progressive
spoilage (Ademola et al., 2011). The result further shows that percentage of carbohydrate
content significantly decreased by 51.51 % in both groups (salted and unsalted) respectively.
Yabaya (2006) also obtained a similar result for a fermented and raw locust beans.
Crude protein decreased by 4.8 % and 2.2 % in groups 1 and 2 (Fig 4.1 and 4.2) respectively
(Ademola et al., 2011). The decrease in protein content is consistent with findings of
Omafuvbe et al., (2004). The decrease in protein can be explained by presence of proteolytic
enzyme present in fermented iru (Oyewole and Odunfa , 1990). This enzyme is responsible
for breakdown of protein and release of ammonia gas (Ademola et al., 2011).
Fig 4.1: Proximate Analysis of Salted Parkia Biglobosa for Four Weeks
Fig 4.2: Proximate Analysis of Unsalted Parkia Biglobosa for Four Weeks
CHAPTER 5: SOME ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF AFRICAN
LOCUST BEAN PODS AND SEEDS
It is important to determine the engineering properties of agricultural product because it helps

in designing appropriate machinery and systems for processing and storage (Oje, 1993;
Ogunjimi et al., 2002). Hoppers and other unloading devices must be built fairly steeply
because of high coefficient of friction of seeds and force required to break the seeds varies
widely. Oje (1993) studied some properties of locust bean pods and seeds relevant to
dehulling. The result obtained are summarised in Table 5.1.
Oje (1993) published that the frequency distribution of most properties for pods and seeds
approach normal distribution. The principal dimensions and surface area of locust pods vary
widely. The seeds are more uniform than pods. The sphericity and roundness of locust bean
seeds makes it possible to roll on flat surface. Locust bean seed is heavier while the pod is
lighter than water. This property can be utilized in separating seeds from pods. Oje (1993)
reported that major diameter of locust bean pod ranged from 76 to 276 mm with more than 60
% between 200 and 270 mm. Nearly 50 % of pods had intermediate diameter between 20 and
22 mm and minor diameters between 11 and 14 mm. Frequency distribution of major
diameter is skewed to right while all other distributions are quite close to normal distribution.
Over 70 % of seeds have major diameters between 9 and 11 mm, intermediate diameters
between 7 and 9 mm and minor diameters between 4 and 7 mm. Frequency distributions of
the three dimensions are shown in Figures 5.1 and 5.2.
Roundness of locust bean seed as given by Oje (1993) indicated more than 75 % of seeds
have roundness between 0.55 and 0.75. According to him, with these values, the seeds can
roll with relative ease as well as slide on their flat surfaces. This property would help in
design of hoppers and dehulling equipment for the seed.
Oje (1993) reported that the weight, volume and density are close to normal distribution.
More than 85 % of the locust bean seeds have densities between 1.12 and 1.35 g /cm3. Also
all the seeds have densities higher than 1.0 g /cm3 meaning that seeds cannot float on water.
About 96 % of pods have their densities below 0.95 g /cm3. This characteristic can be utilised
to separate the seeds from the pods during processing.
Table 5.1: Some Properties of African Locust Bean Pods and Seeds
Property Minimum value Maximum value Average
Static coefficient of friction of seeds on
a) Plywood parallel to grain 0.384 0.414 0.39  0.006
b) Plywood perpendicular to grain 0.499 0.543 0.50  0.007
c) Galvanized steel 0.456 0.499 0.47  0.008
d) Glass 0.384 0.477 0.40  0.012
Angle of repose of seeds (degrees) 30.7 43.9 37.6  3.19
Hardness of seeds (N) 17.0 70.03 25.6  10.11
Major diameter of pods (mm) 76 276
Intermediate diameter of pods (mm) 20 22
Minor diameter of pods (mm) 11 14
Roundness of seeds 0.55 0.75 0.65
Density of pods (g/cm3) < 0.95
Density of seeds (g/cm3) 1.12 1.35
Major diameter of seeds (mm) 9 11
Intermediate diameter of seeds (mm) 7 9
Minor diameter of seeds (mm) 4 7
Sphericity 0.67
Source: Oje (1993).
Fig 5.1: Frequency Distribution of some Properties of African Locust Bean Pods
Source: Oje (1993).
Fig 5.2: Frequency Distribution of some Properties of African Locust Bean Seeds
Source: Oje (1993).
More than 80 % of locust bean seeds have surface area ranging from 1.4 to 2.0 cm2, although
surface areas ranged from 1.1 to 2.3 cm2. The pods have a very wide range of surface area
between 4.3 and 17.2 cm2 (Oje, 1993). The distribution of surface area of pods is quite even
(Oje 1993). Oje (1993) further recommended that any machine developer must take this wide
range of surface area into consideration to design machine for processing.
Static coefficient of friction for locust bean seeds was determined for four structural surfaces
by Oje (1993). Table 5.1 showed the values were highest for plywood with grain
perpendicular to direction of motion and lowest for glass.
Angle of repose of locust bean seeds ranged from 30.7 and 440 while average hardness was
25.6 N. The hardness ranged from 17 to 70 N (Table 5.1). Hardness is an indication of
amount of energy needed to crush the seed. This property is of importance as in developing
machine for dehulling locust bean seed (Oje, 1993).
Fig 5.3: Relation of African Locust Bean Fruit Moisture Content to Harvest Date
Source: Oni (1990)
Moisture content of matured African locust bean fruit was high prior to harvesting but field
drying progressed rapidly, attaining low moisture content within five to six weeks (Fig 5.3).
The moisture content of the fruit decreased exponentially with harvest date (Oni, 1990).
Regression constants and correlation coefficients to exponential regression equations are
given in Table 5.2.
Torsional shear stress increased exponentially with torsional strain for each moisture level
investigated as shown in Figure 5.4. At low moisture content, cracks started half-way along
the length of each pod and progressed rapidly in an irregular pattern along and across major
diameter of pod suggesting a shear failure. At high moisture content, cracks also started
midway through the length of pod but progressed toward the base and tip of the pod parallel
to the fibres (Oni 1990). There was no complete disintegration of husk as test progressed,
particularly at high moisture content. There was high probability of pod fibres wrapping
around shelling cylinder studs during machine shelling of fruit at high moisture content. This
suggest that the lower the pod moisture content, the greater the probability of husk
disintegration during mechanical shelling (Oni, 1990).
Table 5.2: Regression Constants of Moisture Content and Stress Models of African
Locust Bean Pod
Model 1: MC=A exp (- K D)a
Model II: Ss=A exp(Ket)b
Figure No Estimate of Parameters
Curve Model A K R2
Pulp I 87.22 0.085 0.84

5 Seed I 42.29 0.071 0.94
Husk I 35.69 0.076 0.93
c
6 MC= 11.83% II 57.49 8.828 0.91
(0.0083)
MC = 9.34 % II 36.54 9.875 0.95
(0.0053)
a
MC = moisture content, wet basis
A, K = regression constants D = harvest date, days
Ss = shear stress, N/m2  t = torsional shear strain
c 1bf/in2
Source: Oni (1990)

