1 | Purposive Communication

UNIT 1: COMMUNICATION PROCESSES, PRINCIPLES AND ETHICS

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Examine scenarios which demonstrate a specific type of communication.
b. Relate the communication models to their own communication experiences; and
c. Demonstrate situations which exemplify ethical communication.

1.1. Introduction

Unit 1 introduces the process of communication in the perspective of different

theorists and authors. It is believed that communication is as old as human civilization
and is currently evolving; thus, different models are presented in this unit which help us
understand how communication really works especially in this new era. Minus
communication, human society could not have been as it is today. It is communication
which has transformed mankind into the most developed rational and prosperous group
on the earth.
The activities incorporated in this learning material will guide the students to
better understand how communication works especially in the modern age, and adhere to
ethical communication. They will also help them to process their communication
appropriately in a given context.

1.2 Topics/Discussion

Activity #1: Write a short conversation between the two individuals below. One should
be a sender who initiates the message, and the other one is a receiver. Then answer the
following questions by writing your answers on the space provided.

Illustration from: https://www.nytimes.com/

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1. How would you describe good/effective communication?

2. What role do facial expressions, gestures and pauses play in communication?
3. When can you say that a communication is distorted?

1.2.1 The Elements and Types of Communication

The Communication Process

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/731131320739280402/

Communication comes from the Latin word communicare which means "to share"
or " make common" (Moshood, 2013). It is used in common talk, usually, to man speaking
or writing or sending a message to another person (Vaghela, 2015). It facilitates sharing
of common experiences with others. It involves sharing of an idea, thought, feeling or
information with others, which includes thinking, dreaming, speaking, arguing and so
on. A simpler meaning of it is as defined by Newman and Summer (1977) as an exchange
of ideas; facts, opinions or emotions of two or more persons.
Communication is a two-way process involving: elements: a source, a message, a
channel, a receiver, noise and feedback (Bantugan et al., 2019). The following
explanations illustrate how the process goes.

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The Elements of Communication

A. Source: The source of communication is the sender who has a message to

impart. The sender has to decide how to communicate a message, which channel is to be
selected for the message and what type of strategies should be planned so that the
message makes the desired response. The sender provides verbal or non-verbal cues that
can be received, interpreted and responded to by the receiver.
B. Message: Message is a set of signs and symbols which are given by the source
to create meanings for the receiver. Simply put, message is the content which is shared
between the participants in the communication process. To make the message effective,
the sender has to understand the nature and profile of the receiver of the message, his/her
needs and expectations and possible response to the message. This is important in both
face-to-face as well as mediated situations.
C. Channel: Channel is the medium used to communicate a message from the
sender to receiver. The channel could be spoken word, printed word, electronic media,
or even non-verbal cues such as signs, gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc. In
modern communication parlance, the word 'channel' mostly refers to mass
communication media such as newspapers, radio, television, telephone, computers,
internet etc. The selection of an appropriate channel is crucial for the success of
communication.
D. Receiver: Communication cannot take place without a receiver for whom the
message is meant. We receive a message, interpret it and derive meaning from it. You
have already studied that for successful communication, the receiver should receive the
message in the same way it was meant by the sender. In interpersonal communication,
the receiver shares a close relationship with the sender which gradually gets diluted in
group and mass communication.
E. Noise: Noise is distortion in a message which affects the flow of communication.
Noise could be due to internal as well as external sources. Noise creates barriers in
communication and could have implication in the communication process.
F. Feedback: The response given by the receiver to the message of the sender is
known as feedback. Communication being a two-way process, without the element of
feedback any discussion on the process of communication is incomplete.

However, it is not sufficient to have just all these elements; there should be
cooperation and understanding between the two parties involved. It is important to have
a common frame of reference or context for successful and meaningful communication,
e.g. a common language or common interpretation of a gesture (Bantugan et al., 2019).

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The Types of Communication

Source: https://www.educba.com/types-of-communication/

Based on Style and Purpose:

A. Formal Type

This type of communication is also referred to as "official communication" and

covers the gamut of verbal expressions that address a formal need. It is conducted through
a pre-determined channel. For instance, a large number of interactions one makes within
one's profession and legal expressions are examples of formal communication. It is more
time-consuming that non-formal communication, as it follows a particular communication
protocol. Written forms which are provided based on the oral conversation in minutes of a
meeting or seminar can be recorded for transcription. This could also be considered a
reliable source of information (Villacorte, 2019).
Formal communication forms the core of one's professional life (though not all
professional communication is formal). Hence, it is important to learn formal writing to
succeed and advance as a writer. One can excel in this type of communication when: he
begins clarifying the purpose of his communication; when he follows a well-defined
structure for his audience to easily understood his message; when he keeps his tone open,
professional and friendly, when he ends by re-iterating what he expects to happen in this
communication; and when he thanks his audience for listening.

