TITLE PAGE

Properties of Polystyrenewaste with Sawdust composite

By

Ekperedike Happiness Chideraa

2020030193265

Submitted to

Department of Industrial Chemistry

Faculty of Applied Natural Science

Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT)

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of Bachelor in Science(B.sc)

Degree in Industrial Chemistry
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Study

Polystyrene, also known as poly-phenylethene, is a polymer made up of repeating

molecules called styrene. It is a thermoplastic polymer, meaning it softens and
melts when heated and can be reused. It is an excellent electrical Solid insulator
and is resistant to chemicals such as acids and bases. It is a type of polymer that is
transparent, rigid, brittle, and moderately strong in its unmodified state. It is a
plastic made by polymerization, which combines the building block compound
called styrene. Polystyrene is used in different forms, including as foam, lm, and
rigid plastic, for applications from food packaging to electronics protection. While
polystyrene’s uses are flexible and it features a low shrink rate, it also flows slowly
and can come out brittle. Polystyrene is food safe, though over time it can leach
styrene. It’s commonly used in injection molding, and manufactured by companies
such as (Dow and Trinseo,2021)

polystyrene is transparent due to the lack of crystalline arrangements of the styrene

molecules. It is a brittle material with poor UV resistance. It also has a relatively
low glass transition temperature of 100ºC, where the polymer begins to soften
before melting. Polystyrene is designated with recycling code number 6, and it can
be melted and reused in different shapes or forms. Polystyrene is usually combined
or co-polymerized with other compounds to form plastics with improved
properties. For example, polystyrene is combined with methyl methacrylate to
form Poly (styrene-co-methyl methacrylate) or PSMMA. The resulting material
has higher clarity with enhanced UV and chemical resistance. Another popular
plastic called Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) results from the co-
polymerization of acrylonitrile and butadiene with polystyrene. As a result, ABS
possesses high tensile strength, weldability, moldability, and dimensional stability.
(Slouf et al,2006)

Polystyrene is part of a much larger global plastic waste problem. Hundreds of

millions metric tons of polymers are produced each year, a large majority of which
is discarded after use. Due to the chemical stability and durability of industrial
polymers, plastic waste does not easily degrade in landfills and is often burned,
which produces carbon dioxide and other hazardous gases. In order to stop the
growing flood of polymer waste and reduce carbon dioxide emissions, plastics
have to be recycled or converted into new value-added products. A team of
scientists at Ames Laboratory used processing by ball-milling to deconstruct
commercial polystyrene in a single step, at room temperature, in ambient
atmosphere in the absence of harmful solvents. Ball-milling is a technique that
places materials in a milling vial with metal ball bearings which is then agitated
until a desired chemical reaction occurs. Called mechanochemistry, this
experimental approach has numerous applications in new materials synthesis, and
attractive features where plastics recycling is concerned. The deconstruction of
polystyrene proceeds through a series of chemical events involving mechanical
cutting apart of the macromolecules, which generates free radicals detectable in the
milled material even after its prolonged exposure to air. The metal bearings used
for milling and the ambient oxygen act as co-catalysts that enable extraction of the
monometric styrene from the oligomeric radical-bearing species formed. The
experiments showed that the temperature rise in the material during milling is not
responsible for the observed phenomenon since the temperature inside the milled
powder does not exceed 50oC while the thermal decomposition of polystyrene in
air starts at about 325oC. The Clemson's group confirmed the comprehensive
deconstruction of the original polymer into smaller fragments, oligomeric
materials, suitable for further processing into new value-added products.( Momoh
et al, 2021).

Sawdust is the fine wooden particles that are produced as a byproduct of the
woodworking process. This ubiquitous material is generated in large quantities
whenever wood is sawed, planed, or otherwise mechanically worked. As a readily
available resource, sawdust has long been recognized as having a wide range of
potential applications, from practical to creative uses. Understanding the nature
and properties of this humble woodworking waste can open up new avenues for its
utilization and help reduce the environmental impact of timber processing. (Song,
et al 2001)

Sawdust is natural material composed of small wood particles, both sawdust and
polystyrene can be used in packaging and insulation, they have different properties
and applications. Sawdust, when mixed with certain binders such as Resins
(Phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde), Polymer binder (e.g Polyethylene,
polypropylene) Starch, Wax can be used to create composite materials for
insulation but its not a direct replacement for polystyrene. Polystyrene is known for
its high thermal insulation properties and is commonly used in the construction
industry. (Hope, 1994).

1.2 Problem Statement

Polystyrene a versatile plastic commonly used in packaging, insulation and

disposable food containers, presents significant environmental challenges. Despite
its widespread utility, polystyrene is notorious for its persistence in the
environment, contributing to pollution and posing threats to wildlife and human
health. Saw dust on the other hand being a byproduct of wood processing I
industries such as lumber, furniture manufacturing, carpentry, present both
opportunities for effective management and utilization. Despite its potential for
various applications, improper disposal of sawdust can lead to environmental
pollution, health risk, economic inefficiencies

1.3 Aims And Objectives

1.3.1 Aims

To produce polystyrene waste using saw dust composite from Gmelina wood

1.3.2 Objective Of The Study

The objective of this study is;

1. To produce polystyrene waste from the environment

2. To produce sawdust from Gmelina wood
3. To characterized the properties of the composite produced
4. To check the physiochemical analysis like tensile strength, porosity e.tc.
5. Thermal analysis test
6. Characterization with ftir for functional group

1.4 Significance Of The Study

A close study of various paperwork reveals that It offers a potential solution for the
effective management of polystyrene waste, which is known for its non-
biodegradable nature and environmental impact. By using it in a composite
material, the volume of waste sent to landfills can be reduced. It is also important
to note the Resource effiency of polystyrene waste by utilizing waste materials
like polystyrene and sawdust in composite materials promotes resource efficiency
by giving a second life to materials that would otherwise be discarded. This aligns
with principles of the circular economy.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITRATURE REVIEW

2.1 Empherical review

(Jeffery et.al 2020) brings out the various characteristics of polystyrene. The report
gives a brief description of the use of polystyrene to produce a polymer which has
reduced flammability characteristics. The combination of nano-composites like
montmorillonite and fluorohectorite along with polystyrene produced
polypropylene-graft-maleic anhydride and polystyrene layered silicates. Under
controlled conditions, these properties were tested with the help of a continuous
beam of diffractive rays and a high intensive grain microscope was used to study
the combustion residues.

Polystyrene-co-acrylonitrile is the most productive of all the polymers. It is known

for its tensile strength, ability to withstand loads and has excellent properties
related to mechanical. As far as its ability to react with chemical is concerned it is
quite receptive. The final products produced are of yellowish in color as suggested
by (Cabaleiro-Lago 2020) in his paper. Polystyrene thereby comprises a structure
that is quite suitable for suffocation.