Fig 5.4: Torsional Shear Stress –Strain Relationship of African Locust Bean
Pods
Source: Oni (1990)
Ogunjimi et al., (2002) explored some engineering properties of locust bean that will
facilitate the development of handling and processing equipment. Size distribution of locust
bean seed and kernel are presented in Table 5.3. Seventy one percent of seed by number and
78 % by mass were of medium size. Twenty one percent by number and 15 % by mass were
large and 8 % by number and 7 % by mass were small sized seeds (Ogunjimi et al., 2002).
According to Ogunjimi et al., (2002) larger seeds were broader and heavier than the medium
and small seeds but only thicker than the small size seeds.
Sixty eight percent of kernels were of medium size while 24 % were large and 8 % small
indicating that some medium size seeds may have produced large sized kernels (Ogunjimi et
al., 2002). The ratios of locust bean seed dimensions to those of its kernel were found to be
as follows as given by Ogunjimi et al., (2002):
L = 1.098 Ɩ …………………………………………..1
W =1.091 w………………………………………….2
T = 1.10 t……………………………………………3
M = 1.647 m……………………………………….4
Where L is length of seed (cm); Ɩ is length of kernel (cm); M is mass of seed (kg); m is mass
of kernel (kg); T is thickness of seed (cm); t is thickness of kernel (cm); W is width of seed
(cm) and w is the width of kernel (cm).
The ratio of masses shows that kernel constitutes more than 60% of seed by mass. Ogunjimi
et al., (2002) pointed out that the parameters would be an important consideration in the
development of seed and kernel sizing and grading machines and in their separation from
undesirable materials. Summary results for measured parameters at moisture contents of
10.25 % are presented in Table 5.4. Seed length varied from 0.80 to 1.20 cm while width was
between 0.60 and 0.85 cm and the thickness between 0.45 and 0.60.
One thousand seed mass was found to range from 0.280 to 0.286 kg (Ogunjimi et al., 2002).
This parameter is useful in determining effective diameter which can be used in theoretical
estimation of seed volume.
True density of locust bean seed was found to lie between 1098 and 1215 kg/m3. Bulk density
and porosity of seeds were between 538 and 565 kg/m3 and 51 and 53.5 respectively
(Ogunjimi et al., 2002). Static coefficient of friction of locust bean seed on wood was 0.43
with standard deviation of 0.021.
Table 5.3: Size Distribution of African Locust Bean Seed and Kernel at the Moisture Content of
10.25% (db).
Seed Kernel
Particular Ungraded Large Medium Small Ungraded Large Medium Small
Length, 0.8-1.20 >1.05 0.95-1.05 <0.95 0.75-1.10 >0.95 0.85-0.95 <0.85
cm
Percent of 100 21 71 8 100 24 68 8
sample by
number
Percent of 100 15 78 7 100 26.5 66.5 7
sample by
mass
Average 1.01 1.11 1.00 0.89 0.92 1.01 0.90 0.81
length, cm (0.07) (0.03) (0.03) (0.04) (0.92) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03)
Average 0.72 0.75 0.71 0.73 0.66 0.69 0.66 0.66
width , cm (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.05) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06)
Average 0.55 0.54 0.55 0.53 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
thickness, (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) (0.02) (0.03) (0.03)
cm
Average 0.28 0.29 0.28 0.23 0.17 0.19 0.17 0.15
mass, g (0.04) (0.03) (0.04) (0.03) (0.03) (0.02) (0.03) (0.03)
Average 1.41 1.47 1.42 1.22 1.39 1.46 1.38 1.25
length/ (0.14) (0.11) (0.12) (0.10) (0.15) (0.14) (0.13) (0.03)
width ratio
Average 1.85 1.85 1.80 1.32 2.85 2.03 2.02 1.63
length (0.16) (0.61) (0.13) (0.07) (0.94) (0.13) (1.85) (0.13)
/thickness
ratio
Average 3.69 3.89 3.61 3.87 5.42 5.26 5.45 5.47
length/ (0.53) (0.44) (0.54) (0.48) (1.07) (0.65) (1.22) (0.94)
mass ratio
Standard deviation in parenthesis
Source: Ogunjimi et al., (2002)
Table 5.4: Some Engineering Properties of African Locust Bean Seed at 10.25%
Moisture Content (db)
Particulars Mean Maximum Minimum Standard

values deviation
Length, cm 1.01 1.20 0.80 0.07

Width , cm 0.72 0.85 0.60 0.06
Thickness, cm 0.55 0.60 0.45 0.03
1000 seed weight, g 283.1 286.3 280.7 2.64
True density 1147.2 1215.7 1098.0 108.51
3
Bulk density, kg/m 558.6 565.30 538.02 11.3
Porosity (%) 51.4 53.5 51.0 2.20
Static coefficient of 0.43 0.44 0.40 0.021
friction on wood
Angle of repose 20.32 23.15 20.00 1.84
(degree)
Specific heat, J/kg K 1415.3 1694.6 1130.7 103.81
Cracking force
Loading on lateral 197.60 220.19 177.06 10.62
axis
Loading on vertical 240.38 268.86 200.00 15.94
axis
Loading on 174.38 204.30 154.36 10.21
thickness
Source: Ogunjimi et al., (2002)
CHAPTER 6.0 MECHANISATION OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN
PROCESSING
Chapter 6.1 Efforts at Mechanising African Locust Bean Processing
Agricultural mechanization envisages development of home grown or indigenous tools and

equipment to improve agricultural production and productivity by relieving the continuous
increasing labour constraints, enhancing farmers‟ income and reducing food shortages and
hence food imports (Oni, 2011). Mechanization of locust bean condiment production has
generated much interest in recent times, because traditional methods of processing is both
tedious and complicated, which make large scale processing difficult (Oje, 1993). Adewumi
(1997) gave a rundown of various applications of scientific principles and mechanization to
locust bean processing.
6.1.1 African Locust Bean Thresher

Ajayi (1991) developed a thresher for shelling locust bean pods in order to obtain the seeds
for further processing. The machine has a capacity of 9.52 kg/hr of polished and clean seed.
The machine has a shelling efficiency of 100 % at a speed of 900 rpm. The chamber is made
of a stationary concave with spikes and a rotating beater containing spikes. The machine is
provided with a screen separation unit and an axial fan. It equally incorporates a polisher with
an abrasive surface just below the threshing chamber screen. The polisher removes pulp and
thin membrane surrounding the seed.
Oni (1990) also developed locust bean fruit decorticator (Fig 6.1) and presented various
efficiencies determined for stated operating conditions combinations (Table 6.1) and analysis
of variance (Table 6.2). There are statistically significant effects of cylinder speed and
interaction between cylinder speed and moisture content, indicating the importance of drying
pods prior to machine decortications. The material feed rate gave no significant effect (P 
0.05) on shelling efficiencies for each speed level. He observed that some husk fibres
entangled the shelling cylinder studs as mechanical shelling progressed.
Fig 6.1: Sectional View of African Locust Bean Fruit Decorticator
Source: Oni (1990).
Table 6.1: Average Mechanical Shelling Efficiencies of African Locust Bean
Fruita
Variable Cleaning Concave Cylinder Overall
combination efficiency (%) shelling shelling shelling
efficiency (%) efficiency (%) efficiency (%)
S1M1F1 42.95 95.45 94.87 82.91