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B. Informal Type

Informal or unofficial type of communication is popular. This is often by word-of-

mouth information. In fact, it is this type of communication that opens one up to unofficial
yet provocative information. Spontaneous and free-flowing type of communication is not
restricted by any formal structure and standards. However, this type of information is also
less reliable or accurate. A communication channel that spreads like wildfire, as there are
no formal rules to follow is considered informal. Mostly oral, with no documentation
evidence is informal. Because of this, many underestimate the significance of informal
communication and is considered just a "hearsay" (Villacorte, 2019).
But despite its drawbacks, informal communication is considered "user-friendly"
and hence offers huge advantages when used wisely. This type of communication however
serves well when one wants to control or encourage positive opinions, ideas and
expressions, without making them seem like they have been "thrust upon" with ideas.

Based on Communication Channels:

C. Non-verbal Communication

Nonverbal communication,
also called manual language, is the
process of sending and receiving
messages without using words, either
spoken or written. Similar to the way
that italicizing emphasizes written
language, nonverbal behavior may
emphasize parts of a verbal message.
These non-verbal signals can give
clues and additional information and
meaning over and above spoken
(verbal) communication. Indeed,
some estimates suggest that around 70 to 80% of communication is non-verbal!
Your nonverbal communication cues—the way you listen, look, move, and react—
tell the person you’re communicating with whether or not you care, if you’re being truthful,
and how well you’re listening. When your nonverbal signals match up with the words
you’re saying, they increase trust, clarity, and rapport. When they don’t, they can generate
tension, mistrust, and confusion.
If you want to become a better communicator, it’s important to become more
sensitive not only to the body language and nonverbal cues of others, but also to your own.

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There are 7 different nonverbal dimensions:

1. Kinesics or body movements including facial expressions and eye contact;
2. Vocalics or paralanguage that includes volume, rate, pitch, and timbre;
3. Personal appearance;
4. Our physical environment and the artifacts or objects that compose it;
5. Proxemics or personal space;
6. Haptics or touch;
7. Chronemics or time.

D. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is
any communication that uses
language to convey meaning. It
can include oral communication,
such as speaking to another
person over the telephone, face-
to-face discussions, interviews,
debates, presentations and so on.
It can also include written
communication, such as letters
and emails.

• Oral (Face-to-Face) Type

Face-to-face oral is the most common type of communication. Direct sending of

message through face-to-face however can be formal (formal meeting or seminar) or
informal (with family and friends). These types of communication get better with practice.
The more one practices with awareness, the more he is in control on one's oral expressions.
This oral form is considered the most powerful type of communication and can work for
or against one with every expression he uses. This type is a communication is very
engaging that one cannot rehearse no matter how hard he tries. It does not offer one
opportunity to tune, revise, revoke and fix what was already expressed. The listener (or an
audience) can speak back to his audience in oral communication enabling two-way
communication more than any other channel.
For superior face-to-face communication, he should always meet the eyes of his
audience with confidence, conviction and openness. He should practice before a mirror to
perfect tone and expressions to convey message. It is suggested that one has to be ready to
practice before conversing and persuading his audience.

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Conscious engagement of audience' participation is the strength of oral

communication. So the speakers must never let a dull moment in any conversation with an
audience. He can have an active discussion by asking questions, getting their opinion, and
encouraging expression of new ideas. However, it is also required for the speaker to
become an active listener. An effective oral communicator does not only speak, but also
actively listens to his audience.

• Oral (Distance) Type

Distance (oral) communication has made the world a smaller and more accessible
place. Mobile phones, VOIP, video-conferencing, 2-way webinars, etc. are all modern
expansions of distance communication, taking its expression to the next subtle level. And
in this type of communication, the speaker's tone of voice and pace of delivery take priority
over other expressions. For effective oral communication over distance, one must give
higher priority to the speaker's listening. When he fails to listen to his audience, he finds
that people in the discussion attempt to speak at the same time, undermining the value of
this form of communication. What signals an effective oral (distance) type is when the
speaker slightly talks slower than what he does in a face-to-face communication. This
makes sure that speaker remains aware of the subtle nuances of his tone, and the receiver
has time to grasp what he tries to convey.
Finally, oral (distance) type of communication must be backed-up with written
communication where possible. The intent is to confirm the take-away from the
communication so all parties are on the same track. This makes sense even for an informal
call with a friend - perhaps he can send a quick text message to reiterate how pleasurable
it was to speak to the other party to confirm both parties final call-for-action.