Polystyrene is a type of thermoplastic which is capable of producing products that

are not completely assembled. These are amorphous in nature. The process of
formation of these polymers is not that much difficult. The most probable
application of these polymers is thin layered sheets, bath sponges and the thin layer
of sulfonate. A major portion of the need for thermoplastic is fulfilled by
polystyrene. They account for around seven to eight percent of the needs.
Polystyrene does not get easily dissolved with acids or bases.
As it is amorphous in nature it is extremely luminous. Polystyrene is a bad
conductor of electricity. The manufacturing of polystyrene products is quite easy.
This is because it has a glass transition temperature that is quite less. The
temperature at which the polystyrene can act as neither a liquid nor as a solid upon
heating. Molding the polymer becomes less di fficult. Apart from these properties
polystyrene attracts atoms of hydrogen and carbon. It has its own set of drawbacks.
It can break easily on continuous exposure to ultraviolet radiations i.e. the sunlight.
Due to exposure to the atmosphere, its ability to withstand load is reduced. The
boiling point is reduced due to its amorphous nature. In spite of all these
drawbacks, they are the most productive polymers to be employed.(
Prachayawarakorn et la 2006)

(Shin’s 2013) work comprised of separation of water-oil emulsion. It comprises of

minute droplets. The droplets which are very minute having 100 μmare very
difficult to separate. Secondary the process of coalescence depends on the
properties of the droplets. It depends upon the size and performance of the
droplets. This affects the surface area of the emulsion. These fibers are mixed with
micro glass fibers to modify the glass fiber filter media. The cellar structure of the
polystyrene proves to be highly resistant to the flow of heat. ASTM C578 has
excellent thermal properties. This type of polystyrene is employed for thermal
insulation. The combination of nano-composites along with polystyrene produced
polypropylene-graft-maleic anhydride and polystyrene layered silicates.
Polystyrene is employed in pharmaceuticals in a productive and e ffective manner.
The process of formation of these polymers is not that much di fficult. The most
probable application of these polymers is thin layered sheets, bath sponges and the
thin layer of sulfonate. A major portion of the need for thermoplastic is fulfilled by
polystyrene. They account for around seven to eight percent of the needs. These
materials can be transported by maintaining them in thermal control conditions.

(Bertoch et.al 2014) in his report stated that polystyrene products begin to melt
when exposing to high temperatures. The process of development of Polystyrene
products is using the Dow process. The boards are formed using this process. The
maximum temperatures it can be maintained is 75 °C. The application of adhesives
that are highly soluble is suggested. The employment of adhesive which contains
very little amount of solvent is suggested. This type of polystyrene is employed for
thermal insulation. They are highly compactable and are responsible for the
production of doors. On direct contact, the molecules begin to melt and as a result,
the door starts to deform.

The boards are tested by experimenting them in prolonged exposure to sunlight.

They have to be kept from flammable materials. Under controlled conditions, these
properties were tested with the help of continuous beam of di ffractive rays and
high intensive grain microscope was used to study the combustion residues. In
order to prevent it from getting exposed to sunlight, it should be maintained in
vandalized rooms and maintained in it over a period of time. The intensity of the
plastic sheets should be very low since they act as a covering. The enhancement of
high temperatures occurs when high-intensity colors are employed. Applications of
adhesives that are highly soluble are suggested. The use of solvent-free adhesive is
suggested. This type of polystyrene is employed for thermal insulation (Militz et al
2014).

The experimental results according to which the molecular weight of polystyrene

depends on the coefficient of viscosity, coefficient of temperature, bulk viscosity,
glass temperature, and specific volume are to be studied. Knowledge and
understanding of the materials based on the application, physical properties, load
characteristics, and other properties are significant before manufacturing a product.

(Nehls et.al 2002), stated that the cellar structure of the polystyrene proves to be of
highly resistant to the flow of heat. It provides a cushioning e ffect and that is the
main feature for it being preferred in packaging. It provides a cushioning e ffect to
seats as well. Polystyrene products begin to melt when exposing to high
temperatures. The process of development of Polystyrene products is using the
Dow process. The boards are formed using this process. Applications of adhesives
that are highly soluble are suggested. Under controlled conditions, these properties
were tested with the help of scattered di ffraction and the transmission electron
microscope was employed to study the combustion residues.

The droplets which are very minute having 100 μmare very difficult to separate.
Secondary the process of coalescence depends on the properties of the droplets. It
depends upon the size and performance of the droplets. This a ffects the surface
area of the emulsion. These fibers are mixed with micro glass fibers to modify the
glass fiber filter media. The cellar structure of the polystyrene proves to be highly
resistant to the flow of heat. The need to understand the significance of materials is
a must in order to understand the limits and change of properties with use. Based
on the solution obtained from observation, the task for the engineers is reduced
since they help in producing efficient solutions. Thus through these observations,
the efficiency of the insulators is increased.

The manufacturing of polystyrene products is quite easy. This is because it has a

glass transition temperature that is quite less. The temperature at which the
polystyrene can act as neither a liquid nor as a solid upon heating. Molding the
polymer becomes less difficult. Apart from these properties polystyrene attracts
atoms of hydrogen and carbon

(Baker.S and Baker.K 2020) stressed the role of polystyrene in infrared

thermography. Through the comparative analysis, these properties were tested with
the help of continuous beam of diffractive rays and high intensive grain
microscope was used to study the combustion residues. The combination of nano-
composites like montmorillonite and fluorohectorite along with polystyrene
produced polypropylene-graft-maleic anhydride and polystyrene layered silicates
as stated earlier. Polystyrene-co-acrylonitrile is the most productive of all the
polymers. It is known for its tensile strength, ability to withstand loads and has
excellent properties related to mechanical. As far as its ability to react with
chemical is concerned it is quite receptive. The final products produced are of
yellowish in color.

The production of polystyrene is not as much difficult. It is not as expensive also.

It finds its application in the field of packaging, optics, in the degradation of
plastics, etc. It also finds its application in the field of medicine. The packaging
industry entirely depends on the performance of polystyrene. These materials can
be transported by maintaining them in thermal control conditions. The cellar
structure of the polystyrene proves to be highly resistant to the flow of heat.

Polystyrene is employed for manufacturing bottles, containers made of plastic and

other kitchen appliances. The manufacturing of polystyrene products is quite easy.
This is because it has a glass transition temperature that is quite less. The
temperature at which the polystyrene can act as neither a liquid nor as a solid upon
heating. Molding the polymer becomes less difficult.
Apart from these properties polystyrene attracts atoms of hydrogen and carbon. It
has its own set of drawbacks. It can break easily on continuous exposure to
ultraviolet radiations i.e. the sunlight. Due to exposure to the atmosphere, its ability
to withstand load is reduced. It is used in camper vans where the composition of
the door accounts for around 65% of polystyrene while the remaining percent
accounts for aluminum [7]. Several investigations have been carried based on these
combinations and enhancements in properties have been seen in most cases. The
properties of polystyrene were clearly studied before employing this design to the
campervans. The manufacturing of polystyrene products is quite easy. This is
because it has a glass transition temperature that is quite less. The temperature at
which the polystyrene can act as neither a liquid nor as a solid upon heating started
by Chuanxi, X in his study.