S1MIF2 54.44 95.56 95.16 89.57
S1M2F1 58.15 92.78 96.26 95.19
S1M2F2 53.59 94.12 95.47 83.64
S2M1F1 59.54 96.21 94.83 89.71
S2M1F2 58.94 96.72 94.77 90.08
S2M2FI 54.40 91.58 94.87 51.31
S2M2F2 56.84 88.35 96.46 92.56
S3M1F1 44.78 91.57 93.59 89.50
S3MIF2 52.77 94.61 96.84 81.00
S3M2F1 58.40 96.51 96.70 76.96
S3M2F2 61.46 95.36 97.11 81.16
a
Each value is an average of three readings
b
S1=500rpm M1= 11.83% F1= 600 kg/h
S2= 750 rpm
M2 = 9.34% F2 = 1200
S3 = 1000rpm
kg/h
Source: Oni (1990)
Table 6.2: Analysis of Variance for Shelling Efficiency of African Locust
Bean Pod
Source of Degree of Sum of Mean F values Table F-
variation freedom squares squares values
Replication 2 11.04304 5.52152 0.043 3.44

(R )
Speed ( S) 2 3661.9496 1830.9748 14.154* 3.44
Feed rate( F) 1 129.31215 179.31215 1.386 4.30
Moisture 1 16.6129 15.6129 0.121 4.30
content ( M)
SxF 2 132.82202 66.4011 0.513 3.44
SxM 2 897.90194 448.95097 3.471* 3.44
FxM 1 186.06269 186.06269 0.695 4.30
SxFxM 2 326.14602 163.07301 1.261 3.44
Error 22 2845.9726 129.36239
Total 35 8256.8229
 Significant at P  0.05
Source: Oni (1990)
6.1.2 Depulping Machine

Depulpping machine comprises vertical cylindrical tank, cylindrical sieve and a vertical
rotating shaft which carries paddles and brushes was developed by Olaoye (2010b). The
vertical shaft was mounted at the central axis of the depulpping unit. The cylindrical
container holds water for depulpping process. The container is made from 1.5 mm mild steel
sheet. It houses a vertical rotating shaft. Series of paddles are fixed at opposite end and
arranged serially along full length of rotating shaft. A pair of adjoining paddles is fixed with
brush. The arrangement of paddles, brushes on the main rotating shaft forms depulpping
stirring unit. The cylindrical container, cylindrical sieve and depulpping stirring unit were
arranged concentrically. The diameter of outer cylinder is 500 mm and 400 mm for inner
cylinder while each cylinder is 600 mm high. Clearance between the two cylinders (about 50
mm) was created as a channel through which the pulp slurry could be discharged out through
the slurry outlet. Depulped seeds are collected inside the sieve through clean seed discharge
outlet. The machine has a capacity to depulp 100 kg of locust bean seed during a unit batch
operation.
To test the developed depulpping machine five levels of soaking time corresponding to five
levels locust bean moisture contents and five levels of shaft speeds were used. Test results
indicated that depulpping efficiency varied between 98 and 100 %. The seed membrane
damage and seed loss were less than 3 and 1.5% respectively at 15 minutes soaking time, 420
to 580 rpm depulpping shaft speeds and at 28 to 36 % (wet basis) seed moisture content. The
maximum power requirement was 2.25 kW at seed moisture content of 20 % (wb) and at a
shaft speed of 740 rpm. Optimum operating conditions of shaft speed at 580 rpm, 15 minutes
soaking time and 38 % (wb) seed moisture content indicated higher depulpping efficiency,
lower seed membrane damage and seed loss during depulpping operation. Results of process
performance showed that final depulpping process compared favouringly with that of
traditional method.
Depulpping machine was operated at no load at three different operating speeds of the stirring
unit. The shaft is fitted with five different sizes of pulley diameters 128, 157, 200, 282, and
470 mm to generate five levels of the operating speed of 550, 450, 350, 250 and 150 rpm
respectively. A 1.5 Hp electric motor, ac (Model VIKING JONCOD, Type YL 90L – 4) was
connected directly to the stirring shaft through a flat belt. A Geilgy Tachometer was used to
determine stirring shaft speed.
The performance of the machine at no load was investigated for about an hour for each of the
combination of the operating conditions. Process performance of the machine was undertaken
to test process performance of depulpping efficiency, percentage seed loss, recovery
efficiency, germination count and seed with membrane were evaluated. The investigation was
carried out in a split – split unit design with operating speed as main unit, soaking time as sub
unit factors with three replicates (Olaoye, 2010b).
Fig 6.2: A Motorised Locust Bean Depulpping Machine
Source: Olaoye (2010b).
6.1.2.1 Depulpping Efficiency

Depulpping of soaked decorticated locust bean was achieved at various soaking time when
the machine was operated at 5 different operating speeds of the depulpping stirrer. The
soaked locust bean was easily depulpped. Highest depulpping efficiency of 96 % was
observed at soaking time of 45 minutes and depulpping speed of 350 rpm (Fig. 6.3). Increase
in depulpping efficiency from speed 150 rpm to 350 rpm clearly indicated greater energy
impact was induced on the locust bean pulp. Increased speed beyond 350 rpm reduces the
depulpping efficiency indicating excessive energy impacted on pulp causing losses and
damage to the bean seed (Fig. 6.4). This observation could be responsible for increased
detachment of seed membrane at higher depulpping speed above 350 rpm. Exerted energy
above depulpping speed of 350 rpm destroys membrane and seed testa (Olaoye, 2010b).
Figure 6.3: Depulpping Efficiency against Speed of Depulpping
Source: Olaoye (2010b)
6.1.2.2 Percentage Seed Loss, Recovery Efficiency and Membrane Detachment