• Written Type

There is no doubt that this type of communication has now taken over every aspect
of the world. Gone are those days that written communication was dependent on the trusty
old mailman as we wrote to people who were far away. On rare occasions, this also
included the formal note or legal notice from the bank, landlord, and business client among
other note receivers. Old process of sending written messages takes time and engagements
were slow. Now, one can already have all these sending of messages over fancy mobile,
Facebook and Twitter updates, personal and professional emails in just for seconds. One
can get into blogging and have the verbal exchange of messages enjoyable.
To make written communication effectively work, one should: follow a clear
structure so communication is not all over the place. This can include a brief introduction,
agenda, message body and conclusion. The cleverness and effectiveness of one's
communication lies in how he captures the communication mode such as email, text

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message, quick status update on social media among other avenues. Another way is to
clarify the context whenever possible. This might seem like overkill for a harmless text
message. But it could be surprising that the amount of seemingly-harmless (written)
communication reaches the wrong participant's eyes and ears. So, to be effective, the writer
should ensure that his context is reasonably clear, no matter who the recipient is.

1.2.2 The Communication Models

“… A model seeks to show the main elements of any structure or process and the
relationship between these elements… it helps in explaining by providing in a simplified
way information which would otherwise be complicated or ambiguous.” (Mcquail and
Windahl, 2013). Through a model one can easily understand a process and draw
conclusions from it. In simpler words a model makes the learning simple.
Once the methods of communication have been understood, the next step would
be to consider various communication models. Due to the importance of communication,
different types of models have been introduced by experts over the years.

A. Aristotle’s Model of Communication

Aristotle, a great philosopher initiative the earliest mass

communication model called “Aristotle’s Model of Communication”.
He proposed model before 300 B.C who found the importance of
audience role in communication chain in his communication model.
This model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal
communication (Bajracharya, 2018).
Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech. It can be
broadly divided into 5 primary elements: Speaker, Speech, Occasion,
Audience and Effect.

Source: https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/aristotles-model-communication.

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The Aristotle’s communication model is a speaker centered model as the speaker

has the most important role in it and is the only one active (Bajracharya, 2018). It is the
speaker’s role to deliver a speech to the audience. The role of the audience is passive,
influenced by the speech. This makes the communication process one way, from speaker
to receiver. The speaker must organize the speech beforehand, according to the target
audience and situation (occasion). The speech must be prepared so that the audience be
persuaded or influenced from the speech.
For instance, a politician (speaker) gives a speech to get votes from the civilians
(audience) at the time of election (occasion). The civilians only vote if they are influenced
by the things the politician says in his speech so the content must be very impressive to
influence the mass and the speaker must design the message very carefully. The speech
must be clear as well as the speaker must have a very good non-verbal communication
with the audience like eye contact.

B. Shannon-Weaver’s Model of Communication

Shannon Weaver model of

communication was created in 1948 when Claude
Elwood Shannon wrote an article “A
Mathematical Theory of Communication” in Bell
System Technical Journal with Warren Weaver
(Santos & Uychoco, 2018).
C.L. Shannon W. Weaver Shannon was an American
mathematician whereas Weaver was a scientist.
The Mathematical theory later came to be known as Shannon Weaver model of
communication or “mother of all models.” This model is more technological than other
linear models.

Source: https://www.communicationtheory.org/shannon-and-weaver-model-of-communication/

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C. Berlo’s SMCR Model

In 1960, David Berlo postulated Berlo’s Sender-Message-
Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model of communication from Shannon
Weaver’s Model of Communication (1949). He described factors
affecting the individual components in the communication making
the communication more efficient (Bajracharya, 2018).
Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication represents the
process of communication in its simplest form. The acronym SMCR
stands for Sender, Message, Channel, and Receiver. Berlo’s SMCR
Model of Communication describes the different components that form the basic process
of communication.

Source: https://easynotes4u.com/berlos-smcr-model-of-communication/

D. Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication

Wilbur Schramm in 1954 provided several

additional models out of which the first was
essentially an elaboration of Shannon’s. He
introduced the concept of “commonness” between
the source and the receiver. The message from the
source is encoded and is transmitted in form of a
C. Osgood W. Schramm signal to the receiver where it gets decoded.