(T. Zhai 2009) in his report stated that apart from various other significant
properties polystyrene attracts atoms of hydrogen and carbon. It has its own set of
drawbacks. It can break easily on continuous exposure to ultraviolet radiations i.e.
the sunlight. Due to exposure to the atmosphere, its ability to withstand load is
reduced. The boiling point is reduced due to its amorphous nature. In spite of all
these drawbacks, they are the most productive polymers to be employed.

(Samuel Zalipsky 2008) investigated the properties of polystyrene in combination

with polyethylene glycol. The chemical properties of polyethylene glycol were
processed with polystyrene to form the following combination
BocNH(CH2CH2O)nCONHCH2CO2H.They have to be kept from flammable
materials. Under controlled conditions, these properties were tested with the help
of continuous beam of diffractive rays and high intensive grain microscope was
used to study the combustion residues. In order to prevent it from getting exposed
to sunlight, it should be maintained in vandalized rooms and maintained in it over a
period of time. The intensity of the plastic sheets should be very low since they act
as a covering. The enhancement of high temperatures occurs when high-intensity
colors are employed. Applications of adhesives that are highly soluble are
suggested. The use of solvent-free adhesive is suggested. This type of polystyrene
is employed for thermal insulation. The polystyrene's thermal conductivity varies
with temperature. Apart from these properties polystyrene attracts atoms of
hydrogen and carbon. It has its own set of drawbacks. It can break easily on
continuous exposure to ultraviolet radiations i.e. the sunlight. Due to exposure to
the atmosphere, its ability to withstand load is reduced. The boiling point is
reduced due to its amorphous nature. In spite of all these drawbacks, they are the
most productive polymers to be employed.

(Yu, T 2001) is his paper determined that there have instances where combinations
and enhancements in properties have been employed. The properties of polystyrene
were clearly studied before employing this design to the campervans. The
manufacturing of polystyrene products is quite easy. This is because it has a glass
transition temperature that is quite less. The temperature at which the polystyrene
can act as neither a liquid nor as a solid upon heating.

(Fox T.G 2001) determined that polystyrene is a bad conductor of electricity. The
manufacturing of polystyrene products is quite easy. This is because it has a glass
transition temperature that is quite less. The temperature at which the polystyrene
can act as neither a liquid nor as a solid upon heating. Molding the polymer
becomes less difficult. Apart from these properties polystyrene attracts atoms of
hydrogen and carbon. It has its own set of drawbacks. It can break easily on
continuous exposure to ultraviolet radiations i.e. the sunlight. Due to exposure to
the atmosphere, its ability to withstand load is reduced. The boiling point is
reduced due to its amorphous nature. In spite of all these drawbacks, they are the
most productive polymers to be employed.

Polystyrene is used across all industries, from toys and parts of consumer goods to
insulation and packaging materials. It is also the ingredient for the synthesis of new
plastics. Polystyrene is used in its solid, lm, and foam form, forms the polymer
matrix in composites, and works as the basis for copolymerized plastics.
Polystyrene is used in applications from appliances to medical products to
automotive parts. Appliances use polystyrene foam as insulation, while its rigid
form is used for housings and casings. Electronics also use this material’s rigid
form for housings and casings. Polystyrene is also food safe, so it’s used in food
service applications as rigid silverware and containers for food and drinks, as well
as polystyrene lm as part of meat and takeout packaging. The medical field also
uses this material in test tubes and Petri dishes. Construction also benefits from this
material as polystyrene foam is used as insulation. Another industry that uses
polystyrene is the automotive sector, which uses pure polystyrene for children’s
protective seats and composites of this material for automotive bodies and
components. Plates and cups can be made from polystyrene, as can sound
dampening foam and protective lamination over posters and other products. Wind
turbines and corrosion-resistant pipes can also be made of polystyrene. Its co
polymerized forms of ABS, SBR, SAN, and HIPS can be used for applications
from 3D printed prototypes to optical fibers rubber gaskets to automotive gas
tanks. (Chindaprasirt et al 2015)

Polystyrene, also known as poly-phenylethene, is a polymer made up of repeating

molecules called styrene. It is a thermoplastic polymer, meaning it softens and
melts when heated and can be reused. It is an excellent electrical Solid insulator
and is resistant to chemicals such as acids and bases. It is a type of polymer that is
transparent, rigid, brittle, and moderately strong in its unmodified state. It is a
plastic made by polymerization, which combines the building block compound
called styrene. Polystyrene is used in different forms, including as foam, lm, and
rigid plastic, for applications from food packaging to electronics protection. While
polystyrene’s uses are flexible and it features a low shrink rate, it also flows slowly
and can come out brittle. Polystyrene is food safe, though over time it can leach
styrene. It’s commonly used in injection molding, and manufactured by companies
such as Dow and Trinseo. (Pathak et al, 2017)

Polystyrene, a commonly used plastic material, is widely employed in various

industries, including packaging, foodcontainers, and household items (Pathak et al,
2017). Polystyrene, a synthetic plastic polymer, has become a ubiquitous material
in the modern consumer landscape. Its popularity can be attributed to its desirable
properties, such as its lightweight, durability, and relatively low cost (Assessment
of agricultural plastics and their sustainability: A call for action, 2021).
Polystyrene's versatility has allowed it to permeate a wide range of consumer
products, from food packaging and disposable tableware to insulation and
construction materials. The prevalence of polystyrene in consumer products can be
attributed to its functionality and cost-effectiveness.

However, the extensive and often indiscriminate use of this synthetic polymer has
led to its accumulation in the natural environment, posing a threat to ecosystems
and human health(Pathak et al, 2017). One of the primary issues with polystyrene
waste is its resistance to degradation. Plastics, including polystyrene, are
recognized as an environmental threat because they are difficult to degrade, as
noted in a review on the current status of polymer degradation (Pathak et al,
2017)).
2.2 Recycling Polystyrene: Current Methodologies and Limitations
Polystyrene, a ubiquitous plastic found in everything from disposable food
containers to packagingmaterials, has long posed a challenge when it comes to
effective recycling. The traditional methods ofmechanical recycling, where the
plastic is melted down and reformed into new products, oftenstruggle with the
inherent brittleness and lack of durability of polystyrene. Furthermore, the
presenceof food contaminants or other impurities can further complicate the
recycling process, leading to a lossof quality and reduced marketability of the
recycled material. Chemical recycling, which breaks downthe polymer chains into
their constituent monomers, offers a promising alternative, but the high costsand
energy-intensive nature of these processes have limited their widespread adoption.
As a result,much of the polystyrene waste generated globally continues to end up
in landfills or the naturalenvironment, posing a significant threat to the ecosystem.