Efficiency
According to Olaoye (2010b) trend of seed loss percentage in Fig. 6.4 indicated that seed loss
increases with increase in depulpping speed and increase in soaking time. At higher soaking
time, the presence of pulp in water increases fermentation rate and subsequently subjects seed
to least depulpping resistance. Highest seed recovery efficiency was recorded at soaking time
of 45 minutes. Seed recovery efficiency gradually increases from soaking time of 15 to 45
minutes for all depulpping speeds investigated. At soaking time above 45 minutes and
between 60 to 75 minutes of soaking time the seed recovery efficiency decreases (Fig. 6.5).
The trend of variation of seed detachment efficiency shown in Fig. 6.6 revealed that increase
in soaking time increases seed membrane removal (Olaoye,2010b). Least seed detachment
efficiency was noticed at soaking time of 45 minutes and at depulpping speed of 350 rpm.
The results indicated that seed recovery efficiency gradually increases from 150 rpm to
maximum value at 350 rpm and beyond this speed the recovery efficiency decreases.
Similarly, the seed membrane detachment decreases from 150 rpm to the least value at 350
rpm and beyond this speed the detachment efficiency increases for all soaking time
investigated (Figures 6.5 to 6.7). The observed characteristics displayed by the seed recovery
efficiency and seed membrane detachment efficiency between 150 rpm and 350 rpm as
shown in Figures 6.6 and 6.7 could be due to insufficient energy generated by this low speed
for depulpping action. These speeds may be too low to create required momentum that would
lead to effective separation of pulp from seed without removal of seed membrane. Whereas at
higher speed between 350 rpm and 550 rpm excessive energy could be generated to cause
total removal of the pulp and membrane (Olaoye, 2010b).
Figure 6.4: Percentage Seed Loss against Depulpping Speed

Figure 6.5: Locust Bean Recovery Efficiency against Depulpping Speed

Figure 6.6: Effects of Depulpping Speed on Membrane Detachment Efficiency
Fig. 6.7: Effects of Soaking Time on Recovery Efficiency

6.1.2.3 Germination Count

Germination count test was illustrated with scatter points (Fig. 6.8). The pattern does not
follow any specific curve variation. The scatter points however indicated that at soaking time
of 45 minutes 4 to 5 seeds germinate. Viability test of depulpped locust bean seed also
indicated that at depulpping speed of 350 rpm 4 to 5 seeds tested were found to be viable at
soaking time of 45 and 75 minutes (Olaoye, 2010b).
Fig. 6.8: Effects of Depulpping Speed on Viability of Depulpped Seed
6.1.3 African Locust Bean Steamer

Local processing of African locust bean subject locust bean seeds to about 12 hrs boiling to
soften the coat (Odunfa, 1982). This excessive water/ thermal treatment are associated with
the sharp colour degradation of the bean (Adewumi and Igbeka, 1993). Adewumi (1988)
developed a steamer unit to prevent a direct contact of locust bean with water and minimise
movement of soluble compound into cotyledon. The unit has an effective volume of 0.02 m3
and could steam up to 19 kg of bean per operation. It utilized charcoal as fuel. The equipment
is lagged to minimise heat losses. It is made up of two main compartments namely burner
compartment and steaming compartment. Each compartment is subdivided into two sections.
A screen partition is provided in the steaming compartment while locust bean is contained in
the upper section of this compartment and boiling water in the lower section. Steam moves
through the locust bean seed to soften the coat. Water is easily drained through a drain tap.
Fuel is burnt at the upper section of burner compartment while ashes are collected at lower
part through a perforated platform. A fan is incorporated to ensure proper combustion. The
machine requires 3 hours of steaming to completely soften locust bean seed coat. There is a
400 % time reduction when compared with the local method. Furthermore, the locust bean
obtained from steaming unit retains a yellowish unit cotyledon with no trace of an irritating
odour.
A- Cover; B- lag/insulation; C- Drain tap; D- Steaming section (upper part) ; E-
Gate (Insulated); F- Perforated floor; G- Steaming section (lower part); H- Air
duct; I- Fan blade; J- Fan hub; K- Bearing; L- Speed reduction pulley; M-
Burner section; N Loading port (for charcoal); O- Ash collection section; P-
Discharge port (ash)
Figure 6.9: Schematic Diagram of the Steamer Unit.
Source: Adewumi and Igbeka, (1993)
Fig 6.10: Locust Bean Seed Steamer (Charcoal Fueled)

Source: Adewumi and Igbeka (1993)
Adewumi and Igbeka (1993) studied the effect of steaming on the physical and dehulling
characteristics of locust beans. They reported that the pulp layer surrounding the coat
softened and started to disintegrate in less than 30 minutes of steaming. The coat was
softened for easy dehulling by the third hour of steaming. They found that steaming the bean
beyond 4 hours cooked and softened the seed further causing beans to shatter or crush during
dehulling.
According to Adewumi and Igbeka (1993) the duration of steaming had appreciable effect on
the properties (texture and strength characteristics) of the locust beans (Tables 6.3 and 6.4).
Strength characteristic of locust bean was reduced with increasing duration of steaming. The
percentage of bean dehulled increased to 50 % after 2.5 hours of steaming. At durations of
steaming less than 1 hour only, the pulp was softened but coat was hard.
Locust bean seed coats were softened partially between 1 hour and 2 hours of steaming. At
durations of steaming longer than 2 hours the coat was softer and dehulling was easier. After
third hour of steaming, seeds were soft and dicotyledons separated during dehulling which is
desirable as this aids fermentation in the preparation of the condiments. The slimy
characteristics of the pulp disappeared after 3 hours of steaming while moisture contents of
beans and percentage of beans dehulled increased with duration of steaming. At the end of 4
hours steaming process the moisture content of locust bean increased to 146.3 % and seed
size increased to almost double the initial size before steaming. Dark-coloured soluble
constituents of coat that migrated and penetrated into the seed at longer durations of steaming
is responsible for slight colour change of the bean (Adewumi and Igbeka, 1993).
The locust beans were allowed to cool in the air for 5 minutes before dehulling which has
dual advantage. It improved the performance of the rubber dehulling surfaces and it increased
the percentage of bean dehulled (Adewumi and Igbeka, 1993). Water that migrated into the
seed during steaming condensed at the interface between the seed and coat when cooled and
weakened the adhesive binding between seed and coat. This they observed was pronounced at
moisture contents approaching saturation. Hence at a steaming time of 3.5 hours, the
percentage of the locust bean dehulled sharply increased to 90 %.
Figure 6.11 shows variation of moisture content of locust beans with different steaming
times. The moisture content increased with duration of steaming. The moisture content
ranged from 9.7 % db (0hr) to 110 % db after 6 hours of steaming. Rate of moisture
absorption by the beans initially was slow from 0 - 4th hours of steaming, but thereafter there
is rapid increase (Audu et al., 2004). The initial slow rate was attributed to moisture take up
through seed coat being slow and therefore took time for seed coat to be permeable. The
rapid increase of moisture content from 4-6th hours was also attributed to seed coat being
softened thereby making it easier for moisture to penetrate (Audu et al., 2004).
Table 6.3: Classification of Texture, Odour and Flavour of African Locust