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Here the information carried in form of a signal is encoded and decoded in the
common way in which both the sender and receiver can interpret it easily.
The Osgood-Schramm model of communication is a communication theory. It
explains how we communicate with one another, mainly though speech, writing and
discourse. It emphasizes four key principles:
• That communication is circular, not linear. The listener can both receive and send
messages (in most instances).
• That communication is usually equal and reciprocal
• That there is a lot of interpretation involved when receiving a message
• That all communication requires three steps: encoding, decoding and interpreting a
message.

Source: https://www.communicationtheory.org/osgood-schramm-model-of-communication/

Semantic noise is a concept introduced here it occurs when sender and receiver
apply different meaning to the same message. It happens mostly because of words and
phrases for e.g. Technical Language, So certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate
from the actual meaning of the communication.

E. Helical Model of Communication

Another very important model of communication is the

Helical Model of communication. The Helical Model of
communication was proposed by Frank Dance in 1967 to throw
some more light on communication process. Dance thought of
communication process similar to helix.

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A Helix is nothing but a smooth curve just like a spring which if goes
upwards also comes downwards. The Helical model of communication
was designed by Frank Dance keeping the simple Helix in mind.

Let us understand the model with the help of an example.

A child from the very moment he comes to this world starts communicating. When a baby is
born, the nurse rubs his back to make the child cry. If the child doesn’t cry, it is an indication of a still
born child. It is actually a way the child is communicating to his parents that he is alive, absolutely
hale and hearty and ready to face the challenges of the world. As the child grows up, he cries whenever
he is hungry or expects something from his parents and sometimes simply for his parent’s attention.
It is again a child’s own way of conveying his message to the whole world. When the same child grows
up and starts going to school, he soon interacts with his parents, teachers, friends in the form of
words. Now crying actually gets replaced by words or his speech but one thing which is common is
the process of communication which existed since the child’s birth.
Thus ,the child actually started communicating from the very first day of his life and has
been communicating all through till the present day. This explains one part of helical model of
communication.

According to the Helical model of communication, the process of communication

evolves from the very birth of an individual and continues till the existing moment. All
living entities start communicating from the very first day of their origin. When seeds are
planted, they convey the message to the gardener that they need to be watered daily and
should be treated well with fertilizers and manure. When a plant emerges from the seed it
also starts communicating its need for water, sunlight, manure and fertilizers, thus
supporting the Helical model of communication. The same also applies for animals, birds,
fishes and all living creatures.

Source: https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/helical-model-communication

Post-Assessment #1: Cut or print out comic strips from a newspaper, comic
book, manga, graphic novel or online site, and then identify the type of
communication [(1) non-verbal/verbal (oral/written); (2) formal/informal]
exemplified in the situation. Then, below the comic strip, write an explanation of
why you have chosen that type of communication as evident in the comic strips.

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Activity #2: It is time to elect the world leader, and yours is the deciding vote. Put a check
mark (✓) inside the box of your chosen candidate, and a cross mark (✘) for the other two.
Here are the facts about the three leading candidates:

A B C

Candidate A: He associates with crooked politicians, and consults with astrologers. He's
uses foul language, chain smokes and drinks up to ten liquors a day.
Candidate B: She was ejected from office twice, involved in a bribery scandal, and sleeps
until noon.
Candidate C: He is a decorated war hero. He's a vegetarian, doesn't smoke, drinks an
occasional beer and hasn't had any extra-marital affairs.

Reason for your choice:

_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________.

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1.2.3 Communication Ethics

Ethics is knowing the difference between

what you have a right to do and what is
right to do. ~ Potter Stewart

It is not enough for a communicator to craft a message that’s clearly understood by

his or her audience. We must understand that whatever we communicate should be
guided by certain ethical principles.

“Ethical Communication”

Communication ethics is the ethical way of communicating through media,

language, social media, and journalism for developing human relationships as per the
morals and values of a profession, industry, business, or individual.
Ethical communication is predicated upon certain business values, such as being
truthful, concise, and responsible with one’s words and the resulting actions. It entails the
accepting and understanding of three key elements: "What one hopes to achieve through
the communication (the ends), how one chooses to communicate (the means), and the “real-
world” outcomes (the consequences) of communication are particularly important features
of ethical communication" (Sage, 2009).