2.2.1 Mechanical Recycling of Polystyrene

The mechanical recycling of polystyrene waste involves a multi-step process. First,
the waste must be sorted and cleaned to remove any contaminants or impurities.
This is a critical step, as even small amounts of foreign materials can compromise
the quality of the final recycled product. Once the waste is properly sorted, it is
then melted down and re-extruded into new polystyrene products. However, this
process is not without its challenges. The repeated melting and re-extrusion can
lead to significant degradation in the quality and properties of the polystyrene,
limiting its potential applications. Additionally, the presence of trace contaminants,
even after sorting, can further degrade the recycled material and prevent it from
meeting the necessary standards for many commercial and industrial uses.
2.2.3 Chemical Recycling
Chemical recycling techniques offer a promising solution to the challenges of
polystyrene waste. Depolymerization processes can break down the complex
polymer structure, converting it back into its original monomers or other valuable
chemical building blocks (Rosa Margesin et al 2001). This approach not only
recovers the material but also restores its purity and quality, enabling it to be
reused in high-end applications. By targeting the molecular level, chemical
recycling circumvents the limitations of traditional mechanical recycling, which
can degrade the polymer's properties over successive cycles. The ability tore
polymerize the recovered monomers further enhances the circularity of the
recycling process, creating a more sustainable life cycle for polystyrene products.

2.2.4 Thermal Recycling of Polystyrene

Thermal recycling processes, such as pyrolysis and gasification, offer a means of
recovering valuable hydrocarbon fuels and chemicals from polystyrene waste(Rosa
Margesin et al 2001). These high-temperature techniques breakdown the polymer
chains, liberating the raw materials trapped within. However, these methods face
significant limitations in terms of their energy efficiency and environmental
impact. The intense heat required often results in substantial energy consumption,
while the combustion of the recovered hydrocarbons can release undesirable
emissions into the atmosphere. As the demand for more sustainable waste
management solutions continues to grow, the industry is actively exploring ways to
enhance the viability and eco-friendliness of thermal recycling technologies for
polystyrene.

2.2.5 Biological Recycling of Polystyrene

Recent studies have explored the potential for enzymatic and microbial
degradation as a sustainable approach to recycling polystyrene waste. Researchers
have identified specialized microbes and enzymes capable of breaking down the
tough polymer chains that make up polystyrene, potentially offering an eco-
friendly alternative to traditional energy-intensive recycling methods. While this
biological recycling approach is still in the early stages of development, ongoing
R&D efforts hold promise for unlocking a more sustainable future for managing
the global polystyrene waste stream. However, significant technical challenges
remain in terms of optimizing the efficiency and scalability of these biological
recycling processes to make them commercially viable. Continued innovation and
investment in this field will be crucial to realizing the full potential of enzymatic
and microbial degradation for circular economy solutions. (Pathak,et al 2017)

2.2.6 Challenges in Polystyrene Recycling

The recycling of polystyrene faces several significant hurdles. First, the collection
and separation of waste polystyrene products presents a logistical challenge, as
these materials must be identified and segregated from the broader waste stream.
Additionally, contamination and material degradation pose concerns, as
polystyrene can be easily tainted by other substances or damaged through repeated
processing. Finally, the economic viability and scalability of polystyrene recycling
remains a persistent issue, as the costs associated with collection, sorting, and
reprocessing often outweigh the market value of the recycled material. These
factors combine to create a complex and multifaceted barrier to the widespread
adoption of polystyrene recycling, requiring innovative solutions to overcome the
current limitations. (Pathak,et al 2017)

2.3 Polystyrene Waste Management

Polystyrene, a ubiquitous material in our daily lives, has long been a challenge for
waste management. Historically, the dominant methods of disposal have been land
filling and incineration. However, these approaches have come under increasing
scrutiny due to their environmental implications. Land filling polystyrene leads to
the accumulation of non-biodegradable waste that can persist for decades, while
incineration raises concerns about air pollution and the release of harmful
chemicals. As environmental regulations tighten, the need for more sustainable
solutions has become paramount, driving the search for innovative polystyrene
recycling methods that can address the material's unique properties and reduce its
environmental footprint.

2.3.1 Circular Economy Approaches for Polystyrene Recycling

Designing for recyclability is a crucial first step in establishing a circular economy
for polystyrene. Manufacturers must consider the entire lifecycle of their products,
ensuring that the materials used can be easily recovered and reprocessed after use.
Extended producer responsibility schemes also play a vital role, incentivizing
companies to take ownership of their products throughout the supply chain.
Collaboration across the value chain, from brand owners to waste management
providers, is essential to overcome the logistical and technological challenges
associated with polystyrene recycling. By working together, stakeholders can
develop innovative solutions that minimize waste and maximize resource recovery,
paving the way for a more sustainable, circular approach to this ubiquitous
material.
2.3.2 Recycled Polystyrene: Versatility and Challenges

Recycled polystyrene has found diverse applications, from packaging and

construction materials to automotive and electronics components. Its versatility has
allowed it to be repurposed in a wide range of products. However, the quality and
performance of these recycled materials can be limited by there cycling process
itself. Impurities, contamination, and degradation of the polymer can compromise
the properties of the final product, restricting its use in certain high-performance
applications. Addressing these limitations through improved recycling techniques
and more efficient material recovery will be crucial to unlocking the full potential
of recycled polystyrene and promoting a more sustainable circular economy.

2.3.3 Emerging Technologies in Polystyrene Recycling

Advancements in sorting and purification techniques hold promise for improving
the recycling of polystyrene. Novel chemical and biological processes could
unlock more efficient methods of breaking down and repurposing this ubiquitous
plastic. By harnessing these innovative technologies, the recycling industry may be
able to overcome the current limitations that have hindered the wide spread
reclamation of polystyrene waste. Though challenges remain, the emergence of
cutting-edge solutions offers hope for a future where polystyrene can be more
effectively recovered and reintegrated into the circular economy.
Policy and Regulatory Frameworks for Sustainable Plastics
Governments around the world have implemented a variety of policy and
regulatory frameworks to address the growing problem of plastic waste. Extended
Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes place the onus on manufacturers to take
responsibility for the end-of-life management of their products, incentivizing them
to design for recyclability. Many jurisdictions have also enacted bans and
restrictions on single-use plastics, such as plastic bags and straws, to curb the flow
of unnecessary plastic into the environment. Additionally, financial incentives for
sustainable recycling practices, like container deposit schemes, have proven
effective in boosting collection and processing rates for certain plastic items. While
these policy levers have had some positive impact, continued innovation and
strengthening of regulatory frameworks will be critical to tackling the complex
challenge of plastic pollution.

2.4.4 Empowering Consumers for a Sustainable Future

Educating the public on recycling practices is crucial in driving meaningful
change. Initiatives that promote sustainable consumption habits, such as
encouraging the use of reusable containers and minimizing single-use plastics, can
have a significant impact. By collaborating with waste management authorities,
these efforts can be amplified, ensuring that consumers are equipped with the
knowledge and resources to make informed choices. Through this multi-pronged
approach, we can inspire individuals to become active participants in the circular
economy, fostering a culture of environmental responsibility and collective action.