Bean
Assessment Texture Odour and flavour
rating
0 Pulp intact on coat; very hard coat No notable natural odour

and flavour
10 Soft and slimy pulp; hard coat , NA

difficult to dehull
25 Soft and slimy pulp; coat, slightly Slightly notable natural

soft odour and flavour
50 Soft and slimy pulp; soft coat and NA

gradually dehulling
60 NA Pronounced natural odour

and flavour
75 Coat softer but elastic ; seed NA

appeared cooked, easier to dehull
100 Pulp completely disappeared ; bean Distinct natural odour and

very soft and very easy to dehull flavour
NA- Not Applicable

Table 6.4: Characteristic Properties of African Locust Bean for various
Durations of Steaming
Duration of Texture Colour Odour and Moisture Percent of
steaming (h) rating flavour content bean
( Coat and seed)
rating (wet basis dehulled
%)
0.0 0 Coat: light brown 0 46.5 No

dehulling
(Control) Seed: light

yellow(creamy)
0.5 10 Coat: black 25 54.1 5*
Seed : yellow but

slightly lighter than
control
1.0 10 Same as 0.5 h 25 - 5*
1.5 25 Same as 0.5 h 25 84.4 2
2.0 50 Same as 0.5 h 60 89.7 35
2.5 75 Same as 0.5 h 100 - 50
3.0 100 Same as 0.5 h 100 96.9 50
3.5 100 Coat : black 100 111.4 90
Seed: Slightly
darker than 0.5 h
4.0 100 Same as 0.5 h 100 146.3 90
-: implies no available data; * represents dehulling with many breakages

Fig 6.11: Variation of African Locust Beans Moisture Content with Steaming
Time
Source: Audu et al., (2004)
6.1.4 African Locust Bean Dehullers

A manually operated concave type locust bean dehuller was designed and fabricated by
Adewumi and Olalusi (1995). The isometric view is shown in Fig. 6.12 and Fig 6.13 shows
the picture. The components of machine include the hopper welded to outer drum, drums,
spur gears, crank and tray. The assembly is mounted on frame. The machine is tilted from
upper base towards lower base at an angle of 300 to horizontal. It is made of galvanised sheet
SWG 18. A serrated rubber is firmly fixed to the surface of the roller covering the perimeter
to a length of 200 mm from one end. An auger coils about the remaining length (100 mm) of
roller to convey beans effectively from hopper. The outer drum has a diameter and length of
190 mm and 450 mm respectively. It houses the roller and supports the concave. The concave
has a length of 240 mm and divides into three gates (80 mm spacing). The machine is driven
manually with aid of a crank. Result obtained showed that dehulling efficiency increased
with speed for all concave clearance and dehulling length because the shear force increased
with increasing speed. No dehulling was achieved for a concave clearance of 15 mm for all
the selected speed and dehulling length as a result of average size of locust bean seed is less
than the clearance. There is therefore no direct contact with bean to achieve shearing.
Concave clearance of 8 mm proved most effective for all selected speed and dehulling
efficiency. A clearance of 8 mm coincided with the average diameter of the bean. A
maximum efficiency of hulling of 70.9 % was achieved for a dehulling length of 240 mm,
concave clearance of 8 mm and peripheral speed of 300 rpm.
Fig 6.12: Manually Operated Concave Type African Locust Bean Dehuller
Source: Adewumi and Olalusi (1995)
Fig 6.13: Manually Operated Concave Type Dehuller

Source: Adewumi and Olalusi( 1995)
A motorised burr type dehuller with abrasive rubber surface was developed by Adewumi and
Igbeka (1996). It is made of a hopper, auger conveyor, dehulling section and casing (Fig
6.14). It is operated by a 2 hp 1425 rpm electric motor. It has a feed rate of 7.3 kg/min. The
clearance between dehulling rubber plate is adjustable. The percentage of bean dehulled
increased as the spacing between the dehulling plates decreased. The machine recorded a
maximum breakage at a spacing of 8 mm (Adewumi and Igbeka, 1996).
Fig 6.14: Schematic Diagram of the Burr Type Dehulling

(Source: Adewumi and Igbeka, 1996)
Audu et al., (2004) developed a locust bean dehuller to reduce the amount of time and labour
required in the traditional manual dehulling of African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) seeds.
The dehuller principally consists of two concentric cylinders, a power transmission shaft and
a prime mover (Fig 6.15). The space between the two cylinders constitutes the dehulling
chamber. The machine was evaluated based on three parameters, namely moisture content of
beans, length of dehulling head and speed of rotation of inner cylinder.
Fig 6.15: A Concentric Cylinder African Locust Bean Dehuller

Source: Audu et al., (2004).
The effect of moisture content on dehulling efficiency is shown in Fig 6.16. The dehulling
efficiency increased linearly with moisture content. Minimum and maximum efficiencies of 8
and 70.53 % were obtained at 9.8 % and 110 % moisture content (dry basis) respectively
(Audu et al., 2004). The low efficiency obtained initially was due to the hard seed coats
which were difficult to remove and thereby leaving many undehulled beans with greater part
of few cotyledons obtained broken (Audu et al., 2004). At high moisture content, seed coats
were softened and less brittle which made it easy for the machine to dehull the beans with
minimum breakage. Wet locust beans cotyledons are more elastic than dry bean cotyledons
and they are not easily broken during dehulling (Audu et al., 2004).
Fig 6.16: Effect of African Locust Beans Moisture Content on Dehuller

Efficiency
Source: Audu et al., (2004)
The effect of lengths of dehulling heads on dehulling efficiency is given in Fig 6.17.
Dehulling efficiency increased proportionately with length of dehulling head (Audu et al.,
2004). A minimum dehulling efficiency of 16 % was obtained with length of dehulling head
of 60 mm while the maximum of 36 % was obtained with length of 180 mm. Audu et al.,
(2004) reported that the quantity of beans dehulled increased with length because as the
length increased the steamed beans were exposed to more roughened surface and hence
experienced more abrasion before discharge.
Fig 6.17: Variation of DE with Lengths of Dehulling Head
Source: Audu et al (2004)
The dehuller‟s throughput varied inversely but not linearly with moisture content (Fig 6.18).
Increase in moisture content reduced throughput. At 9.7 % moisture content, the throughput
obtained was 0.42 kg/ min, while at 110.2 % moisture content, the throughput was as low as
0.06 kg/min (Audu et al., 2004). Decreased throughput at high moisture content was due to
seed coats sticking resulting in high force of friction between steamed beans and walls of
both the inner and outer cylinders. This made flow of beans very difficult during dehulling
and hence the rate of dehulling /discharge was reduced (Audu et al., 2004). However at lower
moisture content, the beans were less sticky and therefore were able to flow much more
freely.
Fig 6.18: Variation of Dehuller Throughput with Moisture Content of

African Locust Beans
Source: Audu et al (2004)
Olowolarafe et al., (2011) developed a locust bean steaming, dehulling and separating
machine simulating traditional processing operations (Fig 6.19). The machine consist of
pressure cooking device mounted on a separate stand and equipped with rocker – arm system
to facilitate discharge of contents, a hopper made of mild steel sheet, dehulling unit made of
screwed shaft and abrasive barrel, a conical – shaped separating section equipped with
paddles ( made of aluminium material) and standing frame to support the whole arrangement.
The machine was evaluated by processing seed at cooking times of 30, 45, 60 and 90 min.
The result indicated increase in dehulling efficiency with increase in cooking time from 30 to
60 min. The highest dehulling efficiency of 82 % was obtained at cooking time of 60 min.
The separation efficiency obtained at this optimal cooking time was 79 %.
Fig 6.19: Schematic of African Locust Bean Processing Machine

Source: Owolarafe et al., (2011)
Fig 6.20: Dehulling Efficiency of the Machine at Different Steaming Time

Source: Olowolarafe et al (2011)
Figure 6.20 shows the dehulling efficiencies of locust bean device at different steaming time.
Dehulling efficiency increased with increase in cooking time from 15 min to 60 min, due to
the coat becoming softer; hence more coats are removed from seeds as cooking time
increased (Owolarafe et al., 2011). However dehulling efficiency dropped as cooking time
increased from 60 to 75 min due to coats becoming very soft and sticky which are difficult to
remove from seeds. Olowolarafe et al., (2011) recommended an optimal cooking time of 60
min.
6.1.5 African Locust Bean Hull Separators

A study was carried out by Adewumi and Ologunagba, (1995) to improve the effectiveness of
screen separator by applying scientific principles. The physical characteristics of locust bean
cotyledon and hull were studied. The general relationship for punched screen was used to
obtain an appropriate and effective perforation size of 6 mm for screen for efficient screening
40 % < C0 < 45%.
3D 2
C0 
2D  d 
2
Where Co is the coefficient of open area of screen, D is the diameter of perforation and d is
the distance between two successive holes.
Clogging is a common problem with this type of screen since the hulls of locust beans have a
high frictional property. Regular cleaning of screen with brush could minimize clogging. The
newly designed screen separator (Ajere) could achieve separation efficiency above 80%. It
virtually separates all the hulls but may not separate all the stones and other bulky dirts
(Adewumi and Ologunagba, 1995).
A hydro cyclone separator was also developed to separate locust bean hulls based on
hydrodynamic principles (Adewumi and Ologunagba, 1995). The equipment is made up of a
cyclone, frame, collector, feed tank, centrifugal pump and pipe line connections. The
equipment was designed in accordance with Riatma optimal design for classification. It has a
volumetric capacity of 0.034 cm3 and a flow rate of 0.011 m3/s. Centrifugal separation occurs
in a vortex generated within a cono- cylindrical body. The feed –flow enters tangentially into
the cyclone and divides into an under-flow which carries the clean cotyledons and an over-
flow which carries the hulls. The separation efficiency was 37% for the locust bean hull
separation.
Fig 6.21: Hydroclyone for Separating the Hulls from Locust Bean
Source: Adewumi(1997)
6.2 Challenges of African Locust Bean Mechanization
Oni (1987) observed that despite its economic importance, locust bean processing have not
been mechanised, hence the need for development of simple inexpensive machines. Much
research work has not been done on locust bean especially on the appropriate technologies for
processing the locust bean fruit into food condiment (Akande et al., 2010). This has made the
processing of locust bean fruit to be very tedious and time consuming rendering the
processing to remain on small scale and homemade production level.
Mechanization of production and processing activities of fermented locust bean condiment

can be achieved by researching into production of hybrid locust bean seed to reduce the years
of maturity of the tree by the Agronomist and Botanist. Long handle shear like harvester can
be developed to replace traditional method of harvesting.
Beaumont (2002) identified several constraints to production and consumption of locust bean
condiment. These include among others, low production due using of rudimentary equipment,
high wood fuel consumption and poor manufacturing practices. Dehulling of locust bean is
time consuming, laborious and inefficient. Consequently, the production of this condiment
has not increased substantially. Akande et al., (2010) enumerated some of the challenges in
mechanizing the locust bean production and processing:
i. Depodding of locust bean fruits are mostly done by hand by processors.

ii. Seeds of locust bean are embedded in a yellowish pulpy material and seeds needed to
be separated from this yellowish pulpy material before it can be further processed
into fermented locust bean (food condiment). The separations are either done by
drying the pulp, in which seed are embedded, then pounding and separation of
seeds from yellowish pulp, or done by washing it in water to remove the yellowish
pulp from seeds.
iii. Cleaning of locust bean seeds which have to do with removal of any foreign materials
prior to further processing is still being done manually by use of wind to winnow
it or washing in water.
iv. Cooking of locust bean seeds: African locust bean is encased in a hard, tough and
relatively thick coat that has semi- permeable characteristics. Easy movement of
water through the coat is restricted. The adhesive strength that binds coat to seed
is relatively high (Aniyi, 2004). Hence cooking is necessary to soften the firmly
attached seed coat for easy dehulling. Cooking is done in a locally made
aluminium cast iron pot using fire wood as source of heat. This operation takes 24
h, estimated to be 50 % of time used in processing locust bean fruits to food
condiment.
v. Dehulling occurs when firmly attached seeds coats which has been softened during
cooking is removed for fermentation process. This unit operation is traditionally
carried out either by action of abrasion of cooked locust bean seeds and sea sand
using hand or feet , or mortar and pestle to dehull.
vi. Separation of locust bean cotyledon from its coat proceeds dehulling operation. This
operation involves use of local sieve in flowing or inside a bowl of water to
remove the hull from the locust bean cotyledon.
vii. Pre-cooking of dehulled seeds. The essence of re-cooking dehulled seeds is to hasten
fermentation process, using locally made aluminium cast iron pot and firewood as
source of heat.
viii. The production of fermented locust bean has remained a traditional family art
practiced in homes with rudimentary utensils (Odunfa and Adewuyi, 1985) such
as calabash, clothes or leaves for covering to produce a strong smelling food
condiment/ flavouring agent. Local production is tedious, slow, and laborious and
subjects locust bean to excessive water treatment leading to colour degradation
and uncontrolled activities of micro-organism. The bean with an original golden
yellow colour therefore turns to brown/ black with a slightly irritating odour
(Adewumi, 1997). The dark colour coupled with the irritating smell has
negatively influenced marketability of condiment despite its nutritional value
(Adewumi and Igbeka, 1993).
ix. The stand of locust bean trees on farmland is old and regeneration is poor (Bayer,
1987). Special efforts may have to be made by ecologists and agriculturists to
promote regeneration of locust bean trees.
x. Acceptability challenges: Traditional condiments have not attained commercial status
due to short shelf life, objectionable packaging materials, stickiness and
characteristic putrid odour (Arogba et al., 1995). Fermented condiments often
have a stigma attached to them, they are often considered as food for the poor
(Achi, 2005).
6.3 Strategies to Improve the Processing of Fermented African Locust Bean
Production of food and fibre requires a lot of engineering application, particularly to

enhance mass production within a short time (Ademosun et al., 2003). Oloso (1988) gave
a four – point suggestions on how to upgrade production technology of fermented locust
bean.
i. A steamer should be designed to hasten the softening of bean coat

ii. A machine should be designed to remove bean coat
iii. Optimum temperature and relative humidity should be provided to reduce time
required for fermentation
iv. A better post fermentation technique is necessary to protect and prolong shelf –life
and render fermented bean in a more presentable form.
Adewumi and Olalusi (1995) suggested the need to mechanise dehulling operation to
improve quality of product and make it to meet international taste and standard and
increase the production.
6.4 Problems and Constraints to Agro- Industrialization
The agro- industrial sector remains rudimentary, underdeveloped and largely without
significant institutional technical and financial support (Oni, 2011). Oni (2011) further
identified some of the problems and constraints militating against this sector of the economy:
i. Availability of raw materials: Nigeria is endowed with wide variety of primary agro-
commodities; however few of these commodities are available in the required
quantities throughout the year.
ii. Environmental regulations: most agro-related industries are affected increasingly by

environmental regulations and need to introduce monitoring and bench marking
systems. Waste reduction and safe disposal of unwanted and often hazardous by-
products of processing pose continual problems to enterprises.
iii. Research, technology and technical support for agro- industrial development: The
technology utilized in small-scale sector has remained relatively static and
traditional. Other crucial constraints to development of agro-processing sector are
the lack of proper utilization of research and development results and outcomes,
lack of trained personnel, inadequate technical, managerial and market support.
Both public and private agro-processing sectors have not invested in development
of most effective research, nor have readily embraced and adopted most
appropriate and current technologies. Small holder processors generally do not
have financial resources or credit facilities at their disposal to invest in new
processes, human resources, management or technological innovations.
iv. Absence of good management and non existence of market development strategy:
v. Seasonality of produce: Crops are seasonal making most industries to be out of

business within periods these crops are out of season. The anti-dote to this
seasonality of crops is appropriate and functional storage systems.
vi. Inappropriate or obsolete processing and ancillary equipment: Most agro-based

industries are equipped with inappropriate or obsolete processing and ancillary
machines and equipment. These affect their production rate and impact negatively
on the quality of processed products.
References
Achi, O.K. 2005. Traditional Fermented Protein Condiments in Nigeria. African Journal of
Biotechnology. Vol 4(13): 1612-1621. December.
Addy, E.O.; Salami L.I.; Igboeli L.C. and Remawa S.H. 1995. Effect of Processing on
Nutrient Composition and Anti – nutritive Substances of African Locust Bean (Parkia
biglobosa) and Baobab Seed (Adansonia digitata). Plant Foods Hum. Nutr., 48:113-117.
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INDEX
Abrasion 21, 78, 83 Cell 15, 45, 47
African locust bean 1,2,3,4,5,6,10,12, Centrifugal 23, 81
13,14,15,16,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,84 Chemical 27, 29, 30,31,34,36,42,90,92,

, 87,88,89,90,91,92, 93,94,95,96,97 94, 95
Agglutinate 16 Cleaning 81, 83
Agricultural production 60, 97 Cleaning efficiency 61
Agro- processing 16, 85 Concave clearance 74, 75
Ajibode method 34, 36 Clogging 81
Alkaloids 14 Coefficient of friction 51, 52, 54, 57, 59
Alternate 5 Combustion 59
Aluminium 79, 83 Commodities16, 84
Amino acid 15, 24, 30,31,33,44,46,47,90, Compartment 68, 69
92, 95 Compression 21
Anti-nutritional 17,28,29,30,32,40,41 Concave 60, 61, 74,75,86,95
Appropriate machine 7, 51 Concave shelling efficiency 61
Archimedes principle 23 Condiments 5, 19, 23,44,70,84,86,87,93
Bacterial load 42 Constituents 14,20,24,25,47,71,94
Biochemical 20, 47,88,92,93 Cracking force 59
Biodiversity 2 Crop 1, 6, 7,9,13,85,88,89
Bi-pinnate 5 Crop processing 6, 7
Blanching 15, 17 Crude fat 25, 26, 28
Blood cells 15 Cube 6, 7, 9,11,13,46
Bulk density 57, 59 Culture 16,18,34,41
Burner 68, 69 Cylinder shelling efficiency 61
Calabash 19, 20, 83 Dawadawa 6,12,13,18,20,23,24,38,42,43,

88, 92, 96
Calories 13
Decortications 60
Carbohydrate12, 24, 25,27,28,30,31,38,39,
Dehulling efficiency 37, 74,77,78,79, 80,
40,43,45,49
Dehydrated 13,29,47,95 Enzymatic 42
Density 52, Experimental procedures 40
Depodding 83 Fabric 12
Depulpping 6,19,62,63,64,65,68 Fermentation 6, 15, 18,20,24,37,38,39,40,
Detachment 64, 65, 67 43,45,46,47,48,65,70,83,84,88,89,90,91
Diarrhoea 12 92,93,94,96
Diameter 62,63,74,81 Fermented 5,6,12,13,14,17,18,20,21,23,24,
- Average 74 25,34,35,36,38,39,40,41,43,44,45,46,49,82
- Major 51,52,55 , 83, 84,86,88,91,92,93,95
- Intermediate 51,52
- Minor 51,52 Flavour 13
- Mean 1 Flowers 5
- Effective 57
Frequency distribution 51, 53
Dietary 5,12,26,29,45,87,90
FRIN 34, 36, 37
Dimension 51, 56
Germination count 63, 68
Discharge 10, 62,69,78,79
Graded 6
Domestic 6, 14
Grain 6, 12,14,16,52,54,86,90
Drudgery 15, 97
Haemorrhoids 12
Dry milling 17
Harvesting 4,18,19,54
Drying 6, 18,36,42,43,54,60,83
Harvesting rights 1
Ecological 13
Hazardous 85
Economic 2,5,12,13,38,82,90,94,97
Health 2, 41, 90
Edible 12, 17,19,20,23,
Heat
Efficiency 21
Herbs 2
- Cleaning efficiency 61
- Concave shelling efficiency 61 Hermaphrodite 5
- Cylinder shelling efficiency 61
Husk 12,14,55,60
- Overall shelling efficiency 61
- Separation efficiency 79,81 Hydro cyclone 81
- Recovery efficiency 63,65,66,67
- Dehulling efficiency 78,79,80 Hydrodynamic 81, 86
Enhancement 24 Hydrolysis 20, 30
Environmental regulations 85 Hydrothermal 37, 38, 88
Indigenous 16, 24, 34,60,86,87,89,91,97

Iodine value 45, 46 Non- toxicity 24
Jaundice 12 Normal distribution 51
Jute 20 Odour 37, 69, 72,73,83,84
Legume 5,6,12,15,20,26,27,29,30,86,91, Operation 6,7,16,19,21,23,38,43,62,63,68,
92, 96, 97 79,83,84,87
Leguminous pods 1 Optimum conditions 6
Lipids 5, 38 Organoleptic 15,38,48,87
Livestock 12, 41, 88 Oven drying 42
Load 17, 63, 42 Packaging 6,9,84
- Compressive 21 Parboiling 17, 34,35,36,37

- Shock 21
Particle board12
Lysine 5, 33
Pericarp 1, 45
Macerated 12
Permeable 20, 71, 83
Major diameter 51, 52, 55
pH 27,28,36,42,43,44
Malaria 12
Physiological 14, 18
Manufacturing 6, 82
Pre-cooking 34, 83
Meatiness 5, 23
Preservation 15, 16,34,36,41,42,43,47, 92,
Mechanization 15, 60,82,86,97 96
Micro-organism 6, 40, 42,43,47,83 Processing methods 6,34,41,95
Milling 17 - Ajibode 34,36

- Saki 34,35,36
- Wet milling 17 - FRIN 34,35,37
- Dry milling 17,95 - Improved 34
Minerals 13, 17,27,30,31,32,43,44 - Steam 35,37
- Control 34,35
Moisture content 18, 24,27,28,30,38,42,44,
Protein 5,12,13,14,15,17,20,23,24,25,27,
49,54,55,57,58,59,60,62,63,71,73,74,77,78
79 28,30,31,33,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,
Morphology 4, 94 45,48,49,86,89,90,92,94,95,96
Motorized 64, 76, 95 Proximate composition 30, 31, 37,38,39,44
Mucilaginous 45 , 48, 88
Neurological 15 Raffia 20
Roasting 15, 17
Roller 74 Techniques 6, 15, 16,19,34,47
Roundness 51, 52 Technology 2,16,84,85,85,87,88,89,90,91,
Rudimentary 18,82,83,84 93,94,95,97
Rural 2, 15, 24 Temperature 15, 21, 27,29,35,42,44,84,92
Safe disposal 85 Texture 35,36,37,43,70,72,73
Sauces 5,23,24,44 Therapeutic 2, 89
Scatter point 68 Thickening agent 14
Seasonality 9, 85 Thickness 21,57,58,59
Seed loss 63, 65, 66 Threshing 16, 19, 60
Seed membrane 63,64,65,66 Throughput 78, 79
Sensory 17, 18, 29 Timber 12
Separation 19,20,21,23,57,60,66,81,83,86
Shelf life 15, 18,45,49,84
Smoke drying 18
Soaked 29, 34, 64
Sorted 61
Soup 5, 6, 12, 13,23,24,44
Specific heat 59
Sphericity 51, 52
Spikes 60
Spoilage 6,18,27,41,43,45,49
Stabilizing 12
Starch 14, 17, 23,30,31,43
Stew 5,6,12,13,23,24
Storage 6, 7,14,21,43,51,85,89
Supplementation 13
Tachometer 63
Tank 62, 81
Tannin 12,13,28,29,38,40,41
Treatment 15,37,40,42,45,68,83,87,88,95
Turbulence 23
Under-developed 5
Unsaturated 5, 30, 31
Usufructory rights 1
Utensils18, 83
Utilization 15, 29, 39,41,46,85
Vitamins 13, 17,21,23,43
Waste 10, 14,43,85,87
Waste reduction 85
Winnowing 16
111
112
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Article · January 2012

Kayode Joshua Simonyan

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Prospects, Status and Challenges

Kayode Joshua SIMONYAN, PhD

Publisher and Distributors

First Published in February 2012 by

NAPHTALI PRINTS NIG. LTD

Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike

Prof Ikenna Onyido (Immediate past)

Prof Hillary Odo Edeoga

University of Ilorin, Ilorin

Prof Is-haq Olarenwaju Oloyede

Students of agriculture, food science and engineering, particularly agricultural engineering,

A very special appreciation is extended to Prof J.A. Olorunmaiye, Dean, Faculty of

The understanding, love, encouragements and patience provided by my immediate family

Dr. K.J. Simonyan

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

1.1 Agronomy of African Locust Bean Tree 1

1.2 Harvesting of African Locust Bean Pod 4

1.3 The African Locust Bean Seed 5

2.0 PROSPECTS OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN 12

2.2 Prospects of Mechanisation of African Locust Bean Production and

3.0 STATUS OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN SEED PROCESSING 16

3.1 Traditional Food Processing Technologies 16

3.2 Traditional Method of Processing African Locust Bean 18

3.3 Modern Method of Processing African Locust Bean 21

3.4 Nutritional Composition of African Locust Bean 23

4.0 PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEAN

4.1 Processing Methods of African Locust Bean Condiment 34

4.2 Preservation Methods of African Locust Bean Condiment 41

4.3 Fermentation of African Locust Bean Condiment 43

4.4 Salting of African Locust Bean Condiment 47

6.0 MECHANIZATION OF AFRICAN LOCUST BEANS PROCESSING 60

6.1 Efforts at Mechanising African Locust Bean Processing 60

6.2 Challenges of Mechanization of African Locust Bean Processing 82

6.3 Strategies to Improve the Processing of African Fermented Locust Bean 84

6.4 Problems and Constraints to Agro –Industrialisation. 84

Fig 1.1 Isolated African Locust Bean Tree 2

Fig 1.2 Fruiting African Locust Bean Tree 3

Fig 1.3 Matured Pods on African Locust Bean Tree 3

Fig 1.4 Distribution of Parkia Clappertoniana in Nigeria and a Parkia Fruit 4

Fig 1.5 Harvested Locust Bean under Storage Condition 7

Fig 2.1 Constituents of Parkia Clappertoniana fruit 14

Fig 6.1 Sectional view of African Locust Bean Fruit Decorticator 61

Fig 6.2 A Motorised Locust Bean Depulpping Machine 64

Figure 6.4 Percentage Seed Loss against Depulpping Speed 66

Figure 6.5 Locust Bean Recovery Efficiency against Depulpping Speed 66

Figure 6.6 Effects of Depulpping Speed on Membrane Detachment Efficiency 67

Fig. 6.7 Effects of Soaking Time on Recovery Efficiency 67

Fig 6.9 Schematic Diagram of the Steamer Unit 69

Fig 6.10 Locust Bean Seed Steamer (Charcoal Fueled) 70

Fig 6.13 Manually Operated Concave Type Dehuller 75

Fig 6.14 Schematic Diagram of the Burr type Dehuller 76

Fig 6.15 A Concentric Cylinder African Locust Bean Dehuller 77

Fig 6.17 Variation of DE with Dehulling Length 78

Fig 6.19 Schematic of African Locust Bean Processing Machine 80

Fig 6.20 Dehulling Efficiency of the Machine at Different Steaming Time 80