Media Ethics in Mass Media - in media, there is a code of ethics or a set of rules that
govern the way we communicate and broadcast information. If you are a writer, journalist,
a news broadcaster, or a social media content generator you must become familiar with
media ethics in mass communication in order to become a competent communicator.
Continue reading our complete guide to media ethics in mass communication to learn
about the moral principles and values applied to the content of mass media.
Media Ethics constructs the way we conduct our roles within the context of mass
communication, due to the set of principles and ethics within this industry. When it comes
to news coverage, for example, media ethics concerns subjects such as impartiality,
objectivity, balance, bias, privacy, and the public interest.

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The US National Communication Association (NCA,

1999) discusses this in their Credo for Ethical Communication,
stating that, “Ethical communication is fundamental to
responsible thinking, decision-making, and the development
of relationships and communities within and across contexts,
cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication
enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility,
personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical
communication threatens the quality of individuals and the society in which we live.
In their credo, there are Four (4) Ethical Principles of Communication that are especially
relevant for students today (Santos & Uychoco, 2018).

1. Firstly, they advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the
integrity of communication” (NCA, 1999).

Nowadays, social media and speeches in public have been so filled with black
propaganda and whitewashing that there is a call to reiterate the need for truth and
honesty. It is important to be accurate when we communicate, and to have facts and figures
to prove our assertions. It is important to be reasonable, rather than to be too emotional or
threatening when we communicate.

2. Secondly, the NCA also endorses “freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and
tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision-making fundamental
to a civil society.” (NCA, 1999)
In certain political climates, people may feel threatened to the point that they no
longer feel that it is safe to express what they feel or think. This is not a good environment
to live in. We fully agree with the NCA that to have a vibrant democracy, we must be able
to hear different perspectives and have a high tolerance for views that are different from
ours. It is important to foster an environment where people feel safe enough to express
what they think and feel, and for these expressions to be met with reasonable dialogue and
debate.

3. Thirdly, the NCA (1999) states that they “condemn communication that degrades
individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and
through the expression of intolerance and hatred” (1999).
This condemnation is important because it safeguards society from racism, sexism,
and violence against oppressed peoples. History has shown us that a tolerance for hate
speech, as well as speeches that incite violence and the act of killing, have often instituted
such as violence in society, whether this is in the context of slavery, colonialism, misogyny.

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4. Lastly, the NCA (1999) states that communicators should “accept responsibility for the
short and long term consequences of our own communication and expect the same of
others.”
All too often, there have been people who do not feel accountable for their actions.
Therefore, if one risks to communicate maliciously, spread false news, or incite hatred or
violence, he or she be ready to face the consequences of such actions. States are beginning
to realize this, especially in the porous medium of social media. Every time we
communicate, we should consider the consequences of our actions. If people were more
responsible in their use of communication, there would be less conflict in this world. The
four principles are important because they help us discern the difference between ethical
and unethical communicators.

Ethical communication also yields positive outcomes, such as truthfulness,

respect, and accuracy of information. You can see that ethics is a very important part of the
communication process. Likewise, it is an important part of the public speaking process.
Unethical communication can lead to poor decision-making or a lack of respect for self and
others, and threaten the well-being of individuals and society. Communication experts
agree that ethical communication is an important responsibility of the speaker.

“Unethical Communication”

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines

“unethical” as “not conforming to a high
moral standard; morally wrong; immoral.” In
relation to communication, some schools of
thought view unethical communication as
anything that promotes misinformation,
intolerance, or slander.

Redding (1996) became concerned about the ethics of communication in

organizations. In 1996, he published an article calling for greater ethics in organizational
communication. He also described six types of unethical communications that
organizations should avoid. Below, we will review Redding’s six categories of unethical
communications, considering ways they can be applied in public communications such as
journalism, lectures, blogging, advertisements, even political speech. Here are the Six
Forms of Unethical Communication:

1. Destructive
Destructive communications attack an individual, organization, or group using
derogatory, insensitive, or inflammatory language. These types of unethical statements

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communicate character assassinations, prejudicial language, or slander. Destructive

communication includes abusive language and use of information to discredit. It is
aggressive, harassing, and degrading.
• Examples of destructive unethical communications include unwarranted attacks,
vicious criticisms, or unethical use of harmful information. These come in the form
of prejudice against individuals or groups or exposing harmful confidential
information to slander a person, group, or organization. Unethical communications
can also include disparaging subtext, implication, or innuendo.

2. Coercive
Coercive communications abuse power to threaten or stifle others. Coercion can be
communicated through implications, double binds or dead ends, or exclusion and
silencing. Coercive communications involve the abuse of one’s position of authority or
power to obtain goals by disempowering others from dissent. It is threatening, tyrannical,
and stifling.
• Examples of coercive communications include threats or implications of firing or
defunding, exclusion of people or groups from important discussions or events. It
also includes sending contradictory messages or creating no-win or dead-end
situations. Coercive communicators use their position to achieve their goals by
intimidating, excluding, or inhibiting others.