2.4.5 The Future of Polystyrene Recycling

While current methodologies for recycling polystyrene, such as mechanical
reprocessing and chemical decomposition, have shown promise, they continue to
face significant limitations. Mechanical reprocessing is hindered by the high
energy requirements and contamination issues, while chemical decomposition
remains costly and complex. Moving forward, the key to unlocking the true
potential of polystyrene recycling lies in the development of more efficient,
scalable, and cost-effective technologies. Novel approaches, such as advanced
thermal treatment or biological degradation, hold the promise of overcoming the
limitations of existing methods and paving the way for a future where polystyrene
waste is transformed into valuable resources, rather than ending up in landfills or
the environment. By investing in research and innovation, the industry can work
towards a sustainable, circular economy for this ubiquitous material.

2.4.6 Challenges associated with the disposal of polystyrene waste

Disposing of polystyrene waste presents several challenges due to its physical and
chemical properties:

1. Non-biodegradability: Polystyrene is not biodegradable, so it does not break

down naturally in the environment, leading to a long-term accumulation in landfills
(Theoretical Design Consideration of a Small Scale Thermoplastic Waste
Recycling Machine, n.d).

2. Volume and Space: Polystyrene is lightweight and bulky, which means it takes
up a significant amount of space in landfills without adding substantial weight,
making waste management more challenging.

3. Chemical Stability: Its chemical stability means that it does not readily break
down into less harmful substances, thus persisting in the environment for hundreds
of years.

4. Recycling Issues: Recycling polystyrene is problematic because it is often

contaminated with food and other waste, making it less economically viable to
recycle compared to other plastics (Theoretical Design Consideration of a Small
Scale Thermoplastic Waste Recycling Machine, n.d).

5. Toxicity: When burned, polystyrene can release toxic substances such as styrene
and benzene, which are harmful to human health and the environment (Innovative
Use of Plastic for a Clean and Sustainable Environmental Management: Learning
Cases from Ghana, Africa, 2021).

6. Environmental Impact: It can fragment into small particles that are difficult to
clean up and are harmful to wildlife, which may ingest these particles, mistaking
them for food (Theoretical Design Consideration of a Small Scale Thermoplastic
Waste Recycling Machine, n.d).

Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts in developing more efficient

recycling processes, creating alternative materials, and implementing effective
waste management policies.

2.5 Sawdust: A Versatile Woodworking By-Product and its potential

application

Sawdust is the fine wooden particles that are produced as a byproduct of the
woodworking process. This ubiquitous material is generated in large quantities
whenever wood is sawed, planed, or otherwise mechanically worked. As a readily
available resource, sawdust has long been recognized as having a wide range of
potential applications, from practical to creative uses. Understanding the nature
and properties of this humble woodworking waste can open up new avenues for its
utilization and help reduce the environmental impact of timber processing.
Sawdust, the fine particles of wood that accumulate during the woodworking
process, is often seen as a mere by-product. However, this humble material holds a
wealth of untapped potential. As a plentiful and readily available resource, sawdust
can be repurposed in a variety of innovative ways. From fuel sources to
construction materials, the versatility of sawdust is a testament to the ingenuity of
the woodworking industry. Whether used to produce eco-friendly briquettes or
incorporated into composite panels, this ubiquitous waste product can be
transformed into valuable, sustainable solutions. With a little creativity and
resourcefulness, sawdust can become a vital component in the pursuit of a more
circular economy, bridging the gap between waste and opportunity.
2.5.1 Abundance of Sawdust
The woodworking industry churns out vast quantities of sawdust as a byproduct of
its operations. This abundant resource, often overlooked, presents an intriguing
opportunity to explore practical applications that can harness its potential.
Sawdust, with its fibrous nature and versatility, holds promise as a valuable raw
material that could be repurposed in innovative ways. Uncovering innovative uses
for this ubiquitous waste product not only promotes sustainability but also opens
up new avenues for economic growth and environmental stewardship within the
sector. (Zhiwei Wang et al 2021.)

2.5.2 Sawdust Composition

Sawdust is a ubiquitous byproduct of woodworking, primarily composed of the
fine, fibrous remains of various wood species. Depending on the type of wood and
the processing methods used, the composition of sawdust can vary significantly.
Softwoods, such as pine and fir, tend to produce a more coarse and grainy sawdust,
while hardwoods like oak and maple yield a finer, more powdery material. The
specific methods employed in the milling or sanding process also influence the
consistency and texture of the resulting sawdust, with some techniques generating
a more uniform and homogeneous product (Zhiwei Wang et al 2021.)
2.6 Mechanical properties of sawdust

Kudos to environmental awareness, natural fibers have gained importance because

of its unique properties like ease of availability, light weight, eco friendly ,
biodegradeable, renewable, strong, low density, and low cost. Materials such as
sawdust can replace and reduce the utilization of plastic which relate with the
environment issue and also offer other advantage .

Marieme et al (2018) compared the property of the composite made from the
combination of saw dust with phenolic resisns and Rice husk with Phenolic Resins.
It was found that both the component are thermally unstable. The tensile strength
of the composite containing sawdust was more than the composite containg rice
husk whereas the rice husk composite shows better water repulsion property.

(Saeed et al 2005) investigated Mechanical Properties of Composites from

Sawdust and Recycled Plastics and concluded the Mechanical properties of
specimens containing recycled plastics (HDPE and PP) were statistically similar
and comparable to those of composites made from virgin plastics. This was
considered as a possibility to expand the use of recycled plastics in the
manufacture of WPCs.

2.7 Traditional Sawdust Applications

Sawdust, a ubiquitous by-product of woodworking, has long found practical
applications in our daily lives. One of its most common uses is as animal bedding
and litter, providing a soft, absorbent, and natural substrate for our furry
companions. Beyond this, sawdust also serves as a highly effective absorbent,
capable of soaking up spills and leaks, making it a staple in industrial and
household settings alike. Additionally, this renewable resource has been utilized as
a fuel source for heating and cooking, particularly in regions where wood is
plentiful, offering a sustainable alternative to more traditional fossil fuels.

2.8.1 Emerging Sawdust Utilization

As sawdust continues to accumulate in woodworking shops and lumber mills,
innovative minds are discovering exciting new applications for this plentiful by-
product. Rather than simply disposing of the sawdust, forward-thinking
manufacturers are now exploring its potential as a sustainable raw material.

By incorporating sawdust into construction materials and various manufacturing

processes, industries are finding creative ways to reduce waste and embrace more
environmentally-friendly practices. From particleboard and insulation to biofuels
and animal bedding, the uses for this versatile material are rapidly expanding,
transforming sawdust from an afterthought into a valuable commodity.

2.8.2 The Versatile Nature of Sawdust

Sawdust, the ubiquitous by-product of woodworking, has found a multitude of
practical applications in the construction industry. Beyond its traditional use in
particleboard and fiberboard production, this abundant resource has also found its
way into lightweight concrete and insulation materials. By leveraging the natural
properties of sawdust, builders can create innovative and eco-friendly construction
solutions that reduce waste and promote sustainability. (google)
2.8.3 Sawdust's Agricultural Versatility
Sawdust, a ubiquitous by-product of woodworking, holds immense potential as a
valuable resource for the agricultural sector. Beyond its traditional use as a soil
amendment and compost ingredient, sawdust can also serve as a versatile livestock
feed and bedding material. Its absorbent nature and abundance make it an ideal
choice for farmers and ranchers, providing a cost-effective solution to manage
animal waste and maintain a clean, dry environment for their livestock. (google)

2.8.4 Sawdust in Energy Production

Sawdust, the abundant by-product of woodworking, has immense potential as a
renewable energy source. When burned, sawdust can be used to generate heat and
electricity through biomass fuel systems, providing clean and sustainable power.
Beyond energy production, sawdust can also be converted into biochar, a charcoal-
like substance that can be incorporated into soil to enhance its fertility and water-
holding capacity. This innovative approach not only reduces waste but also
contributes to sustainable agriculture, creating a circular economy where the waste
from one process becomes the raw material for another. (google)

Sawdust: The Sustainable Filler for Plastic Composites

Sawdust, a ubiquitous byproduct of the woodworking industry, has emerged as a
promising filler material for plastic composites. These sawdust-filled plastics offer
a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to traditional fillers, enhancing both the
mechanical properties and environmental friendliness of the final products. By
incorporating sawdust into polymer matrices, manufacturers can create composites
with improved strength, stiffness, and impact resistance, all while reducing the
reliance on non-renewable resources. Moreover, the use of sawdust diverts waste
from landfills, contributing to a more circular economy and minimizing the
environmental impact of plastic production.

2.8.5 Sawdust's Surprising Personal Care Uses

Sawdust, a ubiquitous by-product of woodworking, has found a surprising second
life in the world of personal care products. Its absorbent properties make it a
valuable ingredient in hygiene items like diapers and sanitary napkins, where it
helps draw moisture away from the skin. But sawdust's versatility extends even
further - it can also serve as a gentle, natural exfoliating agent in cosmetics,
sloughing away dead skin cells to reveal a healthier, more radiant complexion.
With its abundance and ability to be repurposed, sawdust is proving to be a
remarkably versatile and sustainable addition to the personal care market. (google)

2.8.6 Sawdust: A Versatile Byproduct for Water Treatment

Sawdust, a ubiquitous byproduct of woodworking, has found a promising

application in water treatment processes. Its porous structure and high surface area
make it an effective filtration and adsorption medium, capable of trapping a variety
of contaminants from water. In waste water treatment, sawdust can be utilized as a
low-cost and sustainable alternative to traditional filtration materials, helping to
remove suspended solids, heavy metals, and even certain organic pollutants. By
capitalizing on this plentiful waste product, water treatment systems can be made
more efficient and environmentally friendly, while also reducing the burden on
landfills and incinerators. (google)

2.8.7 Sawdust: A Versatile Packaging Solution

Sawdust, a ubiquitous byproduct of woodworking, has found a new lease on life as
a sustainable packaging material. Its inherent biodegradable and compostable
properties make it an ideal choice for eco-conscious consumers seeking to
minimize their environmental impact. Beyond its green credentials, sawdust also
proves to be a valuable cushioning and void-filling agent, providing essential
protection for delicate products during transit. This abundant and readily available
resource offers a cost-effective alternative to traditional petroleum-based
packaging, allowing businesses to embrace amore circular economy and reduce
their reliance on finite natural resources.

2.8.9 Environmental Benefits of Sawdust Utilization

Sawdust, a ubiquitous by-product of woodworking, holds immense potential for
addressing environmental concerns. By harnessing this plentiful resource, we can
significantly reduce waste and minimize the burden on landfills. Embracing a
circular economy approach, the utilization of sawdust can contribute to a more
sustainable future. Instead of treating it as mere refuse, we can unlock its versatility
and transform it into valuable products, closing the loop and minimizing the
environmental impact of our wood-based industries.

The Untapped Potential of Sawdust

As this exploration has demonstrated, sawdust is a remarkably versatile material
with a wealth of untapped potential. Far from being a mere waste product, this
ubiquitous by-product of woodworking holds the promise of revolutionizing
industries, reducing environmental impact, and even enhancing our everyday lives.
From its use in renewable energy sources to its applications in sustainable
construction and innovative consumer goods, the versatility of sawdust is truly
remarkable. With continued research and thoughtful implementation, this humble
material could play a pivotal role in shaping a more eco-friendly future. The time
has come to recognize sawdust not as an after thought, but as a valuable resource
worthy of further exploration and investment. By embracing the untapped potential
of sawdust, we can unlock a world of possibilities and contribute to a more
sustainable tomorrow

2.9How sawdust can be combined with other materials to produce composite

and other products such as in the production of wood plastic composite or
addictive in bullding material

Sawdust, as a product of wood wooding can be combined with other material to

produce various composite such as wood- plastic composite (WPC) or as an
addictive in building material, below are some way sawdust can be utilized in
combination with other material

 Wood-Plastic Composite (WPC): sawdust can be mixed with plastic (such

as recycled polyethene or polypropylenel) to create WPC. This composite
material combines the benefit of both wood and plastics resulting in a
product that is durable, weather-resistant, and sustainable. Sawdust acts as a
filler in WPC reducing the amount of plastic needed and providing a more
environment friendly alternative to traditional wood product.
 Particleboard and MDF: Sawdust can be used as raw material in the
production of particleboard and medium density fiberboard (MDF). By
 combining sawdust with adhesive resins and compressing the mixture under
heat and pressure, these engineered products can be manufactured. Sawdust
acts as a sustainable alternative to traditional wood chips in these
applications.
 Cement and concrete mixture: Sawdust can be added to cement or
concrete mixture to enhance certain properties of the material. Sawdust can
act as a Light wight filler, improve insulation properties and reduce the
overall weight of the concrete mixture. It can also help in reducing shrinkage
and cracking in the final product.
 Insulation Materials: sawdust can be used as an addictive in insulation
materials such as cellulose insulation. By mixing sawdust with binders and
addictives, an effective and eco-friendly insulation materials can be
produced. Sawdust helps in improving the thermal insulation properties of
the material and reducing its environmental impact.
 Biodegradable Packaging materials: Sawdust can be mixed with
biodegradable polymers, such as polylactic acid (PLA) or Starch based
plastics, to create sustainable packaging material. These materials offer an
eco-friendly alternative to traditional politic packaging and can help reduce
the environmental impact of packaging waste.

Biochar Production: Sawdust can be used as a feed stock for producing biochar, a
type of Charcoal that is used for Soil Improvement and carbon sequestration. By
heating sawdust in a low oxygen environment through a process called Pyrolysis.
Biochar is known for its ability to enhance soil fertility, retain soil moisture, and
sequestrate carbon dioxide
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1.1Materials Used

 Polystyrene (PS) waste

 Laboratory Coat
 Eye Google
 Hand Gloves
 Nose Mask
 Sawdust
 Water

3.1.2 APPARATUS USED

 Spatula
 200ml flat bottom flask
 Mould box
 Tape
 Lighter

3.1.3 Equipments Used

Items of equipments used are:

 Extruder
 Weighing balance
 Wet milling machine
 Oven XX
 Grinding machine
 Mixer XX
 Porcelain crucible
 Computer
 Charpy impact testing machine (MT 3050)
 Electric weighing machine and Universal testing machine (WDW-10Max).

3.2 METHODS

3.2.1 Sample Treatment and Aseptic Conditions

Laboratory conditions were observed by ensuring the weighing place is rightly

placed on flat surface, the glass wares cleaned and air-dried. Prior to the processing
of the biomass and polystyrene (PS) for extrusion, the necessary precautionary
measures were adhered to with respect to standard workshop practices.

3.2.2 Procedures Used

The sample materials were sorted according to specifications. The polystyrene (PS)
materials was fed into the wet milling machine to ensure a moisture free samples
used. The biomass was grinded into powered form to increase its surface area and
oven dried to remove moisture as well.

Subsequently, the mixed biomass and PS were fed into the extruder
continuously for extrusion of the mixture and the composite poured into a mould
after completing the process of operation
 Sorting Grinding
Weighing
according to
Specifications

Moulding Extrusion Drying

Packaging
Physico-chemical
analysis

Figure 3.1 shows the block diagram for composite extrusion and processing

3.2.3 Extrusion Steps

The extruder consists of a screw, barrel, hopper, die, die head, vent, heating
element, thermocouple, gear box, electric motor and electrical panel. The extruder
was switched on through the breaker to allow it heat and attain the melting point
temperature of PS.

On reaching the required set temperature, a display is shown on the temperature

controller indicating the equipment is set for operation. A wooden mould box was
used in collecting the extrudate as the mixture of biomass and PS were
continuously fed through the hopper into the barrel and conveyed to the die by the
screw. The quantity of extruded composite was weighed and finally subjected to
experimentation after carrying out a physico-chemical analysis on extrusion.

3.3 Characterization

Prior to packaging, the samples of the extruded composite from the mixture of
biomass and PS was subjected to parameter tests with the following mechanical,
thermal, physical and chemical properties measured.

Tensile strength – This is a measure of the maximum stress that a material can
withstand without breaking of failing. It is an important mechanical property of
polystyrene waste-sawdust composites measured in units of force per unit area
(e.g.; MPa, Psi). This testing property can be done using a standard method of
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM D638).

Factors affecting tensile strength of polystyrene waste-sawdust composites are:

1. Sawdust content and type

2. Polystyrene content and grade
3. Coupling agent used
 4. Processing conditions(e.g. temperature, pressure)
5. Fiber orientation and distribution

Applications where tensile strength is important include:

1. Building materials (e.g.; insulation, roofing)

2. Packaging materials (e.g.; containers, boxes)
3. Automotive components (e.g.; dashboards, trim)
4. Furniture and decorative items
5. Industrial equipment (e.g.; machinery, tools)

Yield point – The yield point test for polystyrene (PP) waste-sawdust composites
determines the stress at which the material begins to deform plastically. The test is
typically performed using a universal testing machine (UTM) or a tensile testing
machine.

Factors influencing yield point:

 Sawdust content and type

 PS content and grade
 Additives and fillers
 Processing conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure)
 Density and porosity
 Fiber orientation and distribution

To improve the yield point of PS waste-sawdust composites:

 Increase PS content
 Use higher-density sawdust
 Add reinforcing fillers (e.g.; glass fibers, carbon fibers)
  Optimize processing conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure)
 Use coupling agents to enhance fiber-matrix interaction

These materials find applications where:

 Low to moderate strength is required

 Impact resistance is important
 Weight reduction is essential
 Cost-effectiveness is crucial

Examples of such applications include; packaging materials, automotive interior

components, furniture components, sporting goods and building insulations.

Young modulus – The modulus of elasticity also known as young’s modulus is a

measure of a material’s stiffness and ability to resist deformation under stress. It is
defined as the ratio of stress (force per unit area) to strain (proportional
deformation) within the proportional limit of the material.

The modulus of elasticity (MOE) of polystyrene (PS) waste-sawdust composites

can vary depending on the composition, processing conditions and testing
methods. However, here are some general ranges for the MOE of PS waste-
sawdust composites.

 Tensile MOE: 100-1,500MPa (14,500-217,500 psi)

 flexural MOE: 200-3,000MPa (29,000-435,000 psi)
 compressive MOE: 50-1,000MPa (7,250-145,000 psi )

Factors influencing MOE of PS:

 Sawdust content and type

  PS content and grade
 Additives and fillers
 Processing conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure)
 Density and porosity
 Fiber orientation and distribution

To improve the MOE of PS waste-sawdust composites:

 Increase PS content
 Use higher-density sawdust
 Add reinforcing fillers (e.g.; glass fibers, carbon fibers)
 Optimize processing conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure)
 Use coupling agents to enhance fiber-matrix interaction

These materials find applications where:

 Low to moderate stiffness is required

 Impact resistance is important
 Weight reduction is essential
 Cost-effectiveness is crucial

Examples of such applications include; packaging materials, automotive interior

parts, furniture components sporting goods and building insulation.

Ductility – Ductility test for polystyrene (PS) waste-sawdust composites evaluates

their ability to deform without breaking. Common test methods include:

1. Tensile elongation test (ASTM D638): Measures the percentage increase in

length before breaking. Typical values: 1-10%
 2. Flexural ductility test (ASTM D970): Assesses the material’s ability to bend
without cracking. Typical values: 1-5mm (0.04-0.2 in)
3. Impact ductility test (ASTM D256): Measures the material’s ability to
absorb energy without breaking. Typical values: 1-10J/m (0.02-0.2 ft-lb/in)

Factors affecting ductility:

 Sawdust content and type

 PS content and grade
 Additives and fillers
 Processing conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure)
 Density and porosity
 Fiber orientation and distribution

To improve the ductility of PS waste-sawdust composites:

 Increase PS content
 Use higher-density sawdust
 Add uctile-enhancing fillers (e.g.; rubber, elastomers)
 Optimize processing conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure)
 Use coupling agents to enhance fiber-matrix interaction

These materials find applications where:

 High ductility is required

 Impact resistance is essential
 Flexibility is crucial
 Weight reduction is important
Examples of such applications include; packaging materials, automotive interior
parts, furniture components, sporting goods and impact-absorbing materials.

Toughness test – This is also known as impact resistance or impact strength test. It
is the ability of a material to withstand sudden impacts or shocks without breaking
or cracking. It is an important mechanical property of polystyrene waste-sawdust
composites measured in units of energy (e.g.; Joules (J), Foot-pounds (ft-lb) or
Newton-meter (N-m)).

This testing property can be done using a standard method of American Society for
Testing Materials (Izod impact test ASTM D790, Charpy impact test ASTM
D6110 or Drop weight impact test ASTM D4226).

Impact strength is determined by:

1. Sawdust content and type

2. Polystyrene content and grade
3. Coupling agent used
4. Processing conditions(e.g. temperature, pressure)
5. Fiber orientation and distribution

Applications where impact strength is important include:

1. Building materials (e.g.; insulation, roofing)

2. Packaging materials (e.g.; containers, boxes)
3. Automotive components (e.g.; dashboards, trim)
4. Furniture and decorative items
5. Industrial equipment (e.g.; machinery, tools)
Density- This is a fundamental physical property of polystyrene waste-sawdust
composites, and is defined as the mass per unit volume. It is an important
parameter that affects the material’s behaviour and applications.

The density of polystyrene waste-sawdust composites can vary depending on:

1. Sawdust content: Increasing sawdust content generally decreases density

2. Polystyrene content: Increasing polystyrene content generally increases
density.
3. Additives and fillers: Temperature, pressure and molding time can influence
density
4. Fiber orientation and distribution: The arrangement of sawdust fibers can
affect density.

Applications where density is important:

1. Building materials (e.g., insulation, roofing),

2. Packaging materials(e.g., containers, boxes)
3. Automotive components (e.g., dashboards, trim)
4. Furniture and decorative items
5. Industrial equipments (e.g.; machinery, tools)

Combustibility test – Combustibility tests for polystyrene (PS) waste-sawdust

composites evaluate their flammability and burning behaviour. Common test
methods include:

 ASTM D635 (Standard Test Method for Rate of Burning and/or Extent and
Time of Burning of Plastics in a Horizontal Position)
  UL 94 (Standard for Safety of Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in
Devices and Appliances)
 ISO 3795 (Determination of the Burning Behaviour of Interior Materials in
Motor Vehicles)

Factors influencing combustibility:

 Sawdust content and type

 PS content and grade
 Additives and fillers
 Processing conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure)
 Density and porosity
 Fiber orientation and distribution

To improve the combustibility of PS waste-sawdust composites:

 Add flame retardants (e.g.; halogenated compounds, phosphorus-based

compounds)
 Use fire-resistant fillers (e.g.; silica, alumina)
 Optimize processing conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure)
 Use coupling agents to enhance fiber-matrix interaction

These materials find applications where:

 Low combustibility is required

 Fire safety is crucial
 Weight reduction essential
 Cost-effectiveness is important
Examples of such applications include; building insulations, automotive interior
parts, furniture components, electrical appliances and packaging materials.

3.4 Procedure for Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)

Buck scientific M530 USA FTIR was used for the analysis. This instrument was
equipped with a detector of deuterated triglycine sulphate and beam splitter of
potassium bromide. The software of the Gram A1 was used to obtain the spectra
and to manipulate them. An approximately of 1.0g of samples, 0.5ml of nujol was
added, they were mixed properly and placed on a salt pellet. During measurement,
FTIR spectra was obtained at frequency regions of 4,000 – 600 cm -1 and co-added
at 32 scans and at 4 cm-1 resolution. FTIR spectra were displayed as transmitter
values,

3.5 Packaging

A sample of the PS-sawdust composite was extruded and labelled PSB. The
extrudate was packaged and sealed in a moisture-proof bag to avoid contamination
and water absorption.
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results Obtained After Characterization

Table 4.1; Test for properties of PS (Polystyrene) –sawdust composite

Sampl Parameters
e code
TS IS ƿ C

UTS UYP LYP YM MF fUYP fLYP D IS ƿ C

PSB 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.37 0.53 0.0 0.0 10 1.0 0.62 0.19

Description of terms used in table 4.1

PSB = mixture of 250g HDPE and 30g sawdust.

TS = tensile strength (Mpa).

UTS = ultimate tensile strength (Mpa)

UYP = upper yield point (Mpa)

LYP = lower yield point (Mpa)

YM = young modulus (Gpa)

MF = maximum force (KN)

fUYP = force at upper yield point (KN)

fLYP = force at lower yield point (KN)

D = ductility (%)

IS = impact strength (J).

ƿ = density (g/cm3)

C = combustibility

4.2 Discussion

From the characterization carried out on testing of the properties of the samples,
the following observations were made.

Polystyrene waste-sawdust composites tend to exhibit lower yield points due to the
presence of sawdust and the brittle nature of polystyrene (PS).

Polystyrene (PS) waste-sawdust composites with higher sawdust content tend to

have lower modulus of elasticity (MOE) values due to the reduced polymer matrix
content and increased porosity.

The brittle nature of polystyrene (PS) and the presence of sawdust may limit the
achievable ductility of PS waste-sawdust composites.

Polystyrene waste-sawdust composites tend to exhibit higher combustibility due to

the presence of sawdust and the flammable nature of polystyrene (PS).
 Polystyrene (PS) Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Analysis Interpretation

Wave number Peak intensity Peak shape Bond Compound

766.1308 Strong Broad Sp2 C-H out of plane Monosubstituted

bending benzene

1273.124 Medium Broad C-N stretching Aromatic amine

1407.204 Medium Broad O-H stretching Alcohol

1610.659 Medium Broad C=O stretching δ lactam

1847.081 Weak Broad C-H stretching Aromatic compound

2029.282 Strong Broad N=C=S stretching Isothiocyanate

2212.073 Strong Sharp N=C=O stretching Isocyanate

2454.779 Medium Broad N-H stretching Ammonium ion

2539.573 Strong Sharp O-H stretching Carboxylic acid

2710.053 Strong Sharp C-H stretching Aldehyde

2997.382 Medium Broad O-H stretching Alcohol

3347.705 Medium Sharp C-H stretching Alkynes

3458.865 Weak Sharp N-H stretching Primary amine

3714.295 Strong Very sharp O-H stretching Intermolecular

bonded alcohol

3818.829 Medium Very sharp O-H stretching Free alcohol

The peaks contained single bond area (2500-4000 cm-1). A broad absorption band
was found, informing there is hydrogen bond in the material. There is a sharp bond
at about 3500 cm-1, replying the existence of oxygen-related bonding. Another
peak between 3000 and 3200 cm-1 was found, informing there is aromatic structure
Peaks at below 3000 cm-1, responding the single bond of carbon. Specific peak for
aldehyde has been found at between 2700 and 2800 cm-1.

No Triple bond region (2000-2500 cm-1) was detected, informing the absence of
C≡C bond in the material.

Regarding the double bond region (1500-2000 cm-1), there is no huge and sharp
peak detected at about 1700 cm-1. This informs the absence of some carbonyl
double bond, which can be from ketones, aldehydes, esters, or carboxyl. Since
there is a specific peak for aldehyde at between 2700 and 2800 cm-1 the prospective
peak for carbonyl should be from aldehyde. Peak at about 1600 cm1, informing
there is C=C bonding in the material.

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