3. Manipulative-Exploitative
Manipulative-exploitative communications refer to those communications which
manipulate and/or exploit the audience’s ignorance, prejudice, or fears around a topic to
conceal important information and affect audience opinions or actions to align with the
writer’s. Manipulative-exploitative language is condescending, misleading, and psycho-
emotionally manipulative.
• Examples of manipulative-exploitative language include making one-sided
arguments against a person, group, or organization that paints the arguer as a
threat. It could also include messaging that incites people or groups based upon
cherry-picked information or misrepresentation. Manipulative-exploitative
language is often fear-mongering and could compel hostility against valid
rebuttals.

4. Deceptive
Deceptive communications is another form of unethical communication
characterized by misleading others. While manipulation involves withholding information
to incite affects, deception involves concealing unflattering or immoral behavior to
diminish affects. Deceptive communication is distorting, rose-colored, and evasive.

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• Examples of deceptive communications include those that cover up indiscretions

by leaving out key information or selectively presenting only favorable
information. It also includes language which makes bogus promises or claims. As
well as communication that is ambiguous or euphemistic. Deceptive language uses
half-truths to paint an unwarrantedly flattering picture.

5. Secretive
Secretive communications remain silent or unresponsive on important topics.
Secretive communications attempt to “sweep” indiscretions “under the rug,” either by
omitting key information or refusing to discuss the topic. It is a sort of power play in which
the author veils or buries important information. It is obscuring, omissive, and excluding
of public input.
• Examples of secretive communication include leaving out key information around
or examples of indiscretion or improper conduct (whether one’s own or others). It
also includes refusing to respond to important questions — staying silent — around
one’s own conduct or a significant topic. Secretive communication takes deception
a step further, evading topics altogether.

6. Intrusive
Intrusive communication is essentially communication that invades one’s privacy
to the point of denying them a right to legally protected or reasonably expected privacy.
Essentially, intrusive communications pry or share information obtained by prying —
without consent — into the private lives of individuals or organizations. It is invasive,
exposing, and often sensationalizing.
• Intrusive communication involves seeking or spreading private information
without consent. A classic example of intrusive communication would be paparazzi
images or interviews. Other, more mundane examples include sharing information
that was gained through illegal or immoral means, such as recording or taking
pictures without the subject’s knowledge or without their consent to share.

Post-Assessment #2: Do a “screenshot” of a published post in any social

media platforms (Facebook, Twitter, etc.) or online sites which are unethical (fake
news, plagiarism, cyberbullying, dirty contents, news bias, privacy invasion, etc.).
Then identify that post with one of the six forms of unethical communication. Below
1.3 the screenshot, give your explanation as to (1) Why is it unethical?; and (2) What
References
form of unethical communication is evident in the post and why?

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Purposive Communication
19

Books:
Ariola, M. M. (2018). Purposive Communication. Library Services & Publishing Inc.
Bantugan, et al. (2018). Purposive Communication. St. Andrew Publishing House
Mcquail, D., & WIndahl, S. (2013). Communication Models for the Study of Mass
Communication. Routledge.
Santos, M.L. & Uychoco, M.T. (2018). Communication for Society: Purposive Communication.
Rex Bookstore.
Redding, W. C. (1996). Ethics and the study of organizational communication: When will we
wake up? In J. A. Jaksa & M. S. Pritchard (Eds.), Responsible communication: Ethical
issues in business, industry, and the professions (pp. 17-40). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton
Press.
Villacorte, et al. (2019). Purposive Communication (English in Multimodal Context). St.
Andrew Publishing House.

Online Sources:
Bajracharya, S. (2018, January 6). Aristotle’s Model of Communication. Businesstopia.
https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/aristotles-model-
communication.
In Wikipedia (n.d.) Communication. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication.
Parker-Pope, T. (2020). How NOT to Wear a Mask [Photograph]. NY Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/08/well/live/coronavirus-face-mask-
mistakes.html
21st Century Communication: A Reference Handbook (2009). Ethical and Unethical
Communication. Sage Publications.
http://www.sagepub.com/edwards/study/materials/reference/77593_1.1ref.pdf
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication (n.d.). Communication Theory.
https://www.communicationtheory.org/shannon-and-weaver-model-of-
communication/

1.